Assessing communal farmers’preparedness to drought in the Umguza District, Zimbabwe

Author’s Accepted Manuscript Assessing Communal Farmers’preparedness To Drought In The Umguza District, Zimbabwe Johannes Belle, Moyo Sithabile, Abiodun A. Ogundeji www.elsevier.com/locate/ijdr

PII: DOI: Reference:

S2212-4209(16)30668-9 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2017.03.004 IJDRR521

To appear in: International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction Received date: 2 November 2016 Revised date: 10 March 2017 Accepted date: 12 March 2017 Cite this article as: Johannes Belle, Moyo Sithabile and Abiodun A. Ogundeji, Assessing Communal Farmers’preparedness To Drought In The Umguza District, Zimbabwe, International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2017.03.004 This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting galley proof before it is published in its final citable form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

ASSESSING COMMUNAL FARMERS’PREPAREDNESS TO DROUGHT IN THE UMGUZA DISTRICT, ZIMBABWE.

Johannes Belle1, Moyo Sithabile1, Abiodun A. Ogundeji2

1

Disaster Management Training and Education Centre for Africa, University of the Free State

2

Department of Agricultural Economics, University of the Free State

[email protected]

Abstract Recurring drought is a major challenge facing the agricultural sector in Zimbabwe and other countries in Africa. The effect of drought compromise food security in the affected countries. Communal farmers in Ntabazinduna are very vulnerable to drought because they lack preparation, coping and adaptive capacity to drought that is sometimes exacerbated by cultural drawbacks. This study accessed the state of drought preparedness in Ntabazinduna in Umguza district of Zimbabwe by looking at the coping strategies employed by communal farmers as well as policies that influence drought preparedness. Primary data was collected using a survey of 100 farming household and interview with other identified stakeholders. The results indicate that lack of rainfall, high temperatures and poor farming inputs are the major causes of drought in Ntabazinduna. This is further compounded by the lack of response instruments and ineffective drought management institutions. The community’s low literacy level and reliance on indigenous knowledge increases susceptibility to drought as they ignore scientific early warning information on radio and television. Ntabazinduna has a drought preparedness plan but failure to involve the community during its preparation resulted in lack of awareness and implementation of the plan. The lack of financial resources limits the farmers’ ability to spread drought risks in terms of insurance. It is of utmost importance to establish a drought management committee which will coordinate and implement the drought preparedness plan at community level. The study further challenged communities to diversify 1

livelihoods as this spreads the risks and provides a buffer in drought prone areas such as Ntabazinduna. There is also need to blend the scientific and indigenous drought early warnings. Keywords: Communal farmers, drought, food insecurity, preparedness

1.

Introduction

Over the years Zimbabwe has experienced frequent droughts, posing adverse socioenvironmental and economic losses in drought prone areas. The most vulnerable members of the community are the communal farmers who face numerous challenges related to capacity to perform profitable agricultural ventures even without the challenges of drought (Wisner, Blakie, Cannon and Davis, 2004; Gwimbi, 2007; Oxfam, 2008). Drought always has serious negative effects on agriculture which is the backbone of the Zimbabwean economy (Litwin, 1992; Sachikonye, 1992). Countries such as Australia and India can cope with the impacts of recurrent droughts because of their effective preparedness plans backed by strong economies (Alexander, 2002; UNISDR, 2005; Jothi, Balaji and Jagdish, 2009). It is noted, with concern, that countries with weak economies suffer most from the negative impacts of drought as shown by drought impacts in Southern Africa involving counties like Malawi, Zambia, Lesotho, Swaziland as well as Zimbabwe (Ndlovu, 2011). Birkmann (2007) contends that the impact of drought in Africa and other poor regions are fourteen to fifteen times more than for the countries with strong economies, implying that resources are very critical in drought management. The lack of resources to mitigate the impacts of drought increases vulnerability that is made worse by the fact that most governments lack the institutional capacity to respond to drought in Africa. In Zimbabwe, about 80 percent of the population lives in the rural areas where they make a living from subsistence crop production and livestock rearing. These farmers are continually faced with substantial food insecurity due to crop failure since they depend on rain fed 2

agriculture that is often hit by drought (Gwimbi, 2007; Ndlovu, 2011; Mutasa, 2010). Over the past decades subsistence agriculture continues to decline due to frequent droughts especially in drought prone areas such as Matebeleland North, Matabeleland South and Masvingo Provinces (Shamano, 2010; Kasimba, 2012). Drought in Ntabazinduna is a perennial problem. Subsistence farmers who are also communal farmers continue to lose cattle due to grazing deterioration resulting in about 96 percent of the farmers being food insecure (ZIMVAC, 2013). The effects of drought are further compounded by a lack of drought monitoring instruments; as well as unclear drought management institutions. The increase in food insecure households in the year 2012 and 2013 from 22% to 40% according to the ZIMVAC Report (2013) is evident lack of preparedness by the communal farmers and other key stakeholders to respond to drought. The prevailing emergency response strategies expose the institutional weaknesses and limited capacity both at local community and national levels to deal with drought (Tsiko, 2011). This study assessed the state of drought preparedness in Ntabazinduna by evaluating the coping and adaptive strategies employed by communal farmers as well as policies that influence drought preparedness. An assessment of drought preparedness is critical in decision making, planning and the implementation of development projects that can assist the community to curb the impacts of drought as well as for the general development of the community. This study aimed to provide decision makers and farmers with valuable information on drought disaster preparedness initiatives. The results of the study provide a platform for formulating a solid and practical drought disaster preparedness plan for effective response practices for Ntabazinduna and similar areas in Africa with identical conditions. This study also helps in creating success indicators that could be used to determine whether appropriate levels of preparedness have been achieved in periods of droughts. A sound knowledge of drought and the associated risks will also help the community in developing coping strategies that are relevant to drought hazards and the often associated food insecurity 2.

Study area.

Ntabazinduna is located in the Umguza District in the Matabeleland North Province of Zimbabwe. It is about 40 kilometres from Bulawayo which is the second largest city in Zimbabwe. The dominant vegetation type in Ntabazinduna are the acacia thorny trees influenced by low rainfall and high temperatures. The land is slowly turning into a desert due to land degradation with a low vegetation cover. Soils are generally fertile-red and dark loam 3

soils which are good for crop production. However, due to soil erosion and overuse, some areas have lost their soil fertility. Deforestation has been occurring over the years as people use firewood for cooking, and for fencing their fields. This has affected the environment, soil structure and has led to desertification. Figure 1 shows the location of the Umguza district in Zimbabwe as well as Ward 3 and Ward 5 where this study was focused.

Figure1: Study area (map of Ntabazinduna)

The study area receives erratic annual rainfall averaging 450 to 650mm per annum and high temperatures of over 300C to 400C in summer. Figure 2 shows trend in average rainfall in Ntabazinduna from 2009/2010 to 2014/2015 production seasons. The Zimbabwe Meteorological Department forecasted 2016 as a dry year and for Ntabazinduna this meant consecutive seasons of drought.

4

Average rainfall (mm)

1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 2009/2010

2010/2011

2011/2012

2012/2013

2013/2014

2014/2015

Years

Figure 2: Average rainfall in Ntabazinduna Source: AGRITEX Using average monthly rainfall data for the whole country (as a proxy for the study area) from 1930 to 1950 and then compared to 1990 to 2012 to show recent trends, it was evident that average monthly rainfall has been decreasing (Figure 3).

180 160

Rainfall (mm)

140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Rinfall (1930-1952)

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Rinfall (1990-2012)

Figure 3: Changes in rainfall for Zimbabwe (1930 – 2012) Source: WorldBank historical rainfall data, 2017 In the same vein, using the time series data for temperature, it was observed that average monthly temperature has been increasing (Figure 4). 5

30

Temperature (0C)

25 20 15 10 5 0 Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Temp (1930-1952)

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Temp (1990-2012)

Figure 4: Changes in temperature for Zimbabwe (1930 – 2012) Source: WorldBank historical temperature data, 2017

Therefore decreasing rainfall and rising temperature is observable in the whole country. The same applies to the study area. Ntabazinduna has an estimated population of 15 176 (Zimbabwe Statistics Office, 2013). The area is occupied by both the Ndebele and the Xhosa ethnic groups. Water is a scarce commodity in Ntabazinduna for both people and livestock and this has led to

loss of

livelihoods due to loss of crops and livestock. People often suffer great losses during drought as they have no other techniques of crop production such as irrigation. Despite the recurrent drought conditions in Ntabazinduna, communal farmers still prefer to occupy the land hence the study sought to assess the state of drought preparedness and coping strategies adopted by these farmers in the area. 3.

Research design

3.1

Methodology and sampling technique

In order to fulfil the objectives, both primary and secondary data were used in this study. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to assess drought preparedness by communal farmers in the Umguza District. The study sampled communal farmers, heads of departments 6

for agriculture, technical and extension officers (AGRITEX), livestock development production, social services as well as ward councillors. The seven heads of departments were purposively selected because they have information on drought preparedness and agriculture production. They are in charge of farming issues and they are the custodians of information sought by the researcher. AGRITEX officers play a pivotal role as they train and educate the community about appropriate farming activities. Livestock Development Programme works hand in hand with AGRITEX but specialises on livestock production. Social services has the sole responsibility of planning and coordinating drought preparedness and mitigation measures. The local councillors are the leaders in the community hence they make decisions on behalf of the community. The local councillors are the first point of contact in times of drought to offer assistance to the communities. Primary data (both qualitative and quantitative) were collected through face to face interview with the use of structured questionnaire. In order for the sample to be a true representation of the population, ten percent of the total population in ward 3 and 5 was calculated and household heads were systemically sampled. In Ward 3, 64 households out of 642 households were selected and in ward 5, 36 household heads out of 361 households were selected giving a total sample size of 100 household heads from a population of about 1003 households. Systematic sampling was such that participants in every 10th household in each ward was chosen for the study. According to Chikobvu and Verster (2007) a systematic sample is generally spread more uniformly over the entire population and may provide more information about the population than an equivalent amount of data contained in a simple random sampling. 4. Results and discussion 4.1

Farmer’s socio-economic characteristics

The socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents are important because they influence their economic behaviour and determine the capability of communal farmers in adequately implementing drought preparedness measures. The distribution of respondents according to various socio-economic characteristics is summarised in Table 1. Table 1: Socio-economic characteristics of the survey respondents (N=100). Characteristics

Sub-characteristics

Age group (years)

18 – 30 31 – 40 41 – 50

7

Statistics (n=100) N % 5 5 5 5 8 8

Gender Education

Household size

Farming Labour

51 – 60 > 61 Male Female None Primary Secondary Tertiary 1–4 5–8 >8 None 1 2 3 4 and above

33 49 32 68 12 66 20 2 29 58 13 0 25 35 27 13

33 49 32 68 12 66 20 2 29 58 13 0 25 35 27 13

In general, the majority of respondents were adults and about 49% of the farmers were above 61 years of age. In Zimbabwe it is a norm that when people retire from their jobs, they go to the rural areas and practise communal farming on a full time basis. The poor economic situation in the country has forced many young people to migrate especially into neighbouring South Africa to seek for greener pastures (Ndlovu 2011). The other reason for a large percentage of the elderly is the HIV/AIDS pandemic which has decimated the young generation in Zimbabwe (National AIDS Council Report, 2013). Table 1 also shows that majority of the farmers are female (68%) and male (32%), most males work in town or across the borders to supplement subsistence farming. Traditionally, subsistence farming is the responsibility of women in Zimbabwe and men come in seasonally for instance during the Christmas period which coincides with the rainy season and the holiday when inputs such as seeds and fertiliser can be purchased using annual savings. According to Shamano (2010) and Kasimba (2012) men assist with the labour intensive task of ploughing and land preparation up to planting, leaving the task of weeding to the females as they would have gone back to their full time jobs. Women are responsible for all the household chores, looking after children as well as farming activities. The education level of the farmers also has a role to play in determining the quality of the decisions made by communal farmers to select drought preparedness strategies. The majority of the respondents have primary education (66%) while 12% never went to school. Having basic primary education according to Jordaan (2012) implies that they are literate and receptive to new ideas that maybe presented to them by development agencies such as AGRITEX officers but they may not necessarily appreciate the more complex scientific concepts such as meteorological data. Respondents with secondary education level may have the potential for more scientific knowledge that may enhance 8

agriculture productivity. Tertiary education had the lowest percentage (2%) implying that many of the farmers will have the challenge of adopting highly scientific agricultural innovations. Mniki (2009) observed that farmers in Nkonkobe in South Africa were more vulnerable to drought because they did not have a tertiary education. Ngaka (2012) revealed that in order to adapt to climate change one needs to have a tertiary education and not just primary or secondary education. Therefore, the low percentage of people with tertiary education in Ntabazinduna indicates that some scientific aspects like preparedness and understanding of climate change might be a challenge. Household size in a rural setting plays a critical role in drought preparedness as it determines the number of people who are vulnerable to drought. The majority of households had an average household size between 5 and 8, this implies that their sensitivity to drought is very high due to more members to take care of in times of shocks and often with limited resources. The house size can be an advantage if the majority of the household are able to provide labour. However, results shows that 35% of the respondents has two people to provide labour, 27% has 3 people, 25% has one person and 13% has more than 4 people. Crop production is normally labour intensive in communal areas and its success hinges on energetic and adequate people. An interview conducted with one of the heads of departments stated that for 2-3 acres to be fully utilised, at least three people should be able to work in the fields. From the respondents 35% of the households had two people who could provide labour which is less than the expected number stated by AGRITEX. Considering that the majority of household sizes had 5-8 people, Ndovu (2010) states that one would consider a large number of family sizes to have an adequate number of people who can work in the fields though during drought times such families require more resources for sustenance.

4.2

Farmers perception of changes in weather and effect on dryland agriculture

Respondents highlighted in Figure 5 several weather changes, this includes changes in weather patterns which has seen rains either starting very early or delayed. Respondents (20%) noted that when the clouds have built up, there is a tendency of strong winds which blow away the clouds. Of all the respondents, 60% noted that temperatures are extremely high and that rainfall is very low such that plants that are cultivated struggle to survive emphasising the need for irrigation schemes. Interviews conducted with the heads of departments confirmed that weather changes such as unpredictable changes (too early or too 9

late) in the rainfall pattern and the high temperatures have been experienced. This observation concurs with several scholars who state that rainfall decrease and temperature variations is expected to affect Southern Africa earlier than 2020 (Gwimbi, 2007; Ngaka, 2012; Mushore at al, 2013). The findings is also in accordance with that of Amir Faisal et al. (2014) who ascertained that farmers are not ignorant of the drought issues. Farmers themselves anticipate that drought will become a recurrent phenomenon in the near future.

Thunder and lightening

Strong winds

Estremely high temperatures

Late or early rain onset

Low rainfall 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

% response

Figure 5: Farmers perception of changes in weather. Looking at the impact of change in the weather as presented in Figure 6, majority of the respondents 53% stated that the rainy season is now short because their crops do not mature as a result of long dry spells. This observation was also stressed by one head of department that cropping time is now very short. The respondents also stated that they now plant at different times because of uncertainty of the rains. Respondents (30%) noted that the planting time is difficult to determine as the rainfall pattern is no longer consistent. Some respondents (12%) observed poor yields which cannot sustain them throughout the year. Jerie and Matanga (2011) contend that climate change has negatively impacted on agricultural activities especially for communal farmers who depend on rain fed agriculture; an indication that the ability to deal with drought effects is low. If the rainfall is low, then no sustainable agriculture can be expected from such a constrained community. Some respondents (5%) stated that they have observed stunted growth in their crops due to lack of adequate water.

10

60

% response

50 40 30 20 10 0 Planting time is difficult to determine

Poor yield

Stunted crop growth

Rainy season shorter

Effect of change in weather

Figure 6: Effects of changes in weather 4.3

Causes of drought

The causes of drought according to the respondents is presented in Figure 7. Drought in Ntabazinduna is influenced by a number of factors with 95% of the respondents indicating that low rainfall is the major factor. Interviews conducted with one of the heads of departments concurred that the area receives low rainfall recording as low as 353mm in the 2014/15 agriculture season. Low rainfall has adverse impacts on the crops as well as livestock. This was observed in Ethiopia in 2008 by the UNISDR (2009) where crops and a large population of livestock were lost due to low rainfall. A similar situation was observed in Somalia in 2007 where drought destroyed crops and livestock (IPCC, 2007).

11

100 90 80

Percentage

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Low Rainfall

Poor Soils

Lack of Farming Inputs

Lack of Draught Power

Poor Farming Lack of Practices Awareness

Cimate Change

Drought causal factors

Figure 7: Drought causal factors The lack of farming inputs is the second factor which was raised by 69% of respondents as they stated that seed is provided late. Respondents depend on government and NGOs for seed and fertiliser which is usually distributed late. Beside the late arrival of these farming inputs, one would expect that introduction of drought resistant and early-maturing cultivars could abate the situation but there is the additional constraint of irregular and erratic rainfall with high temperature. A lack of draught power accounted for 24% of the respondents. According to Swanepoel et al. (2010) a lack of draught power for some households causes them to plant late as they have to wait for others to first finish their own ploughing before they can access the plough livestock. Poor farming practises (23%) promote drought and this was confirmed by one of the heads of departments who stated that farmers tend to rely on poor farming methods which are not suitable for Ntabazinduna like the primary tillage instead of adapting conservation farming which tends to conserve soil moisture. Climate change is another factor that has influenced drought in Ntabazinduna as shown by several weather changes which have been observed. Respondents (30%) noted that the planting time is difficult to determine as the rainfall pattern is no longer consistent. Climate change which results in persistent below normal rainfall and above normal temperatures has negatively impacted on agricultural activities especially for communal farmers who depend on rain fed agriculture (Jerie and Matanga , 2011). 12

4.4

Communal farmers’ preparedness and coping strategies for drought.

Ngaka (2012) raised concern about lack of detailed assessment on how people responded to and cope with period of environmental stress. Detailed assessment is needed in order to provide some background information to plan for future occurrence. In this sub section communal farmers’ preparedness and response to the devastating drought conditions are discussed. 4.4.1 Livestock Ownership It emerged from the study that the majority of the respondents owned livestock. Owning livestock in Ntabazinduna reduces people’s vulnerability to the impacts of drought as they can sell them and buy food during drought times. The most common livestock owned as shown in Figure 8 are goats (67%).

80 70

Percentage

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Cattle

Goats

Sheep

Donkeys

Poultry

Figure 8 Livestock owned Goats are prevalent because they can survive in drought conditions in Ntabazinduna due to availability of acacia tree species. Aziz (2010) observes that goats are believed to be independent, agile, and tolerant to many diseases and can look after themselves much better than other livestock species hence their large numbers. Interviews with participant revealed that the wealth of a person in Ntabazinduna is determined by the number of livestock he owns especially cattle. Cattle are owned by 45% of the respondents and they have them in large 13

numbers. Therefore those with cattle have large herds which they always want to maintain. Figure 9 shows the measures employed by communal farmers in Ntabazinduna to reduce loss of livestock in times of drought.

25 33

12

30 Supplementary feeding

Destocking

Livestock Migration

Nothing

Figure 9: Measures to reduce livestock loss during drought Many respondents (33%) do not apply mitigation measures to reduce livestock loss. One of the reasons for this is that a majority of them own goats which can survive even in drought conditions. Meanwhile 25% of the respondents practise supplementary feeding because they can afford to buy stock feed while 30% practise livestock migration. Interviews with one of the heads of departments revealed that people fail to buy supplementary feeding due to lack of finances. The FAO (2009) concurs with this observation that in Matobo, large herds were destroyed because farmers failed to practice supplementary feeding as a result of low household income. Destocking is the least preferred as 12% of the farmers feel it downgrades their status in society. In some communities wealth is determined by the number of livestock that one has, but in times of drought it compromises the drought preparedness status as fodder gets limited to sustain the livestock herd. Failure by communal farmers to destock contributes to overgrazing and the quality of the animals decreases. It is a good practice to sell livestock during drought, save the money and buy livestock in normal time without losing wealth (Jordaan, 2012). However cultural practice of observing one’s wealth and social status in the number of herds one has is a major drawback to this adaptive strategy in Ntabazinduna like in many parts of Africa. 14

Table 2: Cross Tabulation between Age, education and coping mechanism Sup Feeding

Destocking

Livestock

Nothing

Total

Migration No Education

4

3

4

1

12

15

7

21

23

66

Secondary

5

2

5

8

20

Tertiary

1

0

0

1

2

25

12

30

33

100

Sup Feeding

Destocking

Livestock

Nothing

Total

Primary

Total

Migration 18 - 30

1

0

2

2

5

31 - 40

1

1

1

2

5

41 - 50

3

0

2

3

8

51 - 60

9

4

9

11

33

> 61

11

7

16

15

49

Total

25

12

30

33

100

Most farmers perceived drought as a natural occurrence and therefore tend to do nothing to adapt. However, the less educated farmers with at least primary education who are also younger use migration of herds as an adaptation strategy while the more educated and elderly farmers with at least secondary education mix migration and supplementary feeding as coping strategy (Table 2). 4.4.2 Type of crop production in response to drought Crop production is a challenge in Ntabazinduna because of inadequate water. Figure 10

Percentage

shows the types of crops grown in Ntabazinduna. 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

95

47 34 26 4 maize

Sorghum

Sunflower

Groundnuts

Figure 10: Crops grown by communal farmers in Ntabazinduna 15

Beans

The study found that the most crop grown in the community is maize (95%) as shown in Figure 10. Maize has the highest percentage as a result of it being a staple food despite the prevailing unfavourable climatic patterns for its production without irrigation. One head of department from AGRITEX stated in the interviews that farmers were advised in this community to grow small grains like sorghum and millet but the majority does not adhere to this advice. Farmers tend to grow crops that are not suitable for the climatic conditions of the area (Syotwa et al., 2008). The fact that rainfall is low in Ntabazinduna means that the chances of maize producing better yields are limited but culturally, the farmers stick to maize production. Sorghum is grown by 34% of the farmers and is the most suitable crop for this area since sorghum is a drought resistant crop. However, respondents stated that they plant maize because sorghum requires them to spend more time in the fields scaring away birds and secondly they cannot consume it as a staple crop. Some respondents 47% grow beans because they take a short time to mature and they use them as relish, 26% of the respondents grow groundnuts because they observe better yields as compared to maize. One of the reasons for growing a variety of crops by some respondents was because of advice given by AGRITEX officers so that if one crop fails the other can survive since rainfall is unpredictable nowadays, a sort of not “putting all eggs in one basket”. 4.4.3 Farmers training and knowledge Farmers training and education is critical in drought management. Farmers should know what they are supposed to do in times of drought. Farmers training can come in different forms but the most critical aspect is that farmers have adequate knowledge on how to prepare and respond to drought. The majority of respondents 77% received training while the remaining 23% did not. The fact that most farmers were trained could be a positive move towards drought preparedness as education and training is one of the key components of drought preparedness framework. Farmers need to be trained on different farming methods which are suitable and appropriate in their communities. Farmers were trained by various organizations such as AGRITEX, Livestock Development Programme and Master Farmer Programme. Figure 11 shows the activities that communal farmers have been trained on in the past years.

16

90 80

77

Respondents

70 60 50 40 30 20

12

8

10

3

0 Conservation Farming

Conservation of Natural Resources

Irrigation

Livestock Production

Figure 11: Types of training received by farmers in Ntabazinduna

It emerged from the study that respondents were trained by different agencies on activities which include conservation farming 77%, natural resources management 8%, irrigation 3%, Livestock Production 11%. Conservation farming is a method that is appropriate in drought prone areas like Ntabazinduna because it conserves the soil moisture for a longer period such that crops survive in the midst of dry spell. According to Muchinapaya (2012) conservation farming should be encouraged in drought prone areas because, with low rainfall farmers are able to observe yields even if they may not be sustaining. Jordaan, Sakulski, and Jordaan (2011) note that knowledge about the conservation of natural resources is also paramount for farmers as it assists to reduce the adverse effects of drought on livestock. Jordaan (2012) observed in the Northern Cape of South Africa that farmers who practised conservation agriculture did not apply for government support because they were not severely affected by drought. Respondents were also trained on irrigation management (3%) which is also a critical strategy in drought management for an area like Ntabazinduna but the area has no irrigation schemes. Livestock production training is also paramount in that it helps farmers to minimise livestock losses due to drought as livestock is a major source of survival. There are no agricultural tertiary institutions to educate and conduct research on issues affecting the community following the conversion of a vocational training centre into a police and prisons centres. This has also compromised drought preparedness as the community lack advanced knowledge in drought preparedness through informed research. Mniki (2009) observed that farmers who did not receive agricultural 17

training in the Nkonkobe Municipality district in South Africa were not able to formulate drought preparedness plans hence they were more susceptible to drought. 4.4.5 Institutional capacity and social network In times of drought the community receives assistance from several agencies which include government, NGOs, relatives, neighbours as well as churches. Figure 12 show the various agencies providing assistance to the farmers. 70 60 60

Respondents

50 40 30 20 20 10 10

5

5

Churches

Neighbours

0 Government

NGOs

Relatives

Figure 12: Assisting agencies during drought Several agencies assist in times of drought but NGOs (60%) provide more assistance in times of drought than the government mainly because the government of Zimbabwe lacks resources. Other respondents stated that they are assisted by either relatives, neighbours or the church in times of drought but the percentages are low. Strong social networks are very important in times of shocks such as droughts. Ntabazinduna lacks local capacity in terms of institutions to assist in times of drought. The farmers revealed that the livestock development programme department is instrumental in livestock management issues while AGRITEX focuses on crop production and social services coordinates the provision of aid to disadvantaged members of society. The other institutions like the churches and the neighbours’ role is thinly spread. The study found that there is no local drought management committee. All the heads of departments that were interviewed stated that there is no drought management committee in Ntabazinduna. It emerged from interviews that there is only a drought relief committee at district level which

18

plans on drought mitigation as well as assistance during drought. The community is represented by the councillors who are supposed to relay the information to the community. Drought preparedness in Ntabazinduna is compromised because the community lacks a community drought management committee. This observation is consistent with findings by Ndlovu (2011) who states that the community’s needs are not addressed appropriately by their representatives as some leaders would like to gain political mileage using food aid supply in times of droughts and other emergencies. 4.4.6 Policies on drought preparedness It was confirmed in the study that the respondents (100%) do not know of any policies governing drought preparedness as well as the Civil Protection Act of 1989; an instrument concerned with disaster management in the country. The heads of departments interviewed stated the policies like the Civil Protection Act, Rural District Councils Act, Environmental Management Act, as well as the Water Act promote drought preparedness. The results show that the local community is not informed on policies that affect agriculture development thus, impacting negatively on the drought awareness levels. . The interviews carried out with heads of departments depict that the policies promote drought preparedness in several ways. Firstly the Civil Protection Act ensures that assistance is provided to the needy aligning with the Sphere Handbook (2004) that it is the primary responsibility of the government to ensure that people are safe at all times with right to assistance in times of disasters. In all communities, the Department of Civil Protection and its functions should be known so that people are aware of the assistance they are entitled to. The Rural District Councils Act monitors land use and farming practises in the districts and the Environmental Management Act ensures that natural resources are preserved. The Environmental Management Act ensures that there is adequate grazing land and clean water for use by the community. Shamano (2010) states that the Environmental Management Act plays a key role in preserving natural resources through minimizing the indiscriminate burning of veld and the cutting down of trees. The land reform process was viewed by all heads of departments as a constraint to effective drought preparedness as it allowed settlement on grazing land. 4.4.7 Drought planning

19

It emerged from the study that the community is not aware of the drought preparedness plan as all the respondents (100%) stated that they are not aware of the existence of the plan. However the heads of departments interviewed stated that there is a drought preparedness plan which the community is aware of since community leaders are part of the planning committee. The contradiction in the responses clearly shows that some key stakeholders in the community are not fulfilling their mandate of disseminating information on resolutions made on behalf of those at risk. According to Ncube-Phiri et al. (2014) failure to involve the community in planning has resulted in unsustainable mitigation measures. Ndlovu (2011) concurs with this observation that involvement of the community helps to initiate projects that are need-driven. Communal farmers in Ntabazinduna are not involved in the planning process hence they do not know about the drought preparedness plan. Heads of departments that were interviewed stated that the community is represented by leaders who are supposed to address issues raised by the community. The selection and representativeness of these community leaders is therefore questionable. 4.4.8 Early Warning Provision of timely and reliable climate and seasonal forecast is a critical component of drought planning and preparedness.

It enhances the farmers’ decision making process

(UISDR, 2015). Respondents were asked their main sources of early warning information. The responses shows that there are three main sources namely; indigenous knowledge, AGRITEX and through radio and television.

20

17% 46%

33%

Indegenous Knowledge

AGRITEX

Radio/Television

Figure 13: Early warning source for drought Figure 13 shows that 46% rely on indigenous knowledge, 33% AGRITEX and 17% on radio/television. The majority of respondents rely on indigenous knowledge because of its suitability and perceived precision by the community compared to the radio and television. Indigenous knowledge systems are increasingly regarded as an essential element of drought disaster risk reduction (UNISDR, 2015). Radio and television therefore had 17% the least number of respondents. One of the reasons for relying on indigenous knowledge is that it is readily available, accurate and easy to discern. The other reason was that they do not have access to radios and televisions though 17% of the respondents rely on radio and television because information provided is relevant despite being inaccurate at times. The other respondents (33%) rely on AGRITEX for its ability to contextualize the weather forecast by the Meteorological Department. This implies that early warning systems are critical for communal farmers to trigger resource mobilization and other valuable preparedness processes.

21

Table 3: Cross Tabulation between Age and source of early warning information Age

Agritex

Telev / Radio

Indigenous Knowledge

Total

18 – 30

0

3

2

5

31 – 40

1

3

1

5

41 – 50

2

3

3

8

51 – 60

10

7

16

33

> 61

18

7

24

49

Total

31

23

46

100

Table 3 shows that older farmers are more likely to receive their early warning information using their indigenous knowledge and information from extension workers while the younger ones rely more on information provided by television and radio. This difference is important in deciding the appropriate channel of reaching the target population for drought information. Early warning is critical because it can reduce the community’s vulnerability as it allows early reaction before the situation deteriorates given that drought is a slow onset hazard (Mudombi and Nhamo, 2014). Therefore the majority of respondents rely on indigenous knowledge because scientific knowledge provided is not accurate. This is also influenced by the fact that the majority of respondents cannot interpret scientific weather information since they have mostly primary and secondary level education. The situation clearly indicates the need to blend indigenous knowledge and scientific research in drought early warning.

3.6

Conclusion and recommendations

Ntabazinduna is a drought prone area and drought preparedness in the area is lacking hence the response to drought is inadequate resulting in high negative drought impacts. Drought is mainly as a result of deficit precipitation which ultimately strains crop and livestock production in the communal area of Ntabazinduna. Lack of dams and poor utilization of underground water supplies aggravates water stress to farmers. The over reliance on external sources for agricultural inputs leaves communities with minimum control over agricultural activities given the delays in delivery of resources in preceding seasons. Development

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agencies must prepare for agricultural seasons well in advance to avoid exacerbating drought effects due to late planting and failure to take maximum advantage of the short rainy season The absence of a local drought management committee makes it very challenging to mobilise financial, human and other material resources to deal with drought. Such a scenario deprives the locals of an opportunity to strengthen social capital through local networks and relationships to exploit foreign resources. The study proposes that drought prone communities establish vibrant management structures that would champion the development of long term mitigation measures such as irrigation schemes and proper utilization of underground water sources in Ntabazinduna. Such a structure should coordinate and implement drought management activities. It suffice to conclude that community members do not know what action to take in times of drought hence they are vulnerable to drought. The studied community is not aware of the laws and policies governing drought management making it quite difficult to advocate for change. There is a need to review the laws and policies and align them with other national, regional and international best practices to enable the nation to benefit from global partnerships. Local communities must not rely on the government to kick-start the review but can lobby through forums at their disposal such as the District Civil Protection Committees and other traditional structures under the Ministry of Local Government for effective legislations and institutional arrangement for drought preparedness. The councillors should be accountable to the people they claim to represent during the drought preparedness planning. The planning process for drought is done without knowledge of the affected population and therefore questioning its suitability for the area. This resonates well with the saying that ‘what is for us without us is not for us’ meaning locals must be afforded an opportunity to express their views in line with cultural and religious beliefs to minimize on future conflict. Planning with the community also reduces an omission of activities that might prove costly to address during implementation phases. This explains failure as revealed in the study, by the extension team to fully address the local training needs to trigger investment by communities in areas meeting their expectations. The community’s strong reliance on indigenous knowledge increases their susceptibility to drought as the community is caught unaware when they ignore scientific early warning information on radios and television. Indigenous knowledge on its own is not enough to determine the changing climatic patterns hence scientific knowledge also needs to be 23

employed to counter the short comings of the other. The community needs to shift from relying on indigenous knowledge but should use both scientific and indigenous early warning information in order to enhance preparedness. The community has a drought preparedness plan but which is not known by the people as they were not involved in the establishment of the plan. On the basis of the aforementioned, it is recommended that the drought preparedness plan be published and availed to all community members. It is of utmost importance to establish a drought management committee which will coordinate and implement the drought preparedness plan at community level. There are no dams and irrigation schemes in the study area. Government and private sector should be encouraged to invest in dam construction and borehole rehabilitation to improve on the water crisis in Ntabazinduna so that irrigation schemes can be initiated. Community members should also diversify their livelihood options and rely on more drought resistant crops in order to reduce the impacts of drought. There are some cultural hindrances to drought preparedness such as insistence to plant maize rather than sorghum but such cultural impediment could be solved with time through proper education and tactful advocacy. It is also important to educate the community on various forms of wealth and not to see wealth and social status from the narrow lenses of the number of livestock one posses. The government, the private sector and the communal farmers in Ntabazinduna should partner and look into possible drought risk transfer mechanisms such as insurance.

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