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Assessment of land use land cover changes in Loktak Lake in Indo-Burma Biodiversity Hotspot using geospatial techniques
The Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing and Space Sciences xxx (xxxx) xxx
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Assessment of land use land cover changes in Loktak Lake in Indo-Burma Biodiversity Hotspot using geospatial techniques Rajiv Das Kangabam ⇑, Muthu Selvaraj, Muniswamy Govindaraju Department of Environmental Biotechnology, School of Environmental Sciences, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli 620024, Tamil Nadu, India
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Article history: Received 3 May 2017 Revised 3 December 2017 Accepted 15 April 2018 Available online xxxx Keywords: Land use land cover change Human pressure Floating island Freshwater Loktak Lake Rucervus eldii eldii
a b s t r a c t Increased in human anthropogenic activities resulted in large degradation of wetlands affecting the biotic and abiotic components of the freshwater ecosystems. The Loktak Lake of Manipur in the Indo-Burma Biodiversity region has been degraded and threatened due to increase in population and the demand for more resources. The aim of the present study was to assess the changes in land use pattern in Loktak Lake during the last 38 years using digital change detection approaches. Spatial technique of land uses detection using multi-temporal satellite data followed by remote sensing techniques were used to assess the land cover changes. Maximum likelihood algorithm was employed to analyze the data collected from the Earth Resource Development Assessment System imagine in order to detect the change in land cover. Further, five types of land use pattern viz. open water bodies, agricultural area, Phumdis with thick vegetation, Phumdis with thin vegetation and settlement were studied. The results showed an alternation in the land use profile of the Loktak Lake. The present finding indicates that overall increased in open water bodies, agricultural area and settlement by 10.94%, 10.26% and 2.23% respectively while Phumdis with thick and Phumdis with thin vegetation have decreased by 3.48% and 28.89%. Changes in land use pattern were found to be affecting the fragile ecosystem of the Loktak Lake and posed a serious threat to the aquatic ecosystem. The study identified the need for proper land use planning and implementation of Manipur Loktak Lake Act 2006 for sustainable management of the lake. Ó 2018 National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Sciences. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-ncnd/4.0/).
1. Introduction Wetlands have been one of the most important ecosystems on earth (Constanza et al., 1997) and ecotone between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. The increase in human population and rise in urban sprawl has led to severe pressure on the wetland, making it the most threatened ecosystems in the world. The sprawl in the land use is driving an unprecedented change in ecosystems and environmental processes causing direct and indirect impact on biotic and abiotic components leading to change from local, regional and further to global scales. Among the changes, human induced land use land cover (LU/LC) is considered as one of the most important factor for global environmental changes. The present rate of
Peer review under responsibility of National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Sciences. ⇑ Corresponding author at: Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat 785013, Assam, India. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (R. Das Kangabam), mgrasu@bdu. ac.in (M. Govindaraju).
change is greater compared to the past, which has become a major concern for the human due to increasing populations resulting in climate change, biodiversity loss and pollution of water, soil and air (Erle, 2013). The last few decades show an emerging trend in the destruction of wetland leading to decrease in landscape diversity and an increase in fragmentation rate leading to change in the ecological function of wetlands. (Costanza et al., 1998; Chen and Lu, 2003). The wetland change has affected the hydrology of the aquatic ecosystem through changes in precipitation and temperature, thereby affecting human and other living organisms. Previous studies on land use changes and hydrological disturbance due to human activities has been the reason for the degradation of wetlands worldwide (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993; Barbier et al., 1997). Further a significant changes in land cover have been observed during the last few centuries on spatial and temporal scale due to economic development and population growth (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993). Subsequently, in India, the trend in the wetland loss is similar with the other developing countries which are mainly due to urbanization, land use changes, runoff from agriculture, infrastructure development and pollution from
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrs.2018.04.005 1110-9823/Ó 2018 National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Sciences. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Please cite this article as: R. Das Kangabam, M. Selvaraj and M. Govindaraju, , The Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing and Space Sciences, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.ejrs.2018.04.005
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industrial effluent and climate change variability (Nitin et al., 2014). Thus conservation of the wetlands calls for the study in wetland landscape, structure and functions, essential for understanding the causes and consequences of degradation, and provision of solutions for protection and restoration. The spatial technique of land uses detection using multitemporal satellite data helps in understanding the change in the wetland landscape dynamics. Remote sensing (RS) are widely used for monitoring of various landscapes to provide relevant information about the change in land use pattern and future planning strategies. RS has provided an indispensable tool in mapping and assessing natural resources including aquatic ecosystem. The advantage of RS is that it can detect the changes in aerial wetlands, percent cover of vegetation, as well as replacement of plant community by another (Tiner, 2004) while Geographic Information system (GIS) is a valuable tool for studying the nature of wetlands and the potential of their restoration (Gottgens et al., 1998). It has been widely used for studies of lake by providing a powerful platform for capturing, storing, manipulating, merging, analyzing, visualizing and finally displaying of spatio-temporal data. A number of studies have been reported the importance of LU/LC change studies for proper management and sustainable resource management (Wang et al., 2017; Yuanbin et al., 2016; Zhiliang et al., 2015; Rawat and Manish, 2015; Amna et al., 2015; Zhao et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2015; Garg, 2015; Nitin et al., 2014). Also, the scientific publication rate of LC articles has increased rapidly with 48,951 articles published during 1975 to 2013 (Daniel and Darla, 2014). The used of remote sensing for wetlands management expanded considerably since the mid 1970s, when aerial photography was almost used for monitoring wetland resources (Ozesmi and Bauer, 2002; Phillips et al., 2005; Ramachandra and Kumar, 2008; Frohn et al., 2009; MacKay et al., 2009; MacAlister and Mahaxay, 2009; Nagabhatla et al., 2010; Zhao et al., 2010; Klemas, 2011). The benefit of using Remote Sensing in wetland studies is that its data can be used to identify and study the various wetland features such as tidal flats, lagoons, marshy vegetation, salt marshes and salt pans. They also help in understanding the spatial and temporal pattern, significance and extent of wetlands to the local community (Bhuvaneswari et al., 2011) and identifying and monitoring of wetlands (White and Lewis, 2009; White et al., 2010; Rani et al., 2011). It can also be used to detect the coarse changes in wetland, including plant communities in response to anthropogenic disturbances (Jensen et al., 1995). This technique also can detect the changes in the aerial extent of wetlands, vegetation cover, and replacement of one plant community by another community with pattern distinguished from aerial and satellite images (Papastergiadou et al., 2007). Geographic Information Systems are widely popular for the studies of wetland by providing as a powerful tools for capturing, storing, checking, manipulating, merging, analyzing and displaying data. A number of studies have adopted the GIS application for studies on wetlands for selection of best restoration scenario for degraded wetlands (Alexandridis et al., 2007) testing effects on restoration of wetlands using GIS based model (Mikołaj et al., 2012). The integration of RS and GIS were used for various wetland studies for developing multi-purpose wetland inventory to conducting spatial simulation, hydrological modeling, flood management, reservoir capacity surveys, assessment and monitoring of the environmental impacts of water resources project and water quality mapping and monitoring (Jonna, 1999; Joshi et al., 2002; Rebelo et al., 2009; Durga Rao et al., 2009). However, there are few literatures on the scientific study carried out with respect to LU/LC in North East India, a mega biodiversity region. The rationale of the present study is to identify the trend in land use/land cover pattern in Loktak Lake and its impact on the wetland ecosystem
during the last four decades. The result will be useful for planning and management strategies of Loktak water resources and land use practices for sustainable management. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Study area Loktak Lake is a unique natural ecosystem with numerous national and international importance designated under the Ramsar Convention located in Bishnupur district of Manipur (Fig. 1). It is the largest freshwater lake in northeast India covering an area of 246.72 km2 (National Wetland Atlas, 2009), and a part of IndoBurma Biodiversity Hotspot. The lake lies between 93° 460 –93° 550 E and 24° 250 –24° 420 N of Manipur state. Approximately 12 towns and 52 settlements are located in and around the lake, with a population of 2, 20,017 persons, i.e. 9% of the total population of the state of Manipur (Census Report, 2011). These populations are directly or indirectly depending on lake resources for their socioeconomic condition. The lake is famous for its floating island locally knows as Phumdis. The lake is divided into three zones: the northern zone, central zone and southern zone. The central zone is the main open water area which was relatively free from floating island. The Keibul Lamjao National Park (KLNP) covering an area of 40 km2 located in the southern zone is the world’s only Floating National Park and last natural habitat of highly endangered Manipur brow antlered deer Rucervus eldii eldii locally known as Sangai. 2.2. Data and land use classification The change in land use class was obtained from Landsat TM and IRS LISS III images on February 1977 and 2015 (Table 1). The Loktak Lake area was separated by using the subset tool of ERDAS Imagine 2011 for the preparation of boundary of the study area to match the satellite image for the toposheets compatible. The digitized map was projected to World Geodetic System (WGS) 1984 Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) zone 44 N. As different dated satellite images were of different size of pixels, resampling was done to obtain the same pixel size in all the satellite imagery used. The identification of LU/LC patterns and degradation of wetlands in the study area were classified using ERDAS software. Data were pre-processed in ERDAS imagine for geo-referencing, mosaicking and sub-setting of the image on the basis of Area of Interest (AOI) using SOI Toposheet map 1977 on a scale of 1:50000. The satellite data were studied by assigning individual pixel signatures and differentiating the lake area into five classes on the specific of Digital Number (DN) value of each class. According to the objective of the study, the land use classification of the Loktak Lake was divided into five types including open water area, agricultural area, Phumdis with thick vegetation (tall dense plant area), Phumdis with thin vegetation (short plant area) and settlement. For the five land use classes, predetermined land use type, training samples were selected by delimiting polygons around each representative site. Based on the geo referenced images, the images were interpreted by supervised classification using maximum likelihood techniques. Global Positioning System (GPS) was used as bases to register the images and was geometrically corrected using ArcGIS. 2.3. Accuracy assessment An equalized stratified random sampling was carried out in the study area to assess the accuracy of the classified land use/land cover changes. The overall accuracy and Kappa analysis was carried out to classify the accuracy level using the random points to
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Fig. 1. Study Area Map.
Table 1 Source of sensor data. Data product
Month and year
Path
Row
Spatial resolution
Landsat MSS IRS LISS III SOI Toposheets
January 1977 February 2015 1976
135 112
43 54
60 M 23.5 M 1:50,000
represent different land use classes of each study area. For each land use class, 50 points, based on ground truth data and visual interpretation were randomly selected and verified on the LU/LC map generated. The reference data and classified results were compared statistically using error matrices. In addition, Kappa test was also performed to measure the extent of accuracy of the classified images. It is calculated by a formula (Eq. (1)):
K ¼ PðAÞ PðEÞ=1 PðEÞ
ð1Þ
where P (A) is the number of times the K raters agree, P (E) is the number of times the K raters are expected to agree only by chance (Gwet, 2002; Viera and Garrett, 2005). 3. Results and discussions The classified LU/LC images obtained from the analysis of multidated satellite imageries of Loktak Lake are shown in Fig. 2, Fig. 3 and Table 2. Five land use types were identified and delineated using image interpretation technique in ERDAS 11 and ArcGIS 10 software. The land use pattern in 1977 on Loktak Lake is under open water bodies (74.76 km2), agricultural area (10.33 km2), Phumdis with thick vegetation (24.23 km2), Phumdis with thin vegetation (132.24 km2) and settlement (5.16 km2). During 2015, the area under the same land use categories are open water bodies (101.65 km2), agricultural area (35.66 km2), Phumdis with thick vegetation (15.64 km2), Phumdis with thin vegetation (82.86 km2) and settlement (10.91 km2). The study identified the alteration in the land use classes shown in Fig. 4. The open area
under water bodies increases by 26.89 km2 in 2015 due to the removal of Phumdis from the central zone by the government in order to retain the open water area which was almost covered by Phumdis after the construction of Ithai barrage and increase in aquaculture. The kappa coefficient assessment of overall accuracy of the classified images shows 86% in the study area. The Phumdis use to flow out of Loktak during rainy season naturally, but the movement was prevented after the construction of Ithai Barrage leading to increase in Phumdi population. Agriculture area in the lake increases by 25.33 km2 due to construction of Ithai barrage which make the Loktak as a reservoir for a hydroelectric project. This leads to the inundation of low lying area, thereby depriving the people of their agricultural field. The local people carried out agricultural activities in the Phumdis. Settlement inside the lake also increases by 5.75 km2. This is due to rise in population and lack of employment opportunities. People take up agricultural and aquaculture activities in the lake in order to sustain their livelihood. Thanga, Ithing and Karang are the villages located inside the lake which shows substantial growth in population. Phumdis with thick and Phumdis with thin vegetation recorded the maximum loss of area. Phumdis with thick vegetation reduce the area by 8.59 km2 and Phumdis with thin vegetation by 49.38 km2 during the study period. This lost has been converted to agricultural area, open water bodies and human settlement. The water quality of the Loktak Lake is poor even though the local people living in and around the lake are using for drinking and household activities (Rajiv et al., 2017; Rajiv and Munisamy, 2017). The decrease in Phumdis is a major concern as Keibul Lamjao National Park, the only floating National park in the world is made of thick and thin
Please cite this article as: R. Das Kangabam, M. Selvaraj and M. Govindaraju, , The Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing and Space Sciences, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.ejrs.2018.04.005
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Fig.2. Land Use/Land Cover Map of the Loktak Lake 1977.
Phumdis. The change in the land use pattern of Loktak Lake is a serious concern for restoration and sustainable management of the lake resources as a change in land use pattern severely affect the fragile aquatic ecosystem thereby increase the pressure on the lake resources. The change in the LU/LC is directly due to construction of Ithai Barrage and the increase in human population and the demand for more lake resources for the socio economic. About 12 towns and 52 settlements are located in and around the Loktak Lake with a pop-
ulation of 2, 20,017 persons, i.e. 9% of the total population of the state of Manipur (Manipur population Census Report, 2011). The number of households also increased from 33,649 in 2001 to 43,069 in 2011, an increase of 9420. The total population also shows a rise from 1, 97,785 in 2001 to 2,20,017 in 2011, an increase of 22,232. The population inside the lake areas including Ithing, Thanga and Thanga Karang also increases compared to 2001. According to census report 2011, the household inside the lake is 3054 with a population of 18,007. Further, it was found that
Please cite this article as: R. Das Kangabam, M. Selvaraj and M. Govindaraju, , The Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing and Space Sciences, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.ejrs.2018.04.005
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Fig. 3. Land Use/Land Cover Map of the Loktak Lake 2015.
Table 2 Change in Land Use/Land Cover categories during 1977–2015. Land Use Classes
Open water bodies Agricultural area Phumdis with thick vegetation Phumdis with thin vegetation Settlement Total
1977
2015
Change (1977 to 2015)
km2
%
km2
%
km2
%
74.76 10.33 24.23 132.24 5.16 246.72
30.30 4.18 9.82 53.59 2.09 100
101.65 35.66 15.64 82.86 10.91 246.72
41.20 14.45 6.33 33.58 4.42 100
26.89 25.33 8.59 49.38 5.75 0.00
10.94 10.27 3.49 20.01 2.33 0.00
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Fig. 4. Land Use/Land Cover change during the last four decades (1977–2015) in Loktak Lake.
80% of the respondent collect the natural resources from the lake on a daily basis while 15% of them weekly and 5% monthly (Rajiv, 2016).
DST – FIST for the instrumentation facility provided required for the study.
4. Conclusion
References
Based on the finding from the present study, it was concluded that the Loktak Lake is facing a major issue of unplanned land use practices for the last 38 years. The finding from the study reveals that there is a significant change in the LU/LC of the Loktak Lake. The land use of open water and agricultural area show the augmentation by 26.89 km2 and 25.33 km2 follow by settlement with 5.75 km2. The increase in agricultural area and settlement is due to the construction of Ithai barrage which submerged the low lying agricultural area thereby depriving the livelihood of the local people which later depend on the lake resource for their livelihood. The water quality of the lake is decreasing which is a major concern for the people depending on it and for the aquatic ecosystem which directly depend on the change in LU/LC. The highest decline in the LU/LC is for Phumdi with thick and thin vegetation which lost 8.59 and 49.38 Km2 of the total area as compared to 1977. The loss of Phumdis is a major concern for environmentalist as it homes to the highly endangered Rucervus eldii eldii. The study identified the need for proper management and consistent monitoring of the Loktak Lake using spatial technology, which are cost effective and highly accurate for long term sustainable management of the Loktak Lake.
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Conflict of interest None. Acknowledgments This research work was supported with funding from the Society of Wetland Scientists, USA, through Ramsar Research Grant and by the Ocean Park Conservation Foundation, Hong Kong through a conservation research grant. Authors are thankful to UGC-SAP and
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Assessment of land use land cover changes in Loktak Lake in Indo-Burma Biodiversity Hotspot using geospatial techniques Rajiv Das Kangabam ⇑, Muthu Selvaraj, Muniswamy Govindaraju Department of Environmental Biotechnology, School of Environmental Sciences, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli 620024, Tamil Nadu, India
a r t i c l e
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Article history: Received 3 May 2017 Revised 3 December 2017 Accepted 15 April 2018 Available online xxxx Keywords: Land use land cover change Human pressure Floating island Freshwater Loktak Lake Rucervus eldii eldii
a b s t r a c t Increased in human anthropogenic activities resulted in large degradation of wetlands affecting the biotic and abiotic components of the freshwater ecosystems. The Loktak Lake of Manipur in the Indo-Burma Biodiversity region has been degraded and threatened due to increase in population and the demand for more resources. The aim of the present study was to assess the changes in land use pattern in Loktak Lake during the last 38 years using digital change detection approaches. Spatial technique of land uses detection using multi-temporal satellite data followed by remote sensing techniques were used to assess the land cover changes. Maximum likelihood algorithm was employed to analyze the data collected from the Earth Resource Development Assessment System imagine in order to detect the change in land cover. Further, five types of land use pattern viz. open water bodies, agricultural area, Phumdis with thick vegetation, Phumdis with thin vegetation and settlement were studied. The results showed an alternation in the land use profile of the Loktak Lake. The present finding indicates that overall increased in open water bodies, agricultural area and settlement by 10.94%, 10.26% and 2.23% respectively while Phumdis with thick and Phumdis with thin vegetation have decreased by 3.48% and 28.89%. Changes in land use pattern were found to be affecting the fragile ecosystem of the Loktak Lake and posed a serious threat to the aquatic ecosystem. The study identified the need for proper land use planning and implementation of Manipur Loktak Lake Act 2006 for sustainable management of the lake. Ó 2018 National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Sciences. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-ncnd/4.0/).
1. Introduction Wetlands have been one of the most important ecosystems on earth (Constanza et al., 1997) and ecotone between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. The increase in human population and rise in urban sprawl has led to severe pressure on the wetland, making it the most threatened ecosystems in the world. The sprawl in the land use is driving an unprecedented change in ecosystems and environmental processes causing direct and indirect impact on biotic and abiotic components leading to change from local, regional and further to global scales. Among the changes, human induced land use land cover (LU/LC) is considered as one of the most important factor for global environmental changes. The present rate of
Peer review under responsibility of National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Sciences. ⇑ Corresponding author at: Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat 785013, Assam, India. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (R. Das Kangabam), mgrasu@bdu. ac.in (M. Govindaraju).
change is greater compared to the past, which has become a major concern for the human due to increasing populations resulting in climate change, biodiversity loss and pollution of water, soil and air (Erle, 2013). The last few decades show an emerging trend in the destruction of wetland leading to decrease in landscape diversity and an increase in fragmentation rate leading to change in the ecological function of wetlands. (Costanza et al., 1998; Chen and Lu, 2003). The wetland change has affected the hydrology of the aquatic ecosystem through changes in precipitation and temperature, thereby affecting human and other living organisms. Previous studies on land use changes and hydrological disturbance due to human activities has been the reason for the degradation of wetlands worldwide (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993; Barbier et al., 1997). Further a significant changes in land cover have been observed during the last few centuries on spatial and temporal scale due to economic development and population growth (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993). Subsequently, in India, the trend in the wetland loss is similar with the other developing countries which are mainly due to urbanization, land use changes, runoff from agriculture, infrastructure development and pollution from
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrs.2018.04.005 1110-9823/Ó 2018 National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Sciences. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Please cite this article as: R. Das Kangabam, M. Selvaraj and M. Govindaraju, , The Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing and Space Sciences, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.ejrs.2018.04.005
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industrial effluent and climate change variability (Nitin et al., 2014). Thus conservation of the wetlands calls for the study in wetland landscape, structure and functions, essential for understanding the causes and consequences of degradation, and provision of solutions for protection and restoration. The spatial technique of land uses detection using multitemporal satellite data helps in understanding the change in the wetland landscape dynamics. Remote sensing (RS) are widely used for monitoring of various landscapes to provide relevant information about the change in land use pattern and future planning strategies. RS has provided an indispensable tool in mapping and assessing natural resources including aquatic ecosystem. The advantage of RS is that it can detect the changes in aerial wetlands, percent cover of vegetation, as well as replacement of plant community by another (Tiner, 2004) while Geographic Information system (GIS) is a valuable tool for studying the nature of wetlands and the potential of their restoration (Gottgens et al., 1998). It has been widely used for studies of lake by providing a powerful platform for capturing, storing, manipulating, merging, analyzing, visualizing and finally displaying of spatio-temporal data. A number of studies have been reported the importance of LU/LC change studies for proper management and sustainable resource management (Wang et al., 2017; Yuanbin et al., 2016; Zhiliang et al., 2015; Rawat and Manish, 2015; Amna et al., 2015; Zhao et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2015; Garg, 2015; Nitin et al., 2014). Also, the scientific publication rate of LC articles has increased rapidly with 48,951 articles published during 1975 to 2013 (Daniel and Darla, 2014). The used of remote sensing for wetlands management expanded considerably since the mid 1970s, when aerial photography was almost used for monitoring wetland resources (Ozesmi and Bauer, 2002; Phillips et al., 2005; Ramachandra and Kumar, 2008; Frohn et al., 2009; MacKay et al., 2009; MacAlister and Mahaxay, 2009; Nagabhatla et al., 2010; Zhao et al., 2010; Klemas, 2011). The benefit of using Remote Sensing in wetland studies is that its data can be used to identify and study the various wetland features such as tidal flats, lagoons, marshy vegetation, salt marshes and salt pans. They also help in understanding the spatial and temporal pattern, significance and extent of wetlands to the local community (Bhuvaneswari et al., 2011) and identifying and monitoring of wetlands (White and Lewis, 2009; White et al., 2010; Rani et al., 2011). It can also be used to detect the coarse changes in wetland, including plant communities in response to anthropogenic disturbances (Jensen et al., 1995). This technique also can detect the changes in the aerial extent of wetlands, vegetation cover, and replacement of one plant community by another community with pattern distinguished from aerial and satellite images (Papastergiadou et al., 2007). Geographic Information Systems are widely popular for the studies of wetland by providing as a powerful tools for capturing, storing, checking, manipulating, merging, analyzing and displaying data. A number of studies have adopted the GIS application for studies on wetlands for selection of best restoration scenario for degraded wetlands (Alexandridis et al., 2007) testing effects on restoration of wetlands using GIS based model (Mikołaj et al., 2012). The integration of RS and GIS were used for various wetland studies for developing multi-purpose wetland inventory to conducting spatial simulation, hydrological modeling, flood management, reservoir capacity surveys, assessment and monitoring of the environmental impacts of water resources project and water quality mapping and monitoring (Jonna, 1999; Joshi et al., 2002; Rebelo et al., 2009; Durga Rao et al., 2009). However, there are few literatures on the scientific study carried out with respect to LU/LC in North East India, a mega biodiversity region. The rationale of the present study is to identify the trend in land use/land cover pattern in Loktak Lake and its impact on the wetland ecosystem
during the last four decades. The result will be useful for planning and management strategies of Loktak water resources and land use practices for sustainable management. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Study area Loktak Lake is a unique natural ecosystem with numerous national and international importance designated under the Ramsar Convention located in Bishnupur district of Manipur (Fig. 1). It is the largest freshwater lake in northeast India covering an area of 246.72 km2 (National Wetland Atlas, 2009), and a part of IndoBurma Biodiversity Hotspot. The lake lies between 93° 460 –93° 550 E and 24° 250 –24° 420 N of Manipur state. Approximately 12 towns and 52 settlements are located in and around the lake, with a population of 2, 20,017 persons, i.e. 9% of the total population of the state of Manipur (Census Report, 2011). These populations are directly or indirectly depending on lake resources for their socioeconomic condition. The lake is famous for its floating island locally knows as Phumdis. The lake is divided into three zones: the northern zone, central zone and southern zone. The central zone is the main open water area which was relatively free from floating island. The Keibul Lamjao National Park (KLNP) covering an area of 40 km2 located in the southern zone is the world’s only Floating National Park and last natural habitat of highly endangered Manipur brow antlered deer Rucervus eldii eldii locally known as Sangai. 2.2. Data and land use classification The change in land use class was obtained from Landsat TM and IRS LISS III images on February 1977 and 2015 (Table 1). The Loktak Lake area was separated by using the subset tool of ERDAS Imagine 2011 for the preparation of boundary of the study area to match the satellite image for the toposheets compatible. The digitized map was projected to World Geodetic System (WGS) 1984 Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) zone 44 N. As different dated satellite images were of different size of pixels, resampling was done to obtain the same pixel size in all the satellite imagery used. The identification of LU/LC patterns and degradation of wetlands in the study area were classified using ERDAS software. Data were pre-processed in ERDAS imagine for geo-referencing, mosaicking and sub-setting of the image on the basis of Area of Interest (AOI) using SOI Toposheet map 1977 on a scale of 1:50000. The satellite data were studied by assigning individual pixel signatures and differentiating the lake area into five classes on the specific of Digital Number (DN) value of each class. According to the objective of the study, the land use classification of the Loktak Lake was divided into five types including open water area, agricultural area, Phumdis with thick vegetation (tall dense plant area), Phumdis with thin vegetation (short plant area) and settlement. For the five land use classes, predetermined land use type, training samples were selected by delimiting polygons around each representative site. Based on the geo referenced images, the images were interpreted by supervised classification using maximum likelihood techniques. Global Positioning System (GPS) was used as bases to register the images and was geometrically corrected using ArcGIS. 2.3. Accuracy assessment An equalized stratified random sampling was carried out in the study area to assess the accuracy of the classified land use/land cover changes. The overall accuracy and Kappa analysis was carried out to classify the accuracy level using the random points to
Please cite this article as: R. Das Kangabam, M. Selvaraj and M. Govindaraju, , The Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing and Space Sciences, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.ejrs.2018.04.005
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Fig. 1. Study Area Map.
Table 1 Source of sensor data. Data product
Month and year
Path
Row
Spatial resolution
Landsat MSS IRS LISS III SOI Toposheets
January 1977 February 2015 1976
135 112
43 54
60 M 23.5 M 1:50,000
represent different land use classes of each study area. For each land use class, 50 points, based on ground truth data and visual interpretation were randomly selected and verified on the LU/LC map generated. The reference data and classified results were compared statistically using error matrices. In addition, Kappa test was also performed to measure the extent of accuracy of the classified images. It is calculated by a formula (Eq. (1)):
K ¼ PðAÞ PðEÞ=1 PðEÞ
ð1Þ
where P (A) is the number of times the K raters agree, P (E) is the number of times the K raters are expected to agree only by chance (Gwet, 2002; Viera and Garrett, 2005). 3. Results and discussions The classified LU/LC images obtained from the analysis of multidated satellite imageries of Loktak Lake are shown in Fig. 2, Fig. 3 and Table 2. Five land use types were identified and delineated using image interpretation technique in ERDAS 11 and ArcGIS 10 software. The land use pattern in 1977 on Loktak Lake is under open water bodies (74.76 km2), agricultural area (10.33 km2), Phumdis with thick vegetation (24.23 km2), Phumdis with thin vegetation (132.24 km2) and settlement (5.16 km2). During 2015, the area under the same land use categories are open water bodies (101.65 km2), agricultural area (35.66 km2), Phumdis with thick vegetation (15.64 km2), Phumdis with thin vegetation (82.86 km2) and settlement (10.91 km2). The study identified the alteration in the land use classes shown in Fig. 4. The open area
under water bodies increases by 26.89 km2 in 2015 due to the removal of Phumdis from the central zone by the government in order to retain the open water area which was almost covered by Phumdis after the construction of Ithai barrage and increase in aquaculture. The kappa coefficient assessment of overall accuracy of the classified images shows 86% in the study area. The Phumdis use to flow out of Loktak during rainy season naturally, but the movement was prevented after the construction of Ithai Barrage leading to increase in Phumdi population. Agriculture area in the lake increases by 25.33 km2 due to construction of Ithai barrage which make the Loktak as a reservoir for a hydroelectric project. This leads to the inundation of low lying area, thereby depriving the people of their agricultural field. The local people carried out agricultural activities in the Phumdis. Settlement inside the lake also increases by 5.75 km2. This is due to rise in population and lack of employment opportunities. People take up agricultural and aquaculture activities in the lake in order to sustain their livelihood. Thanga, Ithing and Karang are the villages located inside the lake which shows substantial growth in population. Phumdis with thick and Phumdis with thin vegetation recorded the maximum loss of area. Phumdis with thick vegetation reduce the area by 8.59 km2 and Phumdis with thin vegetation by 49.38 km2 during the study period. This lost has been converted to agricultural area, open water bodies and human settlement. The water quality of the Loktak Lake is poor even though the local people living in and around the lake are using for drinking and household activities (Rajiv et al., 2017; Rajiv and Munisamy, 2017). The decrease in Phumdis is a major concern as Keibul Lamjao National Park, the only floating National park in the world is made of thick and thin
Please cite this article as: R. Das Kangabam, M. Selvaraj and M. Govindaraju, , The Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing and Space Sciences, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.ejrs.2018.04.005
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R. Das Kangabam et al. / Egypt. J. Remote Sensing Space Sci. xxx (xxxx) xxx
Fig.2. Land Use/Land Cover Map of the Loktak Lake 1977.
Phumdis. The change in the land use pattern of Loktak Lake is a serious concern for restoration and sustainable management of the lake resources as a change in land use pattern severely affect the fragile aquatic ecosystem thereby increase the pressure on the lake resources. The change in the LU/LC is directly due to construction of Ithai Barrage and the increase in human population and the demand for more lake resources for the socio economic. About 12 towns and 52 settlements are located in and around the Loktak Lake with a pop-
ulation of 2, 20,017 persons, i.e. 9% of the total population of the state of Manipur (Manipur population Census Report, 2011). The number of households also increased from 33,649 in 2001 to 43,069 in 2011, an increase of 9420. The total population also shows a rise from 1, 97,785 in 2001 to 2,20,017 in 2011, an increase of 22,232. The population inside the lake areas including Ithing, Thanga and Thanga Karang also increases compared to 2001. According to census report 2011, the household inside the lake is 3054 with a population of 18,007. Further, it was found that
Please cite this article as: R. Das Kangabam, M. Selvaraj and M. Govindaraju, , The Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing and Space Sciences, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.ejrs.2018.04.005
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Fig. 3. Land Use/Land Cover Map of the Loktak Lake 2015.
Table 2 Change in Land Use/Land Cover categories during 1977–2015. Land Use Classes
Open water bodies Agricultural area Phumdis with thick vegetation Phumdis with thin vegetation Settlement Total
1977
2015
Change (1977 to 2015)
km2
%
km2
%
km2
%
74.76 10.33 24.23 132.24 5.16 246.72
30.30 4.18 9.82 53.59 2.09 100
101.65 35.66 15.64 82.86 10.91 246.72
41.20 14.45 6.33 33.58 4.42 100
26.89 25.33 8.59 49.38 5.75 0.00
10.94 10.27 3.49 20.01 2.33 0.00
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Fig. 4. Land Use/Land Cover change during the last four decades (1977–2015) in Loktak Lake.
80% of the respondent collect the natural resources from the lake on a daily basis while 15% of them weekly and 5% monthly (Rajiv, 2016).
DST – FIST for the instrumentation facility provided required for the study.
4. Conclusion
References
Based on the finding from the present study, it was concluded that the Loktak Lake is facing a major issue of unplanned land use practices for the last 38 years. The finding from the study reveals that there is a significant change in the LU/LC of the Loktak Lake. The land use of open water and agricultural area show the augmentation by 26.89 km2 and 25.33 km2 follow by settlement with 5.75 km2. The increase in agricultural area and settlement is due to the construction of Ithai barrage which submerged the low lying agricultural area thereby depriving the livelihood of the local people which later depend on the lake resource for their livelihood. The water quality of the lake is decreasing which is a major concern for the people depending on it and for the aquatic ecosystem which directly depend on the change in LU/LC. The highest decline in the LU/LC is for Phumdi with thick and thin vegetation which lost 8.59 and 49.38 Km2 of the total area as compared to 1977. The loss of Phumdis is a major concern for environmentalist as it homes to the highly endangered Rucervus eldii eldii. The study identified the need for proper management and consistent monitoring of the Loktak Lake using spatial technology, which are cost effective and highly accurate for long term sustainable management of the Loktak Lake.
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Conflict of interest None. Acknowledgments This research work was supported with funding from the Society of Wetland Scientists, USA, through Ramsar Research Grant and by the Ocean Park Conservation Foundation, Hong Kong through a conservation research grant. Authors are thankful to UGC-SAP and
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Please cite this article as: R. Das Kangabam, M. Selvaraj and M. Govindaraju, , The Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing and Space Sciences, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.ejrs.2018.04.005