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Assisting students with autism to cooperate with their peers to perform computer mouse collaborative pointing operation on a single display simultaneously
Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders 10 (2015) 15–21
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders Journal homepage: http://ees.elsevier.com/RASD/default.asp
Assisting students with autism to cooperate with their peers to perform computer mouse collaborative pointing operation on a single display simultaneously Ching-Hsiang Shih a,*, Ming-Shan Chiang a, Ching-Tien Shih b a b
Department of Special Education, National Dong Hwa University, Hualien, Taiwan, ROC Department of Digital Game & Animation Design, Tung Fang Design Institute, Kaohsiung City, Taiwan, ROC
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Article history: Received 20 October 2014 Accepted 20 October 2014
The purpose of this study was to provide students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) the chance to cooperate with their peers to perform computer mouse collaborative pointing operation. In this study, we adopted the Single Display Groupware (SDG) concept to develop the Multiple Cursor Collaborative Operating Program (MCCOP) software, which allows multiple users to operate a single computer simultaneously without interfering with each other. With the implementation of MCCOP software, users control their own cursors to perform a function in their respective cursor moving areas on a single display. A collaborative pointing test software (CPTS) program was designed in this experiment to evaluate participants’ collaborative pointing performance. This study adopted an ABAB design, and the experimental results show that all participants significantly increased their collaborative pointing performance during the intervention phase, compared to the baseline phase. Practical and developmental implications of the findings are discussed. ß 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: ASD MCCOP CPTS Collaborative pointing operation
1. Introduction Affected individuals lacking social interaction is one characteristic of autism spectrum disorder (Lord & Bishop, 2010). Many individuals with ASD have trouble engaging in daily social interactions and building relationships with others. Researchers propose that social strategies such as group play and situation simulation may successfully help individuals with ASD improve their social interactions (Channon, Collins, Swain, Young, & Fitzpatrick, 2012; Tomaino, Miltenberger, & Charlop, 2014). The development of computers continues to make life easier and more convenient. Many tasks can be completed by a computer, such as word processing, communication, providing entertainment, etc. The revolution of computer technology is also indirectly changing education, as computer applications in educational settings become ever broader and more various. There have been many examples of applying computers to education, including pedagogical techniques such as self-learning,
* Corresponding author at: Department of Special Education, National Dong Hwa University, Hualien 970, Taiwan, ROC. Tel.: +886 3 8634881; fax: +886 3 8634870. E-mail address: [email protected] (C.-H. Shih). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2014.10.018 1750-9467/ß 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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computer assisted instruction (CAI), and game-based teaching. The generalization of computers increases the number and type of applications related to learning and teaching in education (Nickerson & Zodhiates, 2013). Individuals with autism are often attracted by computer games which are full of variously visual and auditory stimuli (Mazurek & Wenstrup, 2013). Using computer games to assist children with ASD to learn may be a good strategy due to the possibility that the stimuli provided by such games will increase the children’s learning motivation. Making good use of interactive computer games to promote language learning, social interaction and cognition for children with autism may lead them to more successfully adapt to social life (Hopkins et al., 2011; Rahman, Ferdous, & Ahmed, 2010). Take ‘‘whack-a-mole’’ (TechRadium, 2014) as an example. This popular computer game, shown in Fig. 1, is easy to play and can be enjoyed by members of all generations. When the game starts, moles will come out from holes randomly, a player must move the cursor and click the moles; meanwhile, the tally of successful clicks is automatically recorded and this score is shown on the screen at the same time. The computer game ‘‘whack-a-mole’’ is designed for a single user to play, and does not allow simultaneous multiple player use due to the Windows Operating System (OS) only supporting one cursor to operate a computer. When multiple mice connect to one computer, interference will occur due to any and all pointing devices connecting up to one cursor. Single Display Groupware (SDG) is a software technology which is proposed to enable co-present users to collaborate through a single, shared display, and allows multiple input devices to be used simultaneously (Stewart, Bederson, & Druin, 1999). Studies have shown that it is effective to complete a task through a shared computer with multiple users using their own mice (Stanton, Neale, & Bayon, 2002). With the application of the SDG technique, multiple cursors can be displayed on screen to allow multiple users to independently control their own cursors’ movement, and while in a status of co-present collaboration, users can achieve the goal of working/playing together. As shown in Fig. 2, two cursors with different colors and corresponding name prompts, Mark and Jenny, are displayed on screen. Two individuals (Mark and Jenny) each have their own mice which they can use to control their respective cursors simultaneously without interfering with each other.
[(Fig._1)TD$IG]
Fig. 1. ‘‘Whack-a-mole’’ is a computer game in which players click a mouse to hit moles which come out from holes randomly (TechRadium, 2014).
[(Fig._2)TD$IG]
Fig. 2. Two cursors in different colors with name prompts are displayed on screen, and these two cursors can be independently controlled without interference occurring. (For interpretation of the references to color in figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of the article.)
[(Fig._3)TD$IG]
C.-H. Shih et al. / Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders 10 (2015) 15–21
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Fig. 3. The computer screen was divided into two areas by MCCOP, where Mark’s cursor worked in the left area and Jenny’s cursor worked in the right area.
If a child with ASD controls one mouse, and one of his/her peers controls the other one, the two individuals can cooperate with each other to play a game. By virtue of this interaction, a cooperative environment for children with ASD is created, and offering him/her a chance to work/play with other people. Although the SDG technique enables multiple users to more effectively share computing resources by using multiple mice, the SDG function is not included in all legacy applications or existing programs, and it is quite difficult to modify existing applications or programs to incorporate the SDG function as this entails the need for the program to be rewritten (Heimerl, Ramachandran, Pal, Brewer, & Parikh, 2009). To overcome the above issue, a new operating solution was developed in this study—the Multiple Cursor Collaborative Operating Program (MCCOP). MCCOP was applicable to existing applications or programs and included the SDG function to enable individuals to have their own cursors that they can control to function in their respective cursor moving areas on a single display. As shown in Fig. 3, MCCOP enabled the ‘‘whack-a-mole’’ computer game to be operated by two users simultaneously without any modification of the ‘‘whack-a-mole’’ program, and each user could independently operate his/her own mouse in the respective area without interfering with each other. For example, Mark’s cursor only worked on the left side and Jenny’s cursor only worked on the right side of the screen. The key feature of MCCOP technology is to redesign mouse drivers so they can intercept and simulate mouse action, and in this way to provide multiple cursors which are displayed on a single computer to allow for multiple users to operate their own mice without interference. Normally, the default functions of a standard device cannot be reset, as when it is connected to a computer, the OS will automatically install the device’s standard driver. Redesigning a mouse driver can redefine its default functions, however, turning a mouse into a much more powerful tool for use in many applications. However, driver modification has rarely been proposed by researchers due to the complex technological requirements (Microsoft, 2008, 2014; Shih, 2013, 2014). Some studies have proposed the adoption of software technology to redesign mouse drivers to improve the computer operation performance of individuals with disabilities. For example, a standard mouse driver was modified to change a mouse wheel into a thumb/finger poke detector to improve computer pointing efficiency for people with multiple disabilities (Shih, Chang, & Shih, 2009). The Multiple Cursor Automatic Pointing Assistive Program (MCAPAP) was another mouse driver modification used to enable two people with disabilities to cooperate in computer pointing performance (Shih, Cheng, Li, Shih, & Chiang, 2010). This work adopted a new mouse driver design to provide the chance for students with ASD to cooperate with their peers, and investigated whether they were able to effectively complete the collaborative pointing task through the MCCOP. 2. Methodology 2.1. Participants The four participants in this experiment all studied at the same special education school. In order to conduct the experiment, the participants were selected according to the following principles: (a) two students were to be placed in a
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group: one participant was a student with ASD, and the other was a student who had developmental disabilities, (b) participants would be able to independently operate a computer mouse to perform mouse operating tasks, (c) participants were capable of understanding the experimental procedures and instructions provided by a research assistant, and (d) the consent of participants’ parents was obtained before commencing the experiment. Participants Wu and Li were in group A, both were 16 years old. Wu was a male with moderate ASD, and Li was a female with moderate intellectual disabilities (ID). Wu liked to use computers, knew how to play his favorite music using the computer, and was able to search websites on the Internet. When he used a computer, he was so intently focused that he would not share the computer or take turns with his peers. He was also in the habit of hitting himself whenever he experienced negative emotions or excessive excitement. A classmate of Wu, Li had a gentle personality and would actively converse with Wu. When Wu exhibited self-injurious behavior, Li would remind him not to do so and would stop him. Cheng and Lu were both 17 years old and comprised in group B. Cheng was a male with severe ASD, and Lu was a male with moderate ID. Cheng insisted in doing things his own way, liked to be alone, and had no interaction with classmates. Lu had introverted personality and did not talk much. Lu and Cheng were classmates. 2.2. Apparatus and software The apparatus included two mice and one all-in-one (AIO) computer (ASUS), all of which were set up and ready on a computer table for participants to use. The AIO computer was installed with a built-in Windows OS, collaborative pointing test software (CPTS), and MCCOP software. 2.2.1. CPTS CPTS was designed in this experiment to evaluate and record participants’ collaborative pointing performance. Fig. 4 presents a schematic diagram of CPTS. Eight assigned targets (T1–T8) were set in a circle with a radius of 5 cm on the computer screen. Valid/correct collaborative pointing was achieved when one participant pointed to T1–T4, while the other pointed to T5–T8. When the participant pointed to a target, for example T3, then target T3 would disappear from the screen. Once participants had clicked all their respective targets T1–T8, an instance of successful collaborative pointing was counted and recorded. Each participant only needed to eliminate the four targets in his/her area of responsibility, and these targets could be clicked in any random sequence. Once all targets T1–T8 were clicked and had disappeared from screen, new targets T1–T8 were displayed and both participants were instructed to point at their respective ones again, with this process being repeated until the end of the test time. The number of instances of successfully collaborative pointing within 3 min was automatically recorded by the CPTS. 2.2.2. MCCOP The MCCOP enabled multiple users to control their own cursors to function in their respective cursor moving areas on a single display. In this study, the MCCOP technique divided the computer screen into two areas, where one participant was responsible for operation area 1 (T1–T4), and the other was responsible for operation area 2 (T5–T8), as shown in Fig. 5. Both participants were able to operate their own cursors in their restrictive areas simultaneously, without interfering with each other.
[(Fig._4)TD$IG]
Fig. 4. CPTS was designed to evaluate participants’ collaborative pointing performance, and provided eight assigned targets (T1–T8) on the screen for participants to point on and click.
[(Fig._5)TD$IG]
C.-H. Shih et al. / Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders 10 (2015) 15–21
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Fig. 5. The MCCOP allowed multiple users to operate a single computer simultaneously. One participant was responsible for operation area 1 (T1–T4) and the other was for operation area 2 (T5–T8).
2.3. Experimental conditions The experiment was carried out in an activity room at the participants’ school. Both groups of participants underwent a 3-min experimental session three to five times per day during the study period. Considering it was the first time for all participants to take part in this kind of experiment and taking into account their attention spans, the experimental session was set for 3 min. An ABAB design was adopted in this study, where A represented a baseline phase and B was an intervention phase (Richards, Taylor, Ramasamy, & Richards, 1999). The number of instances of successful collaborative pointing within 3 min was automatically recorded by the CPTS. 2.3.1. Baseline phase During the first baseline phase I, group A underwent 21 sessions and group B underwent 24 sessions. Both groups underwent 18 sessions during the second baseline phase II. In the baseline phase, an AIO computer and two mice were available and in place, but the MCCOP software was turned off for the purpose of recording participants’ baseline performance. Without the MCCOP technique, the operation of two mice would cause mutual interference due to the fact that only one cursor can actually function at one time on the computer. A research assistant would remind participants when necessary that they needed to cooperate with each other to perform the pointing task. 2.3.2. Intervention phase A research assistant explained the functions of the MCCOP and used physical guidance to show participants how to perform a valid collaborative pointing task. Fifty-four sessions for group A and 48 sessions for group B were carried out during the first intervention phase I. Fifty-one sessions for both groups were carried out during the second intervention phase II. In this latter phase, all experimental settings were the same as in the baseline phase, the difference being that the MCCOP functions were activated. With the MCCOP functions, both participants were able to operate their own mouse cursors simultaneously in their respective areas. The MCCOP software allowed multiple cursors to be operated on one computer without interference. 2.4. Results The experimental data of group A is shown in Fig. 6. Each data point on the graph represents the mean number of instances of successful collaborative pointing across three sessions. The mean number of instances of collaborative pointing for group A was 0.86 during baseline phase I, and then increased to 21.56 during intervention phase I with the activation of
[(Fig._6)TD$IG]
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C.-H. Shih et al. / Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders 10 (2015) 15–21
Fig. 6. Experimental data of group A. Each data point on the graph represents the mean number of instances of successful collaborative pointing across three sessions.
[(Fig._7)TD$IG]
Fig. 7. Experimental data of group B. Each data point on the graph represents the mean number of instances of successful collaborative pointing across three sessions.
the MCCOP functions. The mean dropped to 0.50 during baseline phase II due to the lack of the MCCOP functions, and then increased again to 25.53 during intervention phase II. The experimental data of group B is shown in Fig. 7. The mean number of instances of collaborative pointing for group B was 0.38 during baseline phase I, and then rapidly increased to 19.19 during intervention phase I. Similar to the situation for group A, without the MCCOP technique, the mean for group B dropped to 0.50 during baseline phase II, and then increased again to 21.71 during intervention phase II. During the baseline phases, for group A, both participants liked to use the computer, and actively moved their mice to the target positions. However, without the MCCOP software, both participants interfered with each other while operating their own mice due to the two mice ending up on one cursor. After experiencing several failures, Wu felt frustrated and kept saying that he did not want to undergo anymore experimental sessions. For group B, both participants moved their mice to the target positions, but they were unable to click on the target due to interference occurring. Finally, Cheng gave up, and stopped holding the mouse, and refused to focus his attention on the computer screen. Therefore, the pointing performance was completed by Lu alone, and not in a collaborative situation. In the intervention phases, the MCCOP was activated to divide the computer screen into two parts corresponding to the left and right hand sides of the screen, respectively. The eight targets were divided into two parts such that one student was responsible for four targets on the left side (T5–T8) and the other student was tasked with the other four targets on right side (T1–T4). Without the mutual interference between cursors, both groups were able to complete collaborative pointing tasks successfully. The emotion of student Wu of group A was more stable during this phase; he was able to pay attention to the computer screen in order to complete pointing tasks, and complained less. Student Cheng of group B was also able to focus on the screen and concentrated in order to operate the mouse. The results show that both groups exhibited low collaborative pointing performance during the baseline phases I and II, whereas, the number of instances of collaborative pointing increased significantly during intervention phases I and II. The difference between the baseline and the intervention was significant (p < 0.01) based on the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test (Siegel & Castellan, 1988). 3. Discussion Individuals with ASD often encounter difficulties with daily social interactions and building good relationships with others (Lord & Bishop, 2010). Much emphasis is placed on cooperative relationships between individuals nowadays. If
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individuals with ASD can effectively increase their level of experience in working with others, doing so should enable them to improve the quality of their interpersonal relationships and better integrate themselves with society. This study provided students with ASD the chance to cooperate with their peers to complete computer mouse collaborative pointing operations through the MCCOP software. The MCCOP was compatible with existing programs and allowed multiple cursors to be controlled at the same time, meaning multiple users could operate one computer simultaneously. In addition, the MCCOP created a cooperative environment for individuals to work/play with other people. Moreover, individuals with ASD had chance to interact with others through performing collaborative pointing operation. For example, student Cheng would use simple words (e.g., hurry!, play!) to ask Lu to continue operating the mouse whenever Lu stopped. The experimental results show that during the baseline phases, the collaborative pointing performance for both groups was not good due to interference occurring. With the intervention of the MCCOP, both groups rapidly increased the mean number of instances of collaborative pointing during the intervention phases. It emerged that the MCCOP made it feasible for participants to perform collaborative pointing through the application of CPTS. Expanding the numbers of participants in each group could be considered in further studies to evaluate the effectiveness of the MCCOP intervention demonstrated in this experiment. In addition, further studies could extend the application of MCCOP to other existing computer games or self-developed software to expand the usage of MCCOP. Furthermore, this study only focused on the collaborative pointing performance of participants, and interaction among participants was not addressed here. Future studies could develop applicable scales to observe and record the interaction among students with ASD and their peers when they are participating in collaborative activities. Acknowledgement The authors would like to thank the National Science Council, Taiwan, ROC for financially supporting this research under Contract No. NSC 101-2511-S-259-011-MY3. References Channon, S., Collins, R., Swain, E., Young, M.-B., & Fitzpatrick, S. (2012). The use of skilled strategies in social interactions by groups high and low in self-reported social skill. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42, 1425–1434. Heimerl, K., Ramachandran, D., Pal, J., Brewer, E., & Parikh, T. (2009). Metamouse: Multiple mice for legacy applications. Boston, MA, USA: Paper presented at the proceedings of the 27th international conference extended abstracts on Human factors in computing systems. Hopkins, I. M., Gower, M. W., Perez, T. A., Smith, D. S., Amthor, F. R., Wimsatt, F. C., et al. (2011). Avatar assistant: Improving social skills in students with an ASD through a computer-based intervention. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41, 1543–1555. Lord, C., & Bishop, S. L. (2010). Autism spectrum disorders. Social Policy Report, 24, 3–16. Mazurek, M. O., & Wenstrup, C. (2013). Television, video game and social media use among children with ASD and typically developing siblings. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43, 1258–1271. Microsoft (2008). WDM. Introduction to windows driver model. Retrieved from: http://www.microsoft.com/whdc/archive/wdm.mspx#EJE Microsoft (2014). Windows driver kit (WDK). Retrieved from http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ff557573%28v=vs.85%29.aspx Nickerson, R. S., & Zodhiates, P. P. (2013). Technology in education: Looking toward 2020. Routledge. Rahman, M. M., Ferdous, S., & Ahmed, S. I. (2010). Increasing intelligibility in the speech of the autistic children by an interactive computer game. Paper presented at the 2010 IEEE International Symposium on Multimedia (ISM). Richards, S. B., Taylor, R. L., Ramasamy, R., & Richards, R. Y. (1999). Single subject research: Applications in educational and clinical settings. New York: Wadsworth. Shih, C.-H. (2013). Assisting people with disabilities improves their collaborative pointing efficiency through the use of the mouse scroll wheel. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 34, 1–10. Shih, C.-H. (2014). Assisting people with multiple disabilities to improve computer typing efficiency through a mouse wheel and On-Screen Keyboard software. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35, 2129–2136. Shih, C.-H., Chang, M.-L., & Shih, C.-T. (2009). Assisting people with multiple disabilities and minimal motor behavior to improve computer pointing efficiency through a mouse wheel. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 30, 1378–1387. Shih, C.-H., Cheng, H.-F., Li, C.-C., Shih, C.-T., & Chiang, M.-S. (2010). Assisting people with developmental disabilities improve their collaborative pointing efficiency with a Multiple Cursor Automatic Pointing Assistive Program. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 31, 600–607. Siegel, S., & Castellan, N. J. (1988). Nonparametric Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences. New York: McGraw-HiU Book Company. Stanton, D., Neale, H., & Bayon, V. (2002). Interfaces to support children’s co-present collaboration: Multiple mice and tangible technologies. Boulder, CO, USA: Paper presented at the proceedings of computer support for collaborative learning (CSCL). Stewart, J., Bederson, B. B., & Druin, A. (1999). Single display groupware: A model for co-present collaboration. Pittsburgh, PA, USA: Paper presented at the proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human factors in computing systems: The CHI is the limit. TechRadium (2014). Whack a Ground Hog. Retrieved from: http://www.gamingcloud.com/play/whack-a-groundhog.html Tomaino, M. E., Miltenberger, C. A., & Charlop, M. H. (2014). Social skills and play in children with autism. In Handbook of early intervention for autism spectrum disorders (pp. 437–452). Springer.
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders Journal homepage: http://ees.elsevier.com/RASD/default.asp
Assisting students with autism to cooperate with their peers to perform computer mouse collaborative pointing operation on a single display simultaneously Ching-Hsiang Shih a,*, Ming-Shan Chiang a, Ching-Tien Shih b a b
Department of Special Education, National Dong Hwa University, Hualien, Taiwan, ROC Department of Digital Game & Animation Design, Tung Fang Design Institute, Kaohsiung City, Taiwan, ROC
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Article history: Received 20 October 2014 Accepted 20 October 2014
The purpose of this study was to provide students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) the chance to cooperate with their peers to perform computer mouse collaborative pointing operation. In this study, we adopted the Single Display Groupware (SDG) concept to develop the Multiple Cursor Collaborative Operating Program (MCCOP) software, which allows multiple users to operate a single computer simultaneously without interfering with each other. With the implementation of MCCOP software, users control their own cursors to perform a function in their respective cursor moving areas on a single display. A collaborative pointing test software (CPTS) program was designed in this experiment to evaluate participants’ collaborative pointing performance. This study adopted an ABAB design, and the experimental results show that all participants significantly increased their collaborative pointing performance during the intervention phase, compared to the baseline phase. Practical and developmental implications of the findings are discussed. ß 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: ASD MCCOP CPTS Collaborative pointing operation
1. Introduction Affected individuals lacking social interaction is one characteristic of autism spectrum disorder (Lord & Bishop, 2010). Many individuals with ASD have trouble engaging in daily social interactions and building relationships with others. Researchers propose that social strategies such as group play and situation simulation may successfully help individuals with ASD improve their social interactions (Channon, Collins, Swain, Young, & Fitzpatrick, 2012; Tomaino, Miltenberger, & Charlop, 2014). The development of computers continues to make life easier and more convenient. Many tasks can be completed by a computer, such as word processing, communication, providing entertainment, etc. The revolution of computer technology is also indirectly changing education, as computer applications in educational settings become ever broader and more various. There have been many examples of applying computers to education, including pedagogical techniques such as self-learning,
* Corresponding author at: Department of Special Education, National Dong Hwa University, Hualien 970, Taiwan, ROC. Tel.: +886 3 8634881; fax: +886 3 8634870. E-mail address: [email protected] (C.-H. Shih). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2014.10.018 1750-9467/ß 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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C.-H. Shih et al. / Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders 10 (2015) 15–21
computer assisted instruction (CAI), and game-based teaching. The generalization of computers increases the number and type of applications related to learning and teaching in education (Nickerson & Zodhiates, 2013). Individuals with autism are often attracted by computer games which are full of variously visual and auditory stimuli (Mazurek & Wenstrup, 2013). Using computer games to assist children with ASD to learn may be a good strategy due to the possibility that the stimuli provided by such games will increase the children’s learning motivation. Making good use of interactive computer games to promote language learning, social interaction and cognition for children with autism may lead them to more successfully adapt to social life (Hopkins et al., 2011; Rahman, Ferdous, & Ahmed, 2010). Take ‘‘whack-a-mole’’ (TechRadium, 2014) as an example. This popular computer game, shown in Fig. 1, is easy to play and can be enjoyed by members of all generations. When the game starts, moles will come out from holes randomly, a player must move the cursor and click the moles; meanwhile, the tally of successful clicks is automatically recorded and this score is shown on the screen at the same time. The computer game ‘‘whack-a-mole’’ is designed for a single user to play, and does not allow simultaneous multiple player use due to the Windows Operating System (OS) only supporting one cursor to operate a computer. When multiple mice connect to one computer, interference will occur due to any and all pointing devices connecting up to one cursor. Single Display Groupware (SDG) is a software technology which is proposed to enable co-present users to collaborate through a single, shared display, and allows multiple input devices to be used simultaneously (Stewart, Bederson, & Druin, 1999). Studies have shown that it is effective to complete a task through a shared computer with multiple users using their own mice (Stanton, Neale, & Bayon, 2002). With the application of the SDG technique, multiple cursors can be displayed on screen to allow multiple users to independently control their own cursors’ movement, and while in a status of co-present collaboration, users can achieve the goal of working/playing together. As shown in Fig. 2, two cursors with different colors and corresponding name prompts, Mark and Jenny, are displayed on screen. Two individuals (Mark and Jenny) each have their own mice which they can use to control their respective cursors simultaneously without interfering with each other.
[(Fig._1)TD$IG]
Fig. 1. ‘‘Whack-a-mole’’ is a computer game in which players click a mouse to hit moles which come out from holes randomly (TechRadium, 2014).
[(Fig._2)TD$IG]
Fig. 2. Two cursors in different colors with name prompts are displayed on screen, and these two cursors can be independently controlled without interference occurring. (For interpretation of the references to color in figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of the article.)
[(Fig._3)TD$IG]
C.-H. Shih et al. / Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders 10 (2015) 15–21
17
Fig. 3. The computer screen was divided into two areas by MCCOP, where Mark’s cursor worked in the left area and Jenny’s cursor worked in the right area.
If a child with ASD controls one mouse, and one of his/her peers controls the other one, the two individuals can cooperate with each other to play a game. By virtue of this interaction, a cooperative environment for children with ASD is created, and offering him/her a chance to work/play with other people. Although the SDG technique enables multiple users to more effectively share computing resources by using multiple mice, the SDG function is not included in all legacy applications or existing programs, and it is quite difficult to modify existing applications or programs to incorporate the SDG function as this entails the need for the program to be rewritten (Heimerl, Ramachandran, Pal, Brewer, & Parikh, 2009). To overcome the above issue, a new operating solution was developed in this study—the Multiple Cursor Collaborative Operating Program (MCCOP). MCCOP was applicable to existing applications or programs and included the SDG function to enable individuals to have their own cursors that they can control to function in their respective cursor moving areas on a single display. As shown in Fig. 3, MCCOP enabled the ‘‘whack-a-mole’’ computer game to be operated by two users simultaneously without any modification of the ‘‘whack-a-mole’’ program, and each user could independently operate his/her own mouse in the respective area without interfering with each other. For example, Mark’s cursor only worked on the left side and Jenny’s cursor only worked on the right side of the screen. The key feature of MCCOP technology is to redesign mouse drivers so they can intercept and simulate mouse action, and in this way to provide multiple cursors which are displayed on a single computer to allow for multiple users to operate their own mice without interference. Normally, the default functions of a standard device cannot be reset, as when it is connected to a computer, the OS will automatically install the device’s standard driver. Redesigning a mouse driver can redefine its default functions, however, turning a mouse into a much more powerful tool for use in many applications. However, driver modification has rarely been proposed by researchers due to the complex technological requirements (Microsoft, 2008, 2014; Shih, 2013, 2014). Some studies have proposed the adoption of software technology to redesign mouse drivers to improve the computer operation performance of individuals with disabilities. For example, a standard mouse driver was modified to change a mouse wheel into a thumb/finger poke detector to improve computer pointing efficiency for people with multiple disabilities (Shih, Chang, & Shih, 2009). The Multiple Cursor Automatic Pointing Assistive Program (MCAPAP) was another mouse driver modification used to enable two people with disabilities to cooperate in computer pointing performance (Shih, Cheng, Li, Shih, & Chiang, 2010). This work adopted a new mouse driver design to provide the chance for students with ASD to cooperate with their peers, and investigated whether they were able to effectively complete the collaborative pointing task through the MCCOP. 2. Methodology 2.1. Participants The four participants in this experiment all studied at the same special education school. In order to conduct the experiment, the participants were selected according to the following principles: (a) two students were to be placed in a
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group: one participant was a student with ASD, and the other was a student who had developmental disabilities, (b) participants would be able to independently operate a computer mouse to perform mouse operating tasks, (c) participants were capable of understanding the experimental procedures and instructions provided by a research assistant, and (d) the consent of participants’ parents was obtained before commencing the experiment. Participants Wu and Li were in group A, both were 16 years old. Wu was a male with moderate ASD, and Li was a female with moderate intellectual disabilities (ID). Wu liked to use computers, knew how to play his favorite music using the computer, and was able to search websites on the Internet. When he used a computer, he was so intently focused that he would not share the computer or take turns with his peers. He was also in the habit of hitting himself whenever he experienced negative emotions or excessive excitement. A classmate of Wu, Li had a gentle personality and would actively converse with Wu. When Wu exhibited self-injurious behavior, Li would remind him not to do so and would stop him. Cheng and Lu were both 17 years old and comprised in group B. Cheng was a male with severe ASD, and Lu was a male with moderate ID. Cheng insisted in doing things his own way, liked to be alone, and had no interaction with classmates. Lu had introverted personality and did not talk much. Lu and Cheng were classmates. 2.2. Apparatus and software The apparatus included two mice and one all-in-one (AIO) computer (ASUS), all of which were set up and ready on a computer table for participants to use. The AIO computer was installed with a built-in Windows OS, collaborative pointing test software (CPTS), and MCCOP software. 2.2.1. CPTS CPTS was designed in this experiment to evaluate and record participants’ collaborative pointing performance. Fig. 4 presents a schematic diagram of CPTS. Eight assigned targets (T1–T8) were set in a circle with a radius of 5 cm on the computer screen. Valid/correct collaborative pointing was achieved when one participant pointed to T1–T4, while the other pointed to T5–T8. When the participant pointed to a target, for example T3, then target T3 would disappear from the screen. Once participants had clicked all their respective targets T1–T8, an instance of successful collaborative pointing was counted and recorded. Each participant only needed to eliminate the four targets in his/her area of responsibility, and these targets could be clicked in any random sequence. Once all targets T1–T8 were clicked and had disappeared from screen, new targets T1–T8 were displayed and both participants were instructed to point at their respective ones again, with this process being repeated until the end of the test time. The number of instances of successfully collaborative pointing within 3 min was automatically recorded by the CPTS. 2.2.2. MCCOP The MCCOP enabled multiple users to control their own cursors to function in their respective cursor moving areas on a single display. In this study, the MCCOP technique divided the computer screen into two areas, where one participant was responsible for operation area 1 (T1–T4), and the other was responsible for operation area 2 (T5–T8), as shown in Fig. 5. Both participants were able to operate their own cursors in their restrictive areas simultaneously, without interfering with each other.
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Fig. 4. CPTS was designed to evaluate participants’ collaborative pointing performance, and provided eight assigned targets (T1–T8) on the screen for participants to point on and click.
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Fig. 5. The MCCOP allowed multiple users to operate a single computer simultaneously. One participant was responsible for operation area 1 (T1–T4) and the other was for operation area 2 (T5–T8).
2.3. Experimental conditions The experiment was carried out in an activity room at the participants’ school. Both groups of participants underwent a 3-min experimental session three to five times per day during the study period. Considering it was the first time for all participants to take part in this kind of experiment and taking into account their attention spans, the experimental session was set for 3 min. An ABAB design was adopted in this study, where A represented a baseline phase and B was an intervention phase (Richards, Taylor, Ramasamy, & Richards, 1999). The number of instances of successful collaborative pointing within 3 min was automatically recorded by the CPTS. 2.3.1. Baseline phase During the first baseline phase I, group A underwent 21 sessions and group B underwent 24 sessions. Both groups underwent 18 sessions during the second baseline phase II. In the baseline phase, an AIO computer and two mice were available and in place, but the MCCOP software was turned off for the purpose of recording participants’ baseline performance. Without the MCCOP technique, the operation of two mice would cause mutual interference due to the fact that only one cursor can actually function at one time on the computer. A research assistant would remind participants when necessary that they needed to cooperate with each other to perform the pointing task. 2.3.2. Intervention phase A research assistant explained the functions of the MCCOP and used physical guidance to show participants how to perform a valid collaborative pointing task. Fifty-four sessions for group A and 48 sessions for group B were carried out during the first intervention phase I. Fifty-one sessions for both groups were carried out during the second intervention phase II. In this latter phase, all experimental settings were the same as in the baseline phase, the difference being that the MCCOP functions were activated. With the MCCOP functions, both participants were able to operate their own mouse cursors simultaneously in their respective areas. The MCCOP software allowed multiple cursors to be operated on one computer without interference. 2.4. Results The experimental data of group A is shown in Fig. 6. Each data point on the graph represents the mean number of instances of successful collaborative pointing across three sessions. The mean number of instances of collaborative pointing for group A was 0.86 during baseline phase I, and then increased to 21.56 during intervention phase I with the activation of
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Fig. 6. Experimental data of group A. Each data point on the graph represents the mean number of instances of successful collaborative pointing across three sessions.
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Fig. 7. Experimental data of group B. Each data point on the graph represents the mean number of instances of successful collaborative pointing across three sessions.
the MCCOP functions. The mean dropped to 0.50 during baseline phase II due to the lack of the MCCOP functions, and then increased again to 25.53 during intervention phase II. The experimental data of group B is shown in Fig. 7. The mean number of instances of collaborative pointing for group B was 0.38 during baseline phase I, and then rapidly increased to 19.19 during intervention phase I. Similar to the situation for group A, without the MCCOP technique, the mean for group B dropped to 0.50 during baseline phase II, and then increased again to 21.71 during intervention phase II. During the baseline phases, for group A, both participants liked to use the computer, and actively moved their mice to the target positions. However, without the MCCOP software, both participants interfered with each other while operating their own mice due to the two mice ending up on one cursor. After experiencing several failures, Wu felt frustrated and kept saying that he did not want to undergo anymore experimental sessions. For group B, both participants moved their mice to the target positions, but they were unable to click on the target due to interference occurring. Finally, Cheng gave up, and stopped holding the mouse, and refused to focus his attention on the computer screen. Therefore, the pointing performance was completed by Lu alone, and not in a collaborative situation. In the intervention phases, the MCCOP was activated to divide the computer screen into two parts corresponding to the left and right hand sides of the screen, respectively. The eight targets were divided into two parts such that one student was responsible for four targets on the left side (T5–T8) and the other student was tasked with the other four targets on right side (T1–T4). Without the mutual interference between cursors, both groups were able to complete collaborative pointing tasks successfully. The emotion of student Wu of group A was more stable during this phase; he was able to pay attention to the computer screen in order to complete pointing tasks, and complained less. Student Cheng of group B was also able to focus on the screen and concentrated in order to operate the mouse. The results show that both groups exhibited low collaborative pointing performance during the baseline phases I and II, whereas, the number of instances of collaborative pointing increased significantly during intervention phases I and II. The difference between the baseline and the intervention was significant (p < 0.01) based on the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test (Siegel & Castellan, 1988). 3. Discussion Individuals with ASD often encounter difficulties with daily social interactions and building good relationships with others (Lord & Bishop, 2010). Much emphasis is placed on cooperative relationships between individuals nowadays. If
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individuals with ASD can effectively increase their level of experience in working with others, doing so should enable them to improve the quality of their interpersonal relationships and better integrate themselves with society. This study provided students with ASD the chance to cooperate with their peers to complete computer mouse collaborative pointing operations through the MCCOP software. The MCCOP was compatible with existing programs and allowed multiple cursors to be controlled at the same time, meaning multiple users could operate one computer simultaneously. In addition, the MCCOP created a cooperative environment for individuals to work/play with other people. Moreover, individuals with ASD had chance to interact with others through performing collaborative pointing operation. For example, student Cheng would use simple words (e.g., hurry!, play!) to ask Lu to continue operating the mouse whenever Lu stopped. The experimental results show that during the baseline phases, the collaborative pointing performance for both groups was not good due to interference occurring. With the intervention of the MCCOP, both groups rapidly increased the mean number of instances of collaborative pointing during the intervention phases. It emerged that the MCCOP made it feasible for participants to perform collaborative pointing through the application of CPTS. Expanding the numbers of participants in each group could be considered in further studies to evaluate the effectiveness of the MCCOP intervention demonstrated in this experiment. In addition, further studies could extend the application of MCCOP to other existing computer games or self-developed software to expand the usage of MCCOP. Furthermore, this study only focused on the collaborative pointing performance of participants, and interaction among participants was not addressed here. 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