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Assessing learning: continuous assessment versus final examinations
NURSE EDUCATION TODAY (1985) 5, 4~55 Longman Group Ltd 1985
Assessing learning: continuous assessment versus final examinations John Sheehan
C o n t i n u o u s assessment a n d final e x a m i n a t i o n s are discussed in relation to assessing learning. Aspects considered include evidence o f a t t a i n m e n t , external m o d e r a t i o n , learning a n d motivation, rites de passage, scholarship and stress. Some conclusions are r e a c h e d t h o u g h these are o f a tentative nature, since p e o p l e will wish to m a k e up their o w n minds a b o u t this topical issue in nursing circles.
INTRODUCTION A state of tension exists between the activities of educating and examining. This tension arises because of the differing nature of the two activities, e v e n though, as far as formal education is concerned, they are mutually interdependent. Educating is a complex process but it may be characterised briefly as: acquiring knowledge, formulating attitudes, perfecting skills and techniques, facilitating human learning, increasing self-awareness, appreciating what is of value, and differentiating between right and wrong. It also involves immersion in a social and a cultural environment and, in a nutshell, it is, at its best, a process of liberating the human spirit and developing human potential. Given a concern for the individual and individual development, educating is to some extent, depending on factors such as the ethos in which it takes place.and the attitudes of the teachers involved, a humanistic process. Examining is an equally complex process J Sheehan MSc MEd DipFE SRN RMN RNT FRSH, Principal Lecturer in Nursing, Faculty of Education, The Polytechnic, Huddersfield, Yorks
and the conduct of formal examinations may be characterised by: great halls with rows of well-spaced desks, prominently placed clocks and meticulous clock-watching, and examination questions contained in wax-sealed envelopes which are ceremonially opened at the appointed time. The persons involved in the process assume a fair measure of this desirable Roman characteristic of gravitas. Stern invigilators stare stoney-faced at all and sundry as they proceed on their cheating-prevention rounds. Students, who are mostly tense and tight lipped, become candidates who lose their names and acquire numbers instead. For those of us who have left examinations behind them, to dream that one will be required to take the 'finals' again must surely rank as a very bad dream indeed. The root of the tension between educating and examining is the conflict between the tmmanistic concerns of education and the bureaucratic concerns of examinations. For those who are interested, there is a way of reducing (not eliminating) tile bureaucratic aspect of examinations and that is by the use of continuous assessment. A characteristic of language is that it grows, and the language relating to the assessment of 49
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learning is no exception. Words wlfich are used more or less interchangcably for systems of assessment include: continuing, continuous, cumulative, formative, intermittent, progressive and regular. There is almost an equal variety of terms relating to examinations and it includes: end of course, final, one-shot, summarive and terminal.
cation of Huddersfield Polytechnic we offer a full-time and a part-time nurse tutors course, a diploma in further education and a BEd degree, based on distance learning, all of which are assessed using continuous assessment. However, I intend to avoid a parochial approach to the subject and to deal instead with some issues which I hope may be of general interest.
DEFINING THE TERMS Rather than getting involved in semantic arguments, I intend to use only the two terms 'continuous assessment' and 'final examination', which I define as follows. Continuous assessment means the assessment of students throughout a course of study. The course is typically broken down into a number of units, each being the responsibility of a lecturer. For example, in teacher education there may be units on the education system, philosophy, psychology, and sociology. Each unit includes a task, usually called an assignment, for the student to complete. The task, which may be an essay, a project o r a seminar paper, is graded on an A - E s c a l e ' b y the lecturer responsible for the unit. Students can choose where to do an assignment - in the library, in the hostel or at home - thus eliminating the ritual of the examination hall. Final examination, which is something most of us must have experienced, is the assessment of students by means of a three-hour written examination, or multiples of three hours depending on tile level of the subject, which takes place at the end of a course of study. Course work, practical work and so on are not taken into account when decisions are made about passing or failing. Final examinations are invigilated and what was said earlier about the conduct of formal examinations applies. Sometimes multiple choice items may form part of a final examination. As far as nursing education is concerned, a look at methods of assessment is timely because some schools of nursing are introducing continuous assessment, though the final examination remains. My own experience of coritinuous assessment is in higher education. In the Faculty of Edu-
EVIDENCE OF A'I-i'AINMENT Examining is a complex matter, but it is also a serious matter for it involves making judgments which may have far-reaching effects. Judgments are made about passing or failing the people who present for examination. It is a serious matter to fail a worthy candidate and thereby deny entry to the nursing profession or whatever, and many of us must have come across candidates we regarded as very worthy who came to grief at the final examination. It is equally serious to allow an unworthy candidate to enter the profession: the consequences are likely to be felt for years. When important judgments are involved, there would seem to be a case for looking critically at the evidence on which the judgments are made. Final examinations provide evidence of a candidate's performance over a period of three hours, or multiples of three hburs, in an untypical activity in the untypical environment of an examination hall. How often, apart from examinations, are we required to write continuously for a three-hour period? Then there is the question of marking. Hartog & Rhodes (1936) provided evidence of the disparity between the marks of the examiners. It might be argued that things have improved in the meantime. Maybe tiffs is so, but how then do we account for the surprise examination results which occur? In contrast to final examinations, continuous assessment provides evidence of a candidate's performance for the whole of a course. It can also take account of a much wider range of evidence. Final examinations typically comprise essay questions and maybe multiple choice items. Continuous assessment can take account of
NURSE EDUCATION TODAY essays, projects, seminar papers and even smallscale research studies. There is also the question of the content validity of the assessment. How well is the syllabus covered? Examiners setting questions for formal examinations will aim to see that there are questions relating to all aspects of the syllabus. However, when the numbe~" of questions to be answered is noted and the practice of examination spotting is taken into account, the amount of ground covered is sometimes less than desired. There is the question of marking when continuous assessment is used. Marking is marking whether the context is formal examination or continuous assessment. However, where continuous assessment is used, since every tutor/ lecturer is an examiner, a greater spread of evidence is provided. The outcome tends to be a cluster of grades in the middle range with fewer at the 'A' and fewer at the ' E ' end of the scale. This regression towards the mean may not be an attractive state of affairs for all. However, continuous assessment makes the unexplained failure of the final examination approach an impossibility. Evidence of attainment is a vital element in the educational process since it forms the basis of the judgments made. We need to ask ourselves some questions. How good is the evidence? Is it better to have a wide spread of evidence, or will a narrow range suffice? Those of us in education have no choice about assessing our students since it is part and parcel of the educational process. We do, however, have a choice about how we collect the evidence. This is the crux of the matter.
EXTERNAL MODERATION External moderation applies when continuous assessment is used, since final examinations are in essence external examinations. By contrast, continuous assessment is based on in-house assessments and there are many reasons why the process should be moderated by external examiners. Since continuous assessment is an in-house activity and since tutors set assignments as well as teach, care needs to be taken to avoid insularity. An external examiner who
51
is well versed in his subject can provide a sense of direction and perspective. In continuous assessment the marker knows the writer; gone is the numerical anonymity of formal examinations. This can personalise the process, but there are points to watch. Expectations are a potent factor in student/teacher relationships and may be either positive or negative in nature. High expectations tend to produce high levels of achievement, and low expectations have the converse effect. Then there is the halo effect (a nice person deserves a good mark). There is the other side of the coin; tile writer of the assignment knows the marker. What are the likely effects of this? There are a number of possibilities. Students might pander to the preferences and prejudices of the marker and adopt what is known to be an acceptable line of approach. The techniques of survival m a y include flattering tlle assessor or 'playing' the system. The things mentioned above - expectations, the halo effect and flattering the assessor - are not peculiar to continuous assessment: they probably operate to some extent in all forms of assessment. What is peculiar to continuous assessment is that the student/teacher relationship is a more powerful variable than in other forms of assessment: certainly more powerful than it could be in formal examinations. In fairness to all, systems of continuous assessment ought to be adequately moderated.
LEARNING AND MOTIVATION The will to learn is fundamental to the process of learning. Since examining is an integral part of the educational process and since education has the facilitation of learning as its prime aim, the question o f how well or otherwise examining facilitates learning ought to be considered. How motivating are final examinations? For m a n y they are very motivating indeed, as evidenced by the intense bouts of revision which frequently precede such examinations. But what about the quality of learning? It is likely that much of what is swotted for examinations is quickly forgotten. Could this be why
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dreams about having to take the finals again are usually such unpleasant experiences? Final examinations generate anxiety and anxiety tends to block learning. Things, of course, are not quite as simple as that. The level of anxiety has to be taken into account and also the individual's response to it. An optimum level of anxiety may be more of a help than a hindrance to learning. But how m a n y people 'go to pieces' at examination time? T h e answer is far too many, and it is difficult to see how such levels of anxiety can help learning. It might, of course, be argued that experience in coping with anxiety is a proper preparation for life. But if anxiety blocks learning, it is difficult to see how a student might benefit from the experience unless help is available; this is not ahvays the case. Continuous assessment helps in the development of systematic work habits since students will have assignments to complete at regular intervals throughout the course. Put another way, a system of continuous assessment makes regular work habits absolutely essential to keep up with the assignments. Is the development of regular work habits or the ability to work under intense pressure for a short period of time what we want out of the educational process? Some students preparing for final examinations do, of course, have regular study habits. However, m a n y do not and rely on an intense burst of revision before examinations. In systems with final examination it is possible to get away without developing regular study habits; in systems of continuous assessment this is not possible. For some the development of a regular work habit might appear to be a daunting proposition. The question is, how well motivated are the students in systems of continuous assessment? In a previous article (Sheehan 1976), I reported that students appreciated the opportunities to pursue individual interests which continuous assessment provided. Similarly, Starr (1968) reported that he found considerable motivation among his certificate in education students to work consistently throughout the year. Feedback, or knowledge of results, is an
important part of the educational process. In a final examination system there is no real feedback during the course since no matter how well a student m a y do in course work it generally counts for nothing, everything hangs on the performance in the examination. There is usually a wait of several weeks for the results to be published and, after an appropriate period, the examination scripts are consigned to the paper shredder. In continuous assessment every assignment is handed back to the student once it has been marked. Assignments, when returned, form the basis of tutorials and thus serve a teaching and learning purpose. Feedback can be provided at a time when it is useful, students can learn from their mistakes or derive comfort from the knowledge that they are on the right tracks. Moreover, students can meet, question, challenge and argue with their examiners, something which cannot happen in final examinations except perhaps in the limited context of a viva voce. Such challenges, of course, may not be universally welcome and there may be a temptation to give good grades to avoid' dispute. Education for what? This is a question which those of us in education should ask ourselves frequently. Having decided what we want, the next decisions ai-e how best to achieve it and how best to examine it. Until fairly recently it was Hobson's choice as far as examinations were concerned: final examinations were the order of the day. Now there is a choice between final examinations and continuous assessment and there is some evidence to assist in making that choice.
RITES DE PASSAGE Rites de passage are rites which occur at important stages in the life of the individual such as reaching adulthood, marriage and so on. Perhaps formal examinations fulfil a function in this context and may be necessary to mark the transition from one status to another; for example from student nurse to staff nurse. Formal examinations certainly embody a sense of occasion in that they are public events
NURSE EDUCNI'ION TODAY surrounded by certain trappings, some of which were mentioned earlier. T h e y legitimise the transition from one status to another: everyone involved is given the same task, the s a m e a m o u n t of time, the same resources, the same lack of resources (for instance, references of any kind are usually not allowed) and the whole event is policed with fairness by inscrutable invigilators. Formal examinations are bureaucratic affairs and unlike other rites de passage ceremonies t h e y are antisocial in that talking or any form of communication is forbidden during the procedure. T h e y are, in fact, public exercises in mistrust; those taking part are not trusted to do anything without supervision - not even to go to the toilet. As far as continuous assessment is concerned, bureaucracy is less evident because students do assignments without any supervision whatever. Tbus tile sense of a g r a n d occasion is missing. However, an administrative structure involving an academic board, possibly a faculty board, a board of examiners and a moderation procedure is, of course, necessary in order to monitor what is going on. Continuous assessment is a more sociable w a y of doing things because students are free and indeed are encouraged to consult with anyone likely to help when preparing their assignments; continuous assessment is dependent on trust. Students are trusted to use their sources in an honest and in an ethical manner. I n fact tbey are trusted to act in a m a n n e r which would be expected of them once professional status is achieved. If it is desirable to have a g r a n d occasion to mark the transition from one status to another, then tbere can be little d o u b t that formal examinations have the strongest claim to fulfil that purpose. However, if our priorities relate to making the examining process less bureaucratic and a more sociable and a more trusting procedure, then continuous assessment has the edge over formal examinations.
SCHOLARSHIP By scholarship I m e a n a high standard of academic work. I n tile present context, the
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question which arises is the contribution of final examinations and continuous assessment to tlle promotion of scholarship. There seems to be little doubt that final examinations are powerful determinants as to what happens in the educational process. It m a y be argued that it should be possible to design a wide-ranging and a searching examination which would d e m a n d a high standard of scholarship. This m a y well be so, but there are factors which tend to work against the argument. T h e r e is the question spotting which reduces the breadth of ground covered. Another element which militates against high standards of scholarship in examinations is the fact that examination questions have to be written under pressure in a short period of time; this more or less precludes tile consideration of any matter in depth. T b u s two dimensions of scholarship, breadth and depth, are lost. Moreover, examiners' reports frequently contain comments about poor g r a m m a r , poor expression, poor spelling, poor organisation and so on, that is, evidence of poor rather tban good scholarship. As far as continuous assessment is concerned, examination spotting does not exist since the assignments set are what are assessed: students do not need to be looking over their shoulders wondering whether they are working on ttle right thing. While there has to be deadlines for the submission of assignments for the orderly progression of tile work, students do have m u c h more time to devote to the assignments than would be the case in final examinations. It is possible to make better use of tile literature related to the topic since students can refer to it while doing assignments. It is possible to think and rethink essays and thus to revise them, something which, of course, cannot happen in examinations. Continuous assessment makes it possible to reflect on the matter in hand to a m u c h greater extent than would be possible in an examination process when reflection would not be an asset in a formal examination and could, if overdone, lead to unwelcome consequences. Furthermore, continuous assessment allows students to make a more searching analysis and evaluation of tile
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issues involved and thus they are likely to be in evidence in support of this assertion. There is a better position to reach a synthesis than less evidence relating to the predictive powers would be the case in examinations which are of continuous assessment. However, Moss sometimes characterised as involving mostly (1977) reported that the continuous assessment low level memory work. component seems to be just as good a predictor The nature of continuous assessment is such of overall student ability as any other compothat it does provide opportunities for the pur- nent (the other components were a written and suit of excellence. However, when dealing with a practical examination). people one must not be too surprised if occaEducation in its broadest sense is a preparasionally the frailties of human nature bubble to tion for life. Passing examinations or assessthe surface. As far as continuous assessment is ments are a means to an end, they are not an concerned, the main issue in this context is end in themselves because some of the facts plagiarism. With .an open system and when learned in order to overcome tile examination/ students are encouraged to consult with anyone assessment hurdle will be forgotten and others likely to help, there is a possibility that assign- will become outdated sooner rather than later. ments may be less than original contributions The person ought therefore to end up with to scholarship. There is also the question of something more than a set of potentially outhow sources are used(. A string of quotations dated facts. I would suggest that this something from the relevant literature, however apt, can- might be a love of wisdom, which would not be said to be a contribution to scholarship provide the person with tile intrinsic motivaunless there is an accompanying criticism, ana- tion to go on studying long after the examinalysis and evaluation of the quoted material. tions and assessments are left behind. Are There is probably a case for limiting the final examinations or continuous assessment amount of direct quotations and emphasising likely, other things being equal, to contribute instead the reorganisation and integration of to the development of a love of wisdom? An the material to ensure students have grasped important condition in creating a love of wisthe issues concerned. dom is that the person should have good As far as continuous assessment is concerned, experiences in relation to the subject. The plagiarism is one matter which it would be question is whether it is final examinations or unwise not to keep constantly in mind. continuous assessment which provides tlm best However, in an admittedly small-scale study, I conditions for promoting a love of wisdom. reported that standards of scholarship could be maintained when continuous assessment is used (Sheehan 1980). STRESS Scholarship for what? In a humanistic frame of mind one might answer that the aim is tile Some people may face a final examination with development of the individual's potential. But equanimity. But many people dread such tile realist will say that education is a costly events: they are afraid of failure, drying up, business and that at the end of the day the misinterpreting the questions, not writing person should be able to do something which is enough and so on. For such people, final of some use to society. This brings us to the examinations are stressful experiences. Illnesses matter of prediction. How good are examina- can be an additional adverse factor. For major tions as predictors and how good are systems illnesses an aegrotat may be obtained and of continuous assessment as predictors of future sometimes qualifications are awarded o n the performance? The predictive power of examina- assumption that the person would have passed tions is not great. Rowntree (1977) asserted if he or she had taken the examination. But that using examination results as the grounds minor illnesses are a different matter: examinafor predictions about individuals is a hazardous tions are usually held at the height of the hay business, and he offered a good deal of fever season and some candidates have to
NURSE EDUCATION TODAY
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battle against s t r e a m i n g noses or resort to CONCLUSION a n t i h i s t a m i n e p r e p a r a t i o n s unlikely to enhance performance. As educators we should e x a m i n e our practices C o n t i n u o u s assessment is b y no means free o f from time to time a n d modify a n d adjust t h e m stress (Young 1970). I t has been likened to the if they are found wanting. W i t h r e g a r d to final pain o f a n a g g i n g toothache, whereas the final e x a m i n a t i o n s versus continuous assessment the e x a m i n a t i o n has been likened to the s h a r p p a i n truth, as in so m a n ) ' matters, is not o v e r w h e l m of a d e n t a l extraction. A l t h o u g h the three-hour ingly on one side of the a r g u m e n t or tile other. invigilated e x a m i n a t i o n does not exist in con- Final e x a m i n a t i o n s , through custom a n d tinuous assessment, the prescribed n u m b e r o f practice, have a n established place in the assignments have to be s u b m i t t e d . Unless the scheme o f things, b u t they should not be student learns to m a n a g e his time well, there b e y o n d critical scrutiny. By contrast, the place could be a last-minute s c r a m b l e to c o m p l e t e of continuous assessment is not so well esassignments a n d as a consequence the quality tablished a n d should rightly be viewed with of the work could suffer. Assignments need to a h e a l t h y scepticism. F o r people who are be well spaced with a d e q u a t e time given to e x a m i n i n g their practices in relation to e x a m i n a them: every effort ought to be taken to avoid tions a n d assessments, it is hoped that this 'log-jams'. article m a y p r o v i d e some food for thought. As far as m i n o r illnesses are concerned, continuous assessment offers g r e a t e r flexibility than final e x a m i n a t i o n s which are set for specific dates. M i n o r illnesses usually pass in a few days, so it is possible for students to avoid References working w h e n they are below par. It must be Hartog P, Rhodes E C 1936 The marks of examiners. questionable as to how wise it is to a t t e m p t to Macmillan, London do i m p o r t a n t a n d d e m a n d i n g w o r k in a n y t h i n g Moss D 1977 How reliable are continuous assessment methods in measuring student performance? Assessment b u t in an o p t i m u m state of health. in higher education 2(3): 164--172 F o r m a l e x a m i n a t i o n s are stressful experiences Rowntree D 1977 Assessing students: how shall we know which are a p p a r e n t l y inevitable, though coping them? Harper & Row, London, p 165 techniques m a y be used. T h e choice therefore Sheehan, J 1976 Continuous assessment in the preparation of teachers of nursing. Nursing Times (Occasional is between a short, s h a r p experience of stress in Papers) 72(6): 21-23 a final e x a m i n a t i o n , or possibly a m u c h lower Sheehan J 1980 Educating teachers of nursing: a sur~'ey of the opinions of students. Journal of Advanced Nursing 5: level over a longer period in a system o f Yl-81 continuous assessment. H o w e v e r , in continuous Starr J w 1968 Final examination versus cumulative assessment the r e g u l a r experience o f assessments assessment in a post-graduate certificate in education course: a comparative study. Durham Research Review m a y facilitate the d e v e l o p m e n t o f a d a p t a t i o n to 20:239-243 stress a n d thus m a k e it an u n i m p o r t a n t or even YoungJ A 1970 Continuous assessment - a mixed blessing? a non-existent p r o b l e m . Education in Chemistry, 9 & 13January
Assessing learning: continuous assessment versus final examinations John Sheehan
C o n t i n u o u s assessment a n d final e x a m i n a t i o n s are discussed in relation to assessing learning. Aspects considered include evidence o f a t t a i n m e n t , external m o d e r a t i o n , learning a n d motivation, rites de passage, scholarship and stress. Some conclusions are r e a c h e d t h o u g h these are o f a tentative nature, since p e o p l e will wish to m a k e up their o w n minds a b o u t this topical issue in nursing circles.
INTRODUCTION A state of tension exists between the activities of educating and examining. This tension arises because of the differing nature of the two activities, e v e n though, as far as formal education is concerned, they are mutually interdependent. Educating is a complex process but it may be characterised briefly as: acquiring knowledge, formulating attitudes, perfecting skills and techniques, facilitating human learning, increasing self-awareness, appreciating what is of value, and differentiating between right and wrong. It also involves immersion in a social and a cultural environment and, in a nutshell, it is, at its best, a process of liberating the human spirit and developing human potential. Given a concern for the individual and individual development, educating is to some extent, depending on factors such as the ethos in which it takes place.and the attitudes of the teachers involved, a humanistic process. Examining is an equally complex process J Sheehan MSc MEd DipFE SRN RMN RNT FRSH, Principal Lecturer in Nursing, Faculty of Education, The Polytechnic, Huddersfield, Yorks
and the conduct of formal examinations may be characterised by: great halls with rows of well-spaced desks, prominently placed clocks and meticulous clock-watching, and examination questions contained in wax-sealed envelopes which are ceremonially opened at the appointed time. The persons involved in the process assume a fair measure of this desirable Roman characteristic of gravitas. Stern invigilators stare stoney-faced at all and sundry as they proceed on their cheating-prevention rounds. Students, who are mostly tense and tight lipped, become candidates who lose their names and acquire numbers instead. For those of us who have left examinations behind them, to dream that one will be required to take the 'finals' again must surely rank as a very bad dream indeed. The root of the tension between educating and examining is the conflict between the tmmanistic concerns of education and the bureaucratic concerns of examinations. For those who are interested, there is a way of reducing (not eliminating) tile bureaucratic aspect of examinations and that is by the use of continuous assessment. A characteristic of language is that it grows, and the language relating to the assessment of 49
.50
NURSE EDUCATION TODAY
learning is no exception. Words wlfich are used more or less interchangcably for systems of assessment include: continuing, continuous, cumulative, formative, intermittent, progressive and regular. There is almost an equal variety of terms relating to examinations and it includes: end of course, final, one-shot, summarive and terminal.
cation of Huddersfield Polytechnic we offer a full-time and a part-time nurse tutors course, a diploma in further education and a BEd degree, based on distance learning, all of which are assessed using continuous assessment. However, I intend to avoid a parochial approach to the subject and to deal instead with some issues which I hope may be of general interest.
DEFINING THE TERMS Rather than getting involved in semantic arguments, I intend to use only the two terms 'continuous assessment' and 'final examination', which I define as follows. Continuous assessment means the assessment of students throughout a course of study. The course is typically broken down into a number of units, each being the responsibility of a lecturer. For example, in teacher education there may be units on the education system, philosophy, psychology, and sociology. Each unit includes a task, usually called an assignment, for the student to complete. The task, which may be an essay, a project o r a seminar paper, is graded on an A - E s c a l e ' b y the lecturer responsible for the unit. Students can choose where to do an assignment - in the library, in the hostel or at home - thus eliminating the ritual of the examination hall. Final examination, which is something most of us must have experienced, is the assessment of students by means of a three-hour written examination, or multiples of three hours depending on tile level of the subject, which takes place at the end of a course of study. Course work, practical work and so on are not taken into account when decisions are made about passing or failing. Final examinations are invigilated and what was said earlier about the conduct of formal examinations applies. Sometimes multiple choice items may form part of a final examination. As far as nursing education is concerned, a look at methods of assessment is timely because some schools of nursing are introducing continuous assessment, though the final examination remains. My own experience of coritinuous assessment is in higher education. In the Faculty of Edu-
EVIDENCE OF A'I-i'AINMENT Examining is a complex matter, but it is also a serious matter for it involves making judgments which may have far-reaching effects. Judgments are made about passing or failing the people who present for examination. It is a serious matter to fail a worthy candidate and thereby deny entry to the nursing profession or whatever, and many of us must have come across candidates we regarded as very worthy who came to grief at the final examination. It is equally serious to allow an unworthy candidate to enter the profession: the consequences are likely to be felt for years. When important judgments are involved, there would seem to be a case for looking critically at the evidence on which the judgments are made. Final examinations provide evidence of a candidate's performance over a period of three hours, or multiples of three hburs, in an untypical activity in the untypical environment of an examination hall. How often, apart from examinations, are we required to write continuously for a three-hour period? Then there is the question of marking. Hartog & Rhodes (1936) provided evidence of the disparity between the marks of the examiners. It might be argued that things have improved in the meantime. Maybe tiffs is so, but how then do we account for the surprise examination results which occur? In contrast to final examinations, continuous assessment provides evidence of a candidate's performance for the whole of a course. It can also take account of a much wider range of evidence. Final examinations typically comprise essay questions and maybe multiple choice items. Continuous assessment can take account of
NURSE EDUCATION TODAY essays, projects, seminar papers and even smallscale research studies. There is also the question of the content validity of the assessment. How well is the syllabus covered? Examiners setting questions for formal examinations will aim to see that there are questions relating to all aspects of the syllabus. However, when the numbe~" of questions to be answered is noted and the practice of examination spotting is taken into account, the amount of ground covered is sometimes less than desired. There is the question of marking when continuous assessment is used. Marking is marking whether the context is formal examination or continuous assessment. However, where continuous assessment is used, since every tutor/ lecturer is an examiner, a greater spread of evidence is provided. The outcome tends to be a cluster of grades in the middle range with fewer at the 'A' and fewer at the ' E ' end of the scale. This regression towards the mean may not be an attractive state of affairs for all. However, continuous assessment makes the unexplained failure of the final examination approach an impossibility. Evidence of attainment is a vital element in the educational process since it forms the basis of the judgments made. We need to ask ourselves some questions. How good is the evidence? Is it better to have a wide spread of evidence, or will a narrow range suffice? Those of us in education have no choice about assessing our students since it is part and parcel of the educational process. We do, however, have a choice about how we collect the evidence. This is the crux of the matter.
EXTERNAL MODERATION External moderation applies when continuous assessment is used, since final examinations are in essence external examinations. By contrast, continuous assessment is based on in-house assessments and there are many reasons why the process should be moderated by external examiners. Since continuous assessment is an in-house activity and since tutors set assignments as well as teach, care needs to be taken to avoid insularity. An external examiner who
51
is well versed in his subject can provide a sense of direction and perspective. In continuous assessment the marker knows the writer; gone is the numerical anonymity of formal examinations. This can personalise the process, but there are points to watch. Expectations are a potent factor in student/teacher relationships and may be either positive or negative in nature. High expectations tend to produce high levels of achievement, and low expectations have the converse effect. Then there is the halo effect (a nice person deserves a good mark). There is the other side of the coin; tile writer of the assignment knows the marker. What are the likely effects of this? There are a number of possibilities. Students might pander to the preferences and prejudices of the marker and adopt what is known to be an acceptable line of approach. The techniques of survival m a y include flattering tlle assessor or 'playing' the system. The things mentioned above - expectations, the halo effect and flattering the assessor - are not peculiar to continuous assessment: they probably operate to some extent in all forms of assessment. What is peculiar to continuous assessment is that the student/teacher relationship is a more powerful variable than in other forms of assessment: certainly more powerful than it could be in formal examinations. In fairness to all, systems of continuous assessment ought to be adequately moderated.
LEARNING AND MOTIVATION The will to learn is fundamental to the process of learning. Since examining is an integral part of the educational process and since education has the facilitation of learning as its prime aim, the question o f how well or otherwise examining facilitates learning ought to be considered. How motivating are final examinations? For m a n y they are very motivating indeed, as evidenced by the intense bouts of revision which frequently precede such examinations. But what about the quality of learning? It is likely that much of what is swotted for examinations is quickly forgotten. Could this be why
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dreams about having to take the finals again are usually such unpleasant experiences? Final examinations generate anxiety and anxiety tends to block learning. Things, of course, are not quite as simple as that. The level of anxiety has to be taken into account and also the individual's response to it. An optimum level of anxiety may be more of a help than a hindrance to learning. But how m a n y people 'go to pieces' at examination time? T h e answer is far too many, and it is difficult to see how such levels of anxiety can help learning. It might, of course, be argued that experience in coping with anxiety is a proper preparation for life. But if anxiety blocks learning, it is difficult to see how a student might benefit from the experience unless help is available; this is not ahvays the case. Continuous assessment helps in the development of systematic work habits since students will have assignments to complete at regular intervals throughout the course. Put another way, a system of continuous assessment makes regular work habits absolutely essential to keep up with the assignments. Is the development of regular work habits or the ability to work under intense pressure for a short period of time what we want out of the educational process? Some students preparing for final examinations do, of course, have regular study habits. However, m a n y do not and rely on an intense burst of revision before examinations. In systems with final examination it is possible to get away without developing regular study habits; in systems of continuous assessment this is not possible. For some the development of a regular work habit might appear to be a daunting proposition. The question is, how well motivated are the students in systems of continuous assessment? In a previous article (Sheehan 1976), I reported that students appreciated the opportunities to pursue individual interests which continuous assessment provided. Similarly, Starr (1968) reported that he found considerable motivation among his certificate in education students to work consistently throughout the year. Feedback, or knowledge of results, is an
important part of the educational process. In a final examination system there is no real feedback during the course since no matter how well a student m a y do in course work it generally counts for nothing, everything hangs on the performance in the examination. There is usually a wait of several weeks for the results to be published and, after an appropriate period, the examination scripts are consigned to the paper shredder. In continuous assessment every assignment is handed back to the student once it has been marked. Assignments, when returned, form the basis of tutorials and thus serve a teaching and learning purpose. Feedback can be provided at a time when it is useful, students can learn from their mistakes or derive comfort from the knowledge that they are on the right tracks. Moreover, students can meet, question, challenge and argue with their examiners, something which cannot happen in final examinations except perhaps in the limited context of a viva voce. Such challenges, of course, may not be universally welcome and there may be a temptation to give good grades to avoid' dispute. Education for what? This is a question which those of us in education should ask ourselves frequently. Having decided what we want, the next decisions ai-e how best to achieve it and how best to examine it. Until fairly recently it was Hobson's choice as far as examinations were concerned: final examinations were the order of the day. Now there is a choice between final examinations and continuous assessment and there is some evidence to assist in making that choice.
RITES DE PASSAGE Rites de passage are rites which occur at important stages in the life of the individual such as reaching adulthood, marriage and so on. Perhaps formal examinations fulfil a function in this context and may be necessary to mark the transition from one status to another; for example from student nurse to staff nurse. Formal examinations certainly embody a sense of occasion in that they are public events
NURSE EDUCNI'ION TODAY surrounded by certain trappings, some of which were mentioned earlier. T h e y legitimise the transition from one status to another: everyone involved is given the same task, the s a m e a m o u n t of time, the same resources, the same lack of resources (for instance, references of any kind are usually not allowed) and the whole event is policed with fairness by inscrutable invigilators. Formal examinations are bureaucratic affairs and unlike other rites de passage ceremonies t h e y are antisocial in that talking or any form of communication is forbidden during the procedure. T h e y are, in fact, public exercises in mistrust; those taking part are not trusted to do anything without supervision - not even to go to the toilet. As far as continuous assessment is concerned, bureaucracy is less evident because students do assignments without any supervision whatever. Tbus tile sense of a g r a n d occasion is missing. However, an administrative structure involving an academic board, possibly a faculty board, a board of examiners and a moderation procedure is, of course, necessary in order to monitor what is going on. Continuous assessment is a more sociable w a y of doing things because students are free and indeed are encouraged to consult with anyone likely to help when preparing their assignments; continuous assessment is dependent on trust. Students are trusted to use their sources in an honest and in an ethical manner. I n fact tbey are trusted to act in a m a n n e r which would be expected of them once professional status is achieved. If it is desirable to have a g r a n d occasion to mark the transition from one status to another, then tbere can be little d o u b t that formal examinations have the strongest claim to fulfil that purpose. However, if our priorities relate to making the examining process less bureaucratic and a more sociable and a more trusting procedure, then continuous assessment has the edge over formal examinations.
SCHOLARSHIP By scholarship I m e a n a high standard of academic work. I n tile present context, the
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question which arises is the contribution of final examinations and continuous assessment to tlle promotion of scholarship. There seems to be little doubt that final examinations are powerful determinants as to what happens in the educational process. It m a y be argued that it should be possible to design a wide-ranging and a searching examination which would d e m a n d a high standard of scholarship. This m a y well be so, but there are factors which tend to work against the argument. T h e r e is the question spotting which reduces the breadth of ground covered. Another element which militates against high standards of scholarship in examinations is the fact that examination questions have to be written under pressure in a short period of time; this more or less precludes tile consideration of any matter in depth. T b u s two dimensions of scholarship, breadth and depth, are lost. Moreover, examiners' reports frequently contain comments about poor g r a m m a r , poor expression, poor spelling, poor organisation and so on, that is, evidence of poor rather tban good scholarship. As far as continuous assessment is concerned, examination spotting does not exist since the assignments set are what are assessed: students do not need to be looking over their shoulders wondering whether they are working on ttle right thing. While there has to be deadlines for the submission of assignments for the orderly progression of tile work, students do have m u c h more time to devote to the assignments than would be the case in final examinations. It is possible to make better use of tile literature related to the topic since students can refer to it while doing assignments. It is possible to think and rethink essays and thus to revise them, something which, of course, cannot happen in examinations. Continuous assessment makes it possible to reflect on the matter in hand to a m u c h greater extent than would be possible in an examination process when reflection would not be an asset in a formal examination and could, if overdone, lead to unwelcome consequences. Furthermore, continuous assessment allows students to make a more searching analysis and evaluation of tile
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issues involved and thus they are likely to be in evidence in support of this assertion. There is a better position to reach a synthesis than less evidence relating to the predictive powers would be the case in examinations which are of continuous assessment. However, Moss sometimes characterised as involving mostly (1977) reported that the continuous assessment low level memory work. component seems to be just as good a predictor The nature of continuous assessment is such of overall student ability as any other compothat it does provide opportunities for the pur- nent (the other components were a written and suit of excellence. However, when dealing with a practical examination). people one must not be too surprised if occaEducation in its broadest sense is a preparasionally the frailties of human nature bubble to tion for life. Passing examinations or assessthe surface. As far as continuous assessment is ments are a means to an end, they are not an concerned, the main issue in this context is end in themselves because some of the facts plagiarism. With .an open system and when learned in order to overcome tile examination/ students are encouraged to consult with anyone assessment hurdle will be forgotten and others likely to help, there is a possibility that assign- will become outdated sooner rather than later. ments may be less than original contributions The person ought therefore to end up with to scholarship. There is also the question of something more than a set of potentially outhow sources are used(. A string of quotations dated facts. I would suggest that this something from the relevant literature, however apt, can- might be a love of wisdom, which would not be said to be a contribution to scholarship provide the person with tile intrinsic motivaunless there is an accompanying criticism, ana- tion to go on studying long after the examinalysis and evaluation of the quoted material. tions and assessments are left behind. Are There is probably a case for limiting the final examinations or continuous assessment amount of direct quotations and emphasising likely, other things being equal, to contribute instead the reorganisation and integration of to the development of a love of wisdom? An the material to ensure students have grasped important condition in creating a love of wisthe issues concerned. dom is that the person should have good As far as continuous assessment is concerned, experiences in relation to the subject. The plagiarism is one matter which it would be question is whether it is final examinations or unwise not to keep constantly in mind. continuous assessment which provides tlm best However, in an admittedly small-scale study, I conditions for promoting a love of wisdom. reported that standards of scholarship could be maintained when continuous assessment is used (Sheehan 1980). STRESS Scholarship for what? In a humanistic frame of mind one might answer that the aim is tile Some people may face a final examination with development of the individual's potential. But equanimity. But many people dread such tile realist will say that education is a costly events: they are afraid of failure, drying up, business and that at the end of the day the misinterpreting the questions, not writing person should be able to do something which is enough and so on. For such people, final of some use to society. This brings us to the examinations are stressful experiences. Illnesses matter of prediction. How good are examina- can be an additional adverse factor. For major tions as predictors and how good are systems illnesses an aegrotat may be obtained and of continuous assessment as predictors of future sometimes qualifications are awarded o n the performance? The predictive power of examina- assumption that the person would have passed tions is not great. Rowntree (1977) asserted if he or she had taken the examination. But that using examination results as the grounds minor illnesses are a different matter: examinafor predictions about individuals is a hazardous tions are usually held at the height of the hay business, and he offered a good deal of fever season and some candidates have to
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battle against s t r e a m i n g noses or resort to CONCLUSION a n t i h i s t a m i n e p r e p a r a t i o n s unlikely to enhance performance. As educators we should e x a m i n e our practices C o n t i n u o u s assessment is b y no means free o f from time to time a n d modify a n d adjust t h e m stress (Young 1970). I t has been likened to the if they are found wanting. W i t h r e g a r d to final pain o f a n a g g i n g toothache, whereas the final e x a m i n a t i o n s versus continuous assessment the e x a m i n a t i o n has been likened to the s h a r p p a i n truth, as in so m a n ) ' matters, is not o v e r w h e l m of a d e n t a l extraction. A l t h o u g h the three-hour ingly on one side of the a r g u m e n t or tile other. invigilated e x a m i n a t i o n does not exist in con- Final e x a m i n a t i o n s , through custom a n d tinuous assessment, the prescribed n u m b e r o f practice, have a n established place in the assignments have to be s u b m i t t e d . Unless the scheme o f things, b u t they should not be student learns to m a n a g e his time well, there b e y o n d critical scrutiny. By contrast, the place could be a last-minute s c r a m b l e to c o m p l e t e of continuous assessment is not so well esassignments a n d as a consequence the quality tablished a n d should rightly be viewed with of the work could suffer. Assignments need to a h e a l t h y scepticism. F o r people who are be well spaced with a d e q u a t e time given to e x a m i n i n g their practices in relation to e x a m i n a them: every effort ought to be taken to avoid tions a n d assessments, it is hoped that this 'log-jams'. article m a y p r o v i d e some food for thought. As far as m i n o r illnesses are concerned, continuous assessment offers g r e a t e r flexibility than final e x a m i n a t i o n s which are set for specific dates. M i n o r illnesses usually pass in a few days, so it is possible for students to avoid References working w h e n they are below par. It must be Hartog P, Rhodes E C 1936 The marks of examiners. questionable as to how wise it is to a t t e m p t to Macmillan, London do i m p o r t a n t a n d d e m a n d i n g w o r k in a n y t h i n g Moss D 1977 How reliable are continuous assessment methods in measuring student performance? Assessment b u t in an o p t i m u m state of health. in higher education 2(3): 164--172 F o r m a l e x a m i n a t i o n s are stressful experiences Rowntree D 1977 Assessing students: how shall we know which are a p p a r e n t l y inevitable, though coping them? Harper & Row, London, p 165 techniques m a y be used. T h e choice therefore Sheehan, J 1976 Continuous assessment in the preparation of teachers of nursing. Nursing Times (Occasional is between a short, s h a r p experience of stress in Papers) 72(6): 21-23 a final e x a m i n a t i o n , or possibly a m u c h lower Sheehan J 1980 Educating teachers of nursing: a sur~'ey of the opinions of students. Journal of Advanced Nursing 5: level over a longer period in a system o f Yl-81 continuous assessment. H o w e v e r , in continuous Starr J w 1968 Final examination versus cumulative assessment the r e g u l a r experience o f assessments assessment in a post-graduate certificate in education course: a comparative study. Durham Research Review m a y facilitate the d e v e l o p m e n t o f a d a p t a t i o n to 20:239-243 stress a n d thus m a k e it an u n i m p o r t a n t or even YoungJ A 1970 Continuous assessment - a mixed blessing? a non-existent p r o b l e m . Education in Chemistry, 9 & 13January