Aspects of research methodology

Aspects of research methodology* John Sheehan

1t is the attention given to the methodology which is the hallmark of a good pickax of research. This concern about methodology is nothing new but extends back to the tlawn 01‘ the scientific area. Nearly four centuries ago Rend: Descartes ! 1637’, in his Ih,scour.t~ cm ~bfrhd wrote ‘In the search for the truth of things method is indispensable’. rl3lis paper begins by relating research to the creation of knowledge and l~rls ill to examples of research methods. Six exarnples have been chosen and these a~: historical, dc\.elopmental, survey, correlational, experimental, and action rtlscarch. ‘1%~ principal features and potential of each method are discussed. iI hricl‘ rthrnirrder 01‘ 111~ imporLtnce

of the

I’ir,
Iliriolls

to remind

of research.

of’ research

oi solviug

problems

It~igt, using rt~lrtiy xceptrd M Ilivh

ought

bc

expanded

wccptatdc

problrms thr

11.11gtt .tncl ti~~mt~r~n~s

is sail

All thrsc in

knoware cur-

of that and

knowledge

in this

definition these

and

are

methods

to scholars.

hi,ght,st

0111t*r hpa~.’

to new which

SOLVING

rt>
activity

by scholars

aspects

nvw

it rings

is the

leads

defichosen

because

of inquiry

three

to

PROBLEM Sol\kg

which

as adequate arr

pt~~~l~l~~nsolving. o! illqllity

(1970)

of rexarch

about

many

I have

‘Research

merhods

lit~ld‘. ‘l’herc

the

to be found

11 reads:

aspects

ourselves

From

tilt’ tmt’ 1)); Hrlms[adtrr tr11t’ fi)r me.

ethical

order

~~rohlcms

the

challenge

around

the

posed world?

mountains?

Why

activities

prrsent

to haw

reach to

a desired bc

solved.

bl, Wh!

esplore a chalgoal People

This article IS based on a paper presented to the Merseyslde Nursing Research Interest Group in September 1985 J Sheehan MSc MEd DlpFE RNT, Principal Lecturer in Nursing. Faculty of Education, Huddersfield Polytechnic Manuscnpt accepted October 1985

is included.

NURSE

194

clinical

EDUCATION

and

ought

TODAY

wholly

to have

objective.

a place

Lady

in

the

Luck

scheme

of

authority,

deductive and scientific

reasoning,

reasoning, research.

itducti\x,

things.

Experience KNOWLEDGE so said E‘r;mcis Baron is power‘, important contributions to scientific

‘Knowledge who made thought

as ,Voz~rn Organum

such

meant

power

in the political

was a politician Nearer to

own

times,

how

the

on the part

hapless

minister

More sential

a level and

the

BBC

the

able

dotal

use

of

lead

for

travelling

by bus

all

demands

arr

on

regard

to assess, care.

plan,

We

carry

re-

the

and

roads

are

approach

encouraged

in

presenting

nursing

physiological, might

considerations. anything

it

the

which

model

various

There to choose:

to make

person word

a of

relation

a

it is

It is anecM;e

it was right’.

having

obedience: 1958)

wielded

reliable

but of

to child on

to the

In

range

nursing,

should

we use model;

we must

an informed

a

have

before

we

his

or

right

might

practices.

is

enforce

be given

as an

(Speck

1957,

influence

as an

used

to

His

of the advice

reputation

influence

Authority

Dr Speck

enormous

rearing

and

is sometimes

power

is

or gift that

in relapower

lay

he dispensed

authority

on

his

such

as

subject.

is a wide

available

an

authority

leaders.

the Pope

tion

aspects

inspire

In his heyday

not on the reliability

mean

to

the

here

example.

with quahty

charisma

political

to

on

a self-care

to

economic

is

based

of’ the models

are in a position

and

the

Clearly

to

on intuition.

is associated

a

about

is also committed

or what?

person.

is a personal

The

holistic that

This

enables in

functioning;

be

model;

I knew

others.

nursing

aspects

assessment

nowadays.

from

a knowledge

ethical

to

Nursing

a developmental systems

social

ought

problem.

of models

psychological, an

a

means

involve

concerning

use of models

use

may

If

information

to

be added

one

up

experience,

is based

is re-

a feeling’.

which

charisma.

is needed

evaluate

which

problem

to these

and

and

the

it for

Authority 14concept

numeracy

knowledge

out

of only

raidence

and

of ideas is valid

good

since

‘It was a gut reaction’.

is es-

Shopping,

or using

literacy

to nursing,

source

experience

experience

and

educational

important,

rich

however

‘In my heart

a

skills. With

Personal

‘I .just had

basic

anything.

or train,

obviously

a very

but

knowing of the

our way in the

numeracy

almost

is

sense

life blood

talk about:

infor-

can

of knowledge

to make

it

search.

into all sorts of difficulties.

Literacy

make

he

been

of

will have

controlled

for us to be able

quirements

because

of civil servants

generally,

world.

process

point,

fans

‘Yes Minister’

observe

mation

process

is common is the

frequently

Bacon

as well as a scholar.

our

programme

( 1620).

Experience experience

The

any

hierarchical

the notion

Salmon

of structural

organisation,

of authority

( 1966),

Report authority

position)

and

sapiential

be heard

by reason

(the

is to be found. for esample,

right

authority

of expertise

vested (the

talks in the right

to

or knowledge).

choice.

Deductive reasoning SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE While knowledge created through of scientific research is of primary might other

Logic the process interest, it

be useful to place this in the context sources of knowledge. ‘The sources

knowledge

considered

here

are

experience,

of of

is the

study

of sound

study of those relations be said to follow from

argument.

It is a

in which one thing may or be a consequence of

another. Aristotlr (382-322 BC) world deductive reasoning. The reasoning of :\ristotle rstablished

gave the syllogistic a logical

rc~lallonship

between

a major

premise

and

a

c~onc~tusion. all animals

11 inor premise:

elephants

(I( mclusion:

all elephants

Logic. is not concerned thy \Aidity

are pink

on a false

cation.

are animals

tween

established.

the truth

but with

but if an argument

premise,

then

the

is

outcome

is

Despitr \vhich

clinical

cigarette

state

of

hospital? such

its weakness

Aristotle

was to last nearly

rca\oning

rrmainrd

started

2000 years.

unchallenged

R;I~,OII [ 16201 arrived

a trend

until

on the scene

Frances

in the

1600s.

the

Hat011

advocated

mena.

arriving

incidence

ta\iclrncc,

of manv

inductive

process

ser\.ations some

to

of thr

level

the at

observation

of

conclusions

individual

generalisations and

the

observations.

of moving

hazards

pheno-

through

This

from

specific

freed

logic

limitations

there

there

and

at

the

attrition

nature

of

alid

thrfx

a

thr.

all

bt,t\vcc,rr

cntr)

? 1s

examinations.

htvxen

c,littical

rduc,ariolr

relationship

of qualification

nursing

Ill]rsirlg:; t)(,twrrll

particular

in nursing

a

in

ark.

ljetwecn

itr

is a relationship

of stress

Is

I:wnipl~~

wastag{’

Examples

in that

IW c,ollsitlcr-ccl

is a rc~lationship

and

the


existed.

there

or not

Irn,gth

might

is ~~11

bct\\.rcn

(1964~ wac able

placements.

Inductive reasoning

cancer

Revans

hours

abound.

be-

and

or not

whether

cdu-

relationship

and the

I~LIII-

nursing

a relationship

which

whether

the

smoking

relationship

a

ot‘ clini~~al

and

morale

antisocial

Deductive

areas

work

Is there

management

nonsense

of’ the

management

In

are pink

with

of arguments

in each

nursing

ing,

Xla,jor premise:

bast,d

examples

rho

bu(‘c‘0< iI) rrlationship

st*lf+onct~l)t

and

in nursin,$

obfrom

of deduc-

ti\ (’ thinking. 1%~ deductive/inductive longer tCJ[lC

an issur. the

and

heqan so

dichotomy

deductive

inductive

IO by fully

lh~ work F~~YT

The

method in,

Darwin

no

of Aris-

of Bacon

integrated

of Charles

is

method fbr

soon

example,

(1859)

and

have

ever since.

ACCEPTABLE METHODS OF INQUIRY

Scientific research 111 the words rcx\earch and

The

of Kerlinger

is a systematic,

a c,ritical

controlled,

investigation

positiorls

about

ti;i tural

phenomena’.

nlethotls

of inquiry

hy\ternatir:

(1973):

the

which

may

empirical,

is the

based

pc4enc,e

which

to be gained

definition

on

also

c~c~ncept of presumed relations phenomena which is central proc es\.

Generally,

tlifltirenres

or

mena observed. One can think iI/ riur,sin,g

but

much

similarities of many WC will

research

example

possible

about pheno-

relationships

ourselves

to two

thr or

drugs,

that

is likely

Research

is a pursuit

Mlibility prudent eyrs, the

ought

not

being

ronstantlv

evidence

things

ma)

issue

In law ii’ planted. being

Lilt equal

to t)e dis~~ourltcd. of‘ truth.

to

br

on thr

ot’ rvidencc. br unwittingI>-

lack of rypcrirncc,.

ac-

IV~WL made

was

to look at all research

gathering

‘l‘hta main

statements other

drfi-

with

i.s collcctrd.

if rvidrnce then

1970

c.cmccrnrd

of inquiry-. evidrnrc

shown

duress

was

such cvidencc

exthr

methods be

as

natural research is

the

it can

of‘ Helmstadtcr’s

earlier

is how

under

piecemeal.

among to the

here

part.

citrd

on polar

personal embodies

among

limit

among

be described

of knowledge

‘1‘1~ Kcrlingrr

ceptable

pro-

based

opposite

is likely

empirical,

relations

Knowledge

controlled,

nition

of hypothetical

presumed

third

‘Scientific

knowledge

but

human

ovrrlooked. through alert

It

is

c,ritical

tar tlaws

in

rcscarc,h the flalvrtl through

III

or supervision.

196

NURSE

example

EDUCATION

is the

psychologist, on

for long

intelligence

1963).

Earnshaw suit

Sir Cyril

who

authority 1955,

late

TODAY

However,

(1979)

his case.

Burt,

that

out for the possibility

tivity

testing

1947,

interpretative

(Burt

been

Burt

alleged

invented

to keep

that

Normative

as an

it has

It is wise

an eminent

was regarded

data

may

to

it is a search

be flawed.

all aspects and

the

A historian Fenwick,

Research

methodology

planning,

design

strategies

to

Kaplan

’.

and

gather

(1973)

to

is concerned

describe

throwing sources, twilight

to venture

presuppositions

of methodology scientific

from

the

rather

It is

success

of

the aim

the process

than

just

the

said,

in starting

to consider

of

product

the

light

of

with

historical

a number what

has

aspects)

direct

just

research.

observations of what

and

concerns

the

collection

the diflerences

research

qualifies

the standpoint

Historical research Why

historical

everyone

to the

empirical

such

ing what

study

It

may

bearing

on

all

research

does

surveys

do

- is

another

in the

research

literature

fossils,

to do is a kind

2. written

is reconstruct-

past

in a particular therefore,

research.

Moreover, features

minutes a

in common ap-

‘she’ is used for simplicir\

that

Historical from

interpre-

involved. past

primary

events

by

sources

and

such

as buildings,

pictures,

documents, maps, and

coins,

skeletons, as

files, memoirs,

tools,

biographies, laws,

letters,

memoranda,

newspapers.

Historical research can be an exciting intellectual pursuit; it has the advantage of being a relatively

cheap

principal resource though travelling The

“The pronoun

sciences,

Beyond

endeavour

and weapons. material such

magazines,

historical

interpretative

objects

charters,

that

do have

are called

furniture,

utensils

research

and

which

sciences,

are of two sorts:

1. tangible it

she*

argued,

some

and

these

what

be rehistor-

the

blurred.

interprets

at they

social

of data.

and synthesis

historian

examining

cannot

in

as a scientific

carry

behind;

between

the

become

do not

of the level of analysis,

evaluation.

The

an

of historical have

or

There

is required

with both normative proaches to research.

not

to offer

because be

thing not

of the

was done

principles

out

historical

researcher

one

be unfair

people.

review

of historical

the

carry

for considering

is that

respect.

to

For

so it would

anything reason

research?

wishes

experiments,

tation,

or

specific

are totally

that

research

physical

rcof the

the

leaves

diKerence

the

tests

subjects,

They

of reports

whether point

of the

Historians

of their

posterity

crucial

research

examine

historical in

sciences.

or experiments. use

example:

so on

of the

interpreted

make

The

and

on society

also

and that

some

method

make

life

BedfordWilliam

for impact

would

asserted

meet

of the physical

must

the

aspectsj.

sense

peated. of

and

(1978)

out surveys

of the

approaches

such as Mrs Nightingale,

motivations

cannot

Aspects

truth.

person’s

(interpretative

search

ical proposed

methodologies been

person

de-

words

Wardroper,

that

personality,

the mercy

of an inquiry. It is now

(normative the

Mrs

examine

scientific

to the

of knowledge.

would

?yIouly

reand

potentialities

is to understand

inquiry,

and

.’ In a nutshell,

techniques..

is:

methods,

their

generalisations

particular

these

at the frontiers

of

methodology

limitations

their

of

words

their

relating

zone

of

the

analyse

on

clarifying

consequences,

In

aim

and

light

the

implementation

data.

the

with

or

to

In other

to explain

figures

Florence

Rathbone

‘l‘he

1.

seeking

of historical

objcc-

concerned

interpretative

are set out in Table

Methodology

is

with

distortion.

of a situation.

for the whole

normative

work

bias and

approach

scribe

eye

is concerned

to minimise

by

data

a weather

research

and

main

the gaps

form

of research

needed expenses

in

that

the

is a good library, could be involved.

disadvantage

of historical

in the evidence

left behind.

research

is

Table 1 A comparison

between

normative

and interpretative

Micro-concepts Individual perspective Personal constructs Negotiated meanings Definition of situations

CONCEPTS

Society Impersonal Objectivity Generalising from the specific Explaining behaviour Assuming the taken-for-granted surveys

FOCUS

’

”

-

research

ernity

a long

t)r many

)‘charx. The

tltz\ clopmcntal

research

cross-sectional.

Longitudinal

stud\

specified

pr~bplr

Ibr

craut, samples

of’ people

occ%oii

only.

mitral

is a well

to

the same By- con-

aims ages

on

hold

employment

cent

of thr original

their

formative thinking

11~ termed

rcasolling

in children

and homr

identified

Ioll$tutiirlal xtud) (:oullcil ill\.olving

for over

1!+tti. .\rnmq

\,ariahles

the

years

and

involved.

up

and

in pre-

it also a

sludj,

1964)

the Medical 5000 children studied

in moral a

Research born in wcrr

mat-

it is likrl\-

because

of

pro\Glcs

iOcus to their

Exprrisrs

to aciolescenct

out

contact !)O pt~

the

tht,

to vi&i

time‘

span

opportunities

of‘ \Aal)leb.

IO l’iagcl

: 1063. I96-1~ had ;I

rrscarch,

studird

i)\ contrast

0~1

;I

widt,

‘ranq

of

variables.

studied

carried

and

‘l‘hc,

01‘ ;I dc\&)pmcntal

number

( 1976

hr-

on.

HO iitld

is that

( 1926, 1929) and Kohlt)cr!: narrow

formal

larq

so

population.

advantages rrsults

Douglas

six stages

I 1976)

Douglas

meaningful

wcrc house-

rrligious

and

hrtbvcrn

of’

cvcrt

cmplo)-

as family,

wax 26 yrars

to rrsearch

own

sensorimotor,

( 1963,

approach

his develops

concrete operations Piaget ( 1026, 1929). Kohlbcrg

of

main

cent

sut)jec,tz

histories,

with

and

‘I’hcsc

youth

the

clubs

of the stud\-

on one

I)?

all such

of

to study

1961 62 prr

up

aspects

membership

duration

in

1972

interviewed affairs,

prac.Liccs,

clear-;~~teristic.s.

StJcial

to go to work.

In

maintainrd

example

studied

age

fbllowed

oflivers.

IiefS:

rearing

and

left

was

but

known He

children’s

which

beyond

rc,isonilig. Nrarrr

in of research.

research.

SimiI;rrI>-

aims

ment

child

Ica\Gg

youngsters

suhsequentl~-

of and

research

At school the

it ma) types

longitudinal

at different

work

c~onc~luclc~d that

and

hut

Inaiil

approach

~~hildrerr throughout

ol)c.ratic,ns

the

of time.

and

intellectual

The

dr\~rlopmental

c~prrational,

are

duration

a cross-sectional

ti)ur phasrs

tno

characteristics

the

Piagrt‘s

with

period

months

;ilsc I 1)~ iilan)

care

physical,

is concerned

over

may

Observation Participant observation Recording IntervIews

METHODOLOGY

Developmental research of’ phenomrna

The Individual Personal Subjectivity Interpreting the specific Understanding actions Investigating the taken-for-granted

-1

Questionnaires Interviews Observation

‘l’llt~ period

~.

-

Macro-concepts Society Institutions Norms Positions Roles Expectations

Developmental

___-.

Interpretative

Normative

study

approaches to research

is

iin

Research

ih a lahour

thrrefi)rt.

c.oxtl)

resrarch are

likrl\-

talitirs greater.

learn

ob\ iouh inlc’nsivc

‘I’h

bt~citus~

fi)r over

a quarter ‘fhc-

\tlbjrcts of

and

is

costx 01’ maiutairiing

IO be ,qrclat. amoll~g

disadvaiitagr. acti\-it)-

ttit,

likrlihootl ;Irltl

litn?

.i

01‘ ;I crnturk oi’ mar-

rt3(.;tr<.lirrs ih S~);LII in\.olvrii.

NURSE

198

Staff

EDUCATION

changes

emphasis

may

while

TODAY

result

in subtle

operating

changes

within

the

of

original

framework. obvious

but be

the careers What

a nurse effect

of long-stay

are

person’s

is that

similar

self

also career

following

undertaking

would

clearly

equally

is important

to

access

to computers

sampling

a

Random merits

concept,

tender-

terms

random

and

member

to study

these

a long

training. be a job

period

Such

chance

for a young

be

Surveys

design

A survey

is a method

sampling

a cross-section

a researcher the

commonly

and

indeed

generally

in aim

such

research.

used

surveys

method

approach by

in

nursing

by the

Surveys

measuring

conditions descriptive

at determining

of appropriate

used

ment

statis-

in

naires,

survey

strategies

research

structured and

interviews,

of attainment

and value

or

scales.

It is relatively easy to collect masses of data which at the end of the da) may be of‘ neither use nor reflect the

ornamrnt. in the early

exact

needs given Time research

It is therefore stages,

purpose

to be given

the survey

of

and

the

to the

is to focus.

important

to think

research.

Thought

generally

takes

through on which

also needs

up more

to be

be needed. any form of

time

than

one

imagines. Money is another factor Questionnaires have to be typed

in research. and dupli-

cated.

the obvious

questionnaires

involve

of war-time

was:

‘Is

same

principle

your

place.

at who

items

length

not be too long.

could

be advised

not

to annoy

overall

the

is

ought

are likely the

really

question

of

In the asked

necessary?’

The

in relation

to

is that

the

of questionnaires.

advantage

through

people

meaningful

Longwindedness

they

austerity

of survey

data can be computer which is something someone

any

journey

the construction An

It also depends

Individual Equally,

days

as a

questions/

to different

for

should

is chosen

on

bias.

be

instrument

it performs

things

since

respondents.

to

If a questionlstate-

impossible to take

the

language

whatever well

to

in

ought

depends

different

is

to be too verbose the

or

ought

of the

is a measuring

also to be avoided.

to

Thought

population

to the resources likely to is an important resource and

Postal

it

important

factor

which

free from

the questionnaire

semi-structured

tests

attitude

be

selfquestion-

postal

standardised

performance,

may

including

questionnaires,

interviews,

means

then

an A

wording.

measurement

of data-collecting

completion

being

of

of sampling

( 1984).

matter

instrument

statements

Draw-

method

details

design.

How

on unambiguous

every

an equal

a few words

attitudes

researcher.

general

in the survey.

are

is the

opinions,

has

is a homely

questionnaires

attention

used. A questionnaire

tical techniques. A variety

their

of

called

also aim use

of

given

population

research

are prob-

existing is

may the

by

that

in whom

research.

at describing

Surveys

relationships

and

educational

an

data

of the people

is interested

ably

and

of collecting

means

in Cormack

about

a matter

sampling

questionnaires

said

popu-

is therefore

Further

of survey

with

chosen In

sampling.

feature

b) that

concerned a

attention.

included

are to be found

quickly

establish

closest

out of a hat

Since

is of

sampling the

of being

random

researcher.

survey

of a chosen

ing names

an

a

cross-section

which

to

is that

is possible.

definition

lation.

throughout

of a nurse’s

be analysed

rr-

of data

another

It

be

so

quickly;

can

example,

values

deal

data

By

the

of survey

a great

computers.

of nursing of

advantage

relatively

for

be of interest

variables

also

such

One it enables

would

on,

tough-mindedness,

on? It would and

What

experience

attitudes,

mindedness,

could

study

on the individual

course? an

are

research

patients the

the effects

training

children

for developmental

as could

of such

the

is concerned,

choice

of interest

staff.

of postage.

be collected

As far as nursing the

cost search

the

research

analysed. However, this needs to be thought

design

stage,

is competent

preferably

in the

with

use of com-

puters. Advice disappointment

at the design stage can avoid later. A coding system built in

at

stage

the

design

Another how many is thr sort

question people

can

which

save bothers

a lot

of

beginners

time. is

to include in a survey. This of question which is best answered in

to
It~i‘l!l~ln

,~;liI~~ics arr

~urvcy.

to 1~ used,

then

the

number

int~.~ningl’ul

results,

tlrtb~) brlow

30. II is true

(.0lnpt~naatc

fbr

,itt f~ fac,ilitirs

that

smaller

art

available

of

to obtain

should

not

it is possible

numbers,

hut

Ilavr

to

unless

it is hettrr

10 itIt% figure of 30. (.~tlrslionn;rir~s w;hich 1)(,1(1rt.si~ould be rrird

Howcvcr,

in order

IO stick

not

been

used

out in a pilot

study.

This

m’.ins

25 mg a hmall sample of respondents to UsrfJ information can hc Ilr:lil’lC,t.%lll~,li. ~,I-,~.til~tvI at ;I time when it can be incorporated iltrl,

fix

tIi(, rfursrionnairc

~11~~pilot

the

a particular

stag

main watch

stud>-.

At

should

1~

kc.i)T fi)r amttiguities. htllllc,

or

alludt~l

12 lit’ acxx)ultt I)

ad\-atagcs

thr

11:1\-(, lx~n

of lary

‘l‘ht analytic

numhcrs

tydly

ill dc>t:til w:llich

quick.

results.

research

Survey

can

relatively

of‘ tht- data,

t’t1llLl1, !‘iill tilt, S~CYY~of tll~a method f)r

survry

of

to in passing.

quick-

other

things

What

is gainrd

being by

is balancrd

by the 10~s

;I structured

question-

will not rrveal the whole Ii,tirt., li)r cximplc, tl.;llti tL ;i rrt;tttt’r: (his is the nlain disadvantage

1)I Sill‘\ C‘\ rtwm~ll. of‘ thr popularity

K\%lrnc.t~

ill Ilursing

IWY. 1 ),I\-is (

)rton

of survey

is to be found

research

in studies

by. Birch

Ht~ntl : 1983!, Chakraharty i 1983), \ 1983!, Ogier i 19831, : 19831. Ixwis Sheehan I 1983‘1 and M’ells l!R1 I)

i !W

Correlational ‘l‘ll~~clt4niticlu

research ot‘scicntific

I!)73 c,itcd earlier

relatit,ns

($1' pw~~~mrd

rcsvarch

indeed

hy Krrlinger

incorporatrd

among

htatisticnl techniques Inv;tsurvs of‘ assoc.ialion are

lll(‘II:I.

\I ill)

cxm~clation.

tl~~c~rtwi that II 1 ;I’

(Zustorn

practice

SUCII investigations

t t)rwlatiolial

I t4;iritbu;rl

and

arc

research,

rtvarcli

whirh

phcno-

conccrncd collrctivcl\r

‘I’ll<

( ;~lltd

the idea

natural

rather

would

Ix

has

referwd than

equally

ap~~lic~~l~l~. studies

C:OI wlation

;I l ,’

rt~lational

~~~;unf~l~s in \\ ollltl I xl

.Iritrll;ll

11a\x, us

are of two sorts

and

predictive

rlur5ing

whcrv

and hot11

and

these

there

arc

approxhcs

.I pl;KY~. :ittc,mpt

study,

10

take

of‘ thy factors

;iccourlt.

that

in a rcl,go to make a

NURSE

200

EDUCATION

can

he discounted

may

be other

might

settle

the

thinkable. are

search

and

portance

involving

correlational

often

than

very

to

accept

puter

printout,

value

but

Another

odd

of the

is that

it is atomistic.

whole

is

greater

at

Experiment CONTROL

face

results. that

parts,

groups

the

then

Experimental 1-1

this Control

is less tenable. 7

Experimental research Experimental

research,

is search, relationships lows:

variable

caused variable).

change

A caused

then

if the claim

design good

possibilities

nursing,

bedrest,

diet,

and so on.

of experimental

and success,

Stanley

ation tainly

matters. is the

and

least

many

( 1963).

Factors

control

problematic.

helpful

design on the

Of the two, texts

expands.

of an and

control

the variables,

of

crucial

people, nowt

us take

be changes and

an

example but

- admissions,

allocation

and

to take

neither

diflerences.

Pain

thresholds

There which

are deal

cerwith

Some the

people

There so queer

is a sayin,g as folk’.

are

researcher

hear.

only

eager

what

Other

Despite of

people

some of

account

they are

real

sickness, These

a great and

will research,

deal.

will

tell

he wants

cantankerous over

fac-

of individual

helievre

research, people

so on. vary

to

likely

discharges

to please

the difficulties

experimental form

will most

in staff holidays,

begin

are

We want

Changes

emergencies,

been

experiment

ward. there

the

had

of an

in hospital

tors do not

randomis-

that temperature

possibility

experiment

perhaps

in

heat

the metal

conclude

a rise

in patients

deaths.

research can

so that

to

to

other

a month

never

‘there’s

every

lasting

control,

to control

due

as

011.

easy

is possible

was

excluded.

randomisation such as Siegel (1956), Hays ( 1963) and Lewis ( 1973). Nursing is concerned with people and it is in Yorkshire:

It

involving

from

A physicist

conditions

B,

are set work

matter

for example.

expansion because

in research

different

in controlled

Let

such

based

or otherwise,

randomisation

simple

are

that

of control

is a very

metal

the experimental

other

Campbell are

is to be valid

2 and

the

in condition

exclude

elements

that

caused

problems

in physics,

experi-

if it is claimed

an improvement

in Table

to the

have

should

The out

could

in B. For example,

drug

if the

The people

dependent

out the possibility

factors

Parallel rows unseperated by dashes represent comparison groups equated by randomisation while those with a broken line represent groups not equated by random assignment The basic tools of the experimenter are randomisation and control

effect as fol-

variable)

B (the

possible

has ruled

of other

and

independent

is only

design

a variety

(the

cause

re-

be expressed

in variable

This

mental

correlational

with might

A

a change

8

unlike

concerned which

r\

5. Xs and OS vertical to one another are simultaneous 6 R indicates random assigment by seperate treatment

approach

If it is accepted the

variable or event, the effects of which are measured 2. 0 refers to the process of observation or measurement 3. Xs and OS in a given row apply to the same persons 4. Left to right indicates time sequence

a com-

all

correlation

than

rigor-

1. X represents the exposure of a group to an experimental

be most

on to

design

Experimental

research

It would

applies

im-

it follows

significant,

proviso

re-

on more

correlations

however

this weakness

atom&m

results.

of experimental

re-

the

Correlational

the

is un-

to be ascribed

based

of inquiry.

gives

unwise

ought

research

The elements

experimental

in research,

research

than

beings

stressed

Table 2

such

correlational

have

of methodology

methods

ous

of

we

there

experiment

of course,

human

methods

since

that

An

but,

less rigorous

less weight

grounds

involved.

argument

The

search

the

factors

an experiment

that

on

TODAY

to

and

so

the fundamentals

randomisation argue

that

since

it

and it is the has

the

hl~KSlt

iId\ ~rntqt

ot‘ possibly

I-cl;\ tiorAips. lh,tr

A

cxl~rrimenl;~l

Xtil\.

II

is

argued

Lvherc

ttlc.r.cTorc~ lcfi riqc IUY

c11‘

the

lvith 1rulhs,

rigcjrou, l’c’,llrll

01‘

studies

& (kriftith

: 1983) arr

to yield

scientificall! likely

choices

I’)75 I> Koow ( 1978 I. Kodin

are

by

to

in thr

Hayward

( 1983’) and

examples

arr

scientific

likely less

Such

T’hc

\x1ues.

of the

the

of

\Ye

approaches

cru[tl.

world

to a single

concerned.

choicr

inlrrprctali\-r

11rr. uholc

complex

research or

be

bmcial rc-

to the difficulties

arc

the

eflect

might

reduced

be

c~sperimcntal

ii-aqni~itcd )ic,ld

that

cx~mot

people

and

trivial&i

\VC IIXVC :tlludrd

c.c)lltrljl

cause

argument

rcsrarrh

ill\ cjl\-ill< people \.;lrial)lt,.

giving

counter

l’qkel

of experimental

rc,xr,;lrc,tb in nursin,q.

Action ‘l’hr

research

tt,rrn

action

niisiiomcr

since

llc~e\~t~.

action

10 solving

is something

research

research

problems

I 1972)

Ilalsq

research all

is a specilic

and

has

as follows:

~n~~Jl-xc~al~ intervention rllc, IT’;II wr$rId iinti

the

r11rc 10 ctlucatior~al could

;I hospitid

unit,

111~

li)r

I~JC.IIS

prolj1r1ris

bithill

itl(,idcllce

01’

b;Lrd

\bas

defined

refbr-

the

same

in nursing:

ljr~jl~l~~ms c~juld

I)(

or

areas.

us sak a high

rise t)c

could

research,

inc.onlinrnce

giving

of thf

hut

w~arcl or department Ihese

of’

was

to problems

action

is

functioning

Halsey

problems

apply

by

research

a clt~sr cxaminaCon

c.liGc.tz of SIIC~ intervrntion‘. pl inc4Ijles

action. approach

been

‘Action in

of‘ a

involves

Ixt

particular

or pressure 10 concern

tarklrd

in a

sm-cs

then

using

an

such acrion

rl’Y(‘iir( ti approach. ,\ctlon Illethodx

differs

research

from

in

two significant c~~ll:tl~~r;~ti\-e, tvtiich means

other

research

ways. First it is a team of resrar-

c 11(x ,mti practi~ionrrs working together: I .LSC’01‘ ward-based problems this would 111,. ~oIlat~or;~tion

of. researchers

and

in the

ward

mean >M’.

‘1’11~3 s~ond dilbrrncr flows from the first and II iz Ihat action research is participatory, that 1,. rest-archers ~rnplemcnting

and

ward

the research.

II out t’rom other

research

staff

take

‘This is what methods.

part

in

marks

In research

qcnc.r:dly the practitioners, say ward staff, are I ii1(.r\,ic.wcd. oi~r~~~d. sur\,cved and so on but

kI)l‘(::\‘I

IOX

‘I ( )I) \\’

“01

202

NURSE

EDPCATION

TODAY

Douglas J M’ B 1976 ‘l‘hc use and ahuac of national cohorts. In: Shipman M D (ed) ‘I‘hc organisation and imuact of social rrscarch. Routlcdec (1 and Kwan /1 P;rul London ’ Downie R S. ‘l‘rlfer E 1969 Rcsprct for pcraonb. Gcorgc

ETHICAL ASPECTS Ethical

considerations

whatever

methods

to elaborate to offer

a principle is the

Telfer

(1969).

among

other

individuality, the

right

the moral

and

title

to refuse ought

research.

aspects book

Respect things,

on all research It is not

for

so on,

to

lead

SchrGck

issues in nursing

except

Respect

by

Downie

persons

respect privacy,

and

proposed

here,

a source.

of a

integrity,

things

ceptable

used.

on the ethical

Pmons

such

impinge are

Due

person’s such as

respect

ethically

[ 1984)

&

means,

for a rights to

for

deals

for acwith

research.

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Allen and Unwin, London Earnshaw L S 1979 Cvril Burt: Psvrholoeist.,l Hoddrr and Stoughton. London Halsq A H (rd) 19i2 Educational priorit): \‘ulumc I Educational priority arca problrms and policies. HAlSO. I.ondun Hays W L 1963 Statistics. Holt, Rinchart & Winston. London Hayward J C 1975 Information A prescription agairlst pain. Roval College of Nursing Helmstad&; G C: If70 Rcsrarch~conwpts in human Ixhaviour. hppleton-Century-Crol‘ts. New York Kaplan A 1973 Thr conduct of inquiry. Intertcxt Books, Aylesbur\ Kerlingpr E: N 1973 Foundations of behavioural research. 2nd cd. Hult. Rim-hart 8 \Vinston, London Kohlbcr; 1, 1963 The dc\ clopmrnts of childrrn‘a wirntations toward a mural ordw 1 Scquenw in the devclopmcnt of moral thought. \‘ita Humana 6, 11-33 Kohlberg L 1964 Dcv~lopment of moral charactrr and mum1 idrology. In: Hoflman hl L & HotTman 1, W (cdsi Review of child devrlopmpnt rcscarch Vol I. Russell Sag’ Foundation, Nrw York Lewis B R 1983 Personality and intellrctual characteristica 01’trainee nurses and their assessmrnt. In: Davis B D :cd! Rrsrarch in nurse education. Groom Helm, London Lewis D G 1973 Statistical mrthods in rducation. University of London Press, London Mouly G J 1978 Educational rcwarch: Thv art and scienw of investigation, Allyn Br Bacon, Boston ORier hl 1983 ‘I‘hc ward sister ab a tcachcr rcwurce puson. In: Davis B D ‘cd) Research into nurse education, Groom Hrlm, London Orton H 1983 \Vard lrarning climatr and student into nurse response. In: Davis B D [edi Resrarch education, Groom H&n, London Paykcl E S, GrifIith J H 1983 (lommunity psychiatric nursin,g for nrurotic patirnla. Royal Collrge of Nursin,g, London Piaget J 1926 l‘hr language and thought of the child. I&an Paul, ‘I‘rrnch, ‘I‘riihner, London Piagct J 1929 ‘l‘hc child’s conception of the world. Kegan Paul, ‘I‘rcnch, Triibncr. I,ondon Report 01’ the committrc on senior nursing stafl‘structurc ;Salmou Rrporti 1966 HhlSO. London Rrvans R \\’ 1964 Standard? Ibr mrrralt.: Cause and effwt in hwpital. Oxford University Press, Oxford Rodin J I983 \t’ill it hurt? Royal Ccrllrgc of Nursing, I,ondon Schrix~k R A K 1984 Moral issues in nursing rcscarrh. In: C:ormack D F S [cd) ‘The rcacarrh process in nursing, Blackwll, Oxford Shrthan J 1983 Educating for tcarhing. In: Davis B D (cd) Rrscarch into nurse education, Crown Helm, London Shipman M 11 1974 Inside a curriculum project. Methuen, London Sirgcl S 1956 Non-parametric statistics Ibr the hrhavioural scirnces. IMrGraw-Hill, New York Spwk B B 1957 ‘l‘hr common scnsc book of haby and child cart‘. 2nd Ed. Ducll, Sloan & Pcarcc, Nrw York Sp~,<‘k R I958 Baby and child cart. Bodlq Hrad. London

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M’rlls J 1983 A survcv of uptakr 1)~ scmor nursing: stafl’ 01 nursing literatuw on wearch and &rct~ ian nursing practice. In: Davis B I) /ed) Ktxarch into nuw cduration. Croum Helm, Londw