Attachment style, social skills, and Facebook use amongst adults

Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) 1142–1149

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Attachment style, social skills, and Facebook use amongst adults Julian A. Oldmeadow ⇑, Sally Quinn, Rachel Kowert Department of Psychology, University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, UK

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Available online 13 November 2012 Keywords: Attachment Social skills Social network Online Facebook

a b s t r a c t Research suggests that online communication may benefit those high in social anxiety. The current study examined Facebook use from the perspective of adult attachment theory, exploring relationships between attachment anxiety and avoidance and Facebook use. Social skills have been found to be related to attachment style and internet use thus we also examined the role of these skills. A diverse sample of adult participants (N = 617; 50.1% female) completed a self report questionnaire measuring attachment dimensions, social skills, and Facebook use and experience. In line with predictions grounded in attachment theory, we found that individuals with high attachment anxiety used Facebook more frequently, were more likely to use it when feeling negative emotions and were more concerned about how others perceived them on Facebook. High attachment avoidance was related to less Facebook use, less openness and less positive attitudes towards Facebook. These relationships remained when social skills were controlled. These results suggest that Facebook may serve attachment functions and provide a basis for understanding how online communication may be related to attachment styles. Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction With the growth in popularity of social networking sites (SNSs) such as Facebook, Myspace and Twitter, new forms of social interaction have emerged that differ in important ways from the offline interactions more typically studied by social psychologists. Over a decade ago McKenna and Bargh (2000) highlighted four characteristics that differentiate online from offline social interactions: increased anonymity, reduced importance of physical appearance, reduced barriers due to geographical distance, and greater control over the time and pace of interactions. These characteristics, McKenna and Bargh speculated, could make online social interactions particularly appealing to certain types of people, such as those suffering from social anxieties that handicap them in offline interactions. In the past few years considerable research has investigated the psychological characteristics of internet users, particularly SNS users, with a focus on the personality correlates and psychological outcomes of internet use (Nadkarni & Hofmann, 2012). Confirming McKenna and Bargh’s suspicions, there is growing evidence that social anxiety may play an important role in the use of SNSs (Buote, Wood, & Pratt, 2009; Caplan, 2007). In the current study, we explored the use of Facebook from the perspective of adult attachment theory, examining whether there exist relationships between attachment style and Facebook use. A number of characteristic features of Facebook (and other SNSs), including maintaining geographically distant relationships, ⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 1904 433190; fax: +44 1904 433181. E-mail address: [email protected] (J.A. Oldmeadow). 0747-5632/$ - see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2012.10.006

maximizing control over the pace and time of interactions, and enabling perpetual contact with a social network, suggest that Facebook could potentially serve needs for belonging, closeness and security for those with high levels of attachment anxiety and/ or avoidance. To explore this possibility, an online survey was administered to a large and demographically diverse sample of the general adult population, eliciting data on respondents’ attachment styles, social skills, and use and experience with Facebook. These data revealed reliable and theoretically consistent relationships between attachment style and Facebook use that lend support to the hypothesis that the use of Facebook is influenced to some extent by attachment style, particularly attachment anxiety. This, in turn, suggests that Facebook may provide a sense of closeness or belonging that satisfies attachment needs in individuals who are otherwise anxious or avoidant in close personal relationships. 1.1. Psychological correlates of Facebook use Dozens of papers have been published on the social and psychological correlates of Facebook use and attitudes (Nadkarni & Hofmann, 2012). Some demographic correlates have been reported, including gender, ethnicity, and parental education (Hargittai, 2008; Moore & McElroy, 2012), as well as cross cultural differences (Buote et al., 2009; Caplan, 2007). The majority of research, however, has focused on personality correlates of Facebook use (Moore & McElroy, 2012; Ross et al., 2009; Ryan & Xenos, 2011; Vasalou, Joinson, & Courvoisier, 2010). All studies report significant associations between personality traits and aspects of Facebook use, supporting Amichai-Hamburger (2002) claim that personality

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is a major factor in internet use. Although the results across studies are not always consistent, taken together they implicate at least extroversion, shyness and self-esteem. Extroversion associates with more time on Facebook and larger friendship networks, whereas shyness and low self-esteem associate with smaller friendship networks but more intensive Facebook use (Nadkarni & Hofmann, 2012; Orr et al., 2009). These patterns suggest Facebook use may serve different functions for different people, on the one hand satisfying extroverts’ needs for social stimulation and large networks, and on the other hand facilitating social interaction and a sense of belonging amongst shy individuals and those with low self-esteem. Based on a review of the literature, Nadkarni and Hofmann (2012) suggest Facebook use is motivated by two fundamental needs, the need for self-presentation and the need to belong. In support, they cite evidence that a sense of disconnection motivates Facebook use, and that Facebook use may increase a sense of connection and self-esteem (Sheldon, Abad, & Hirsch, 2011; Yu, Tian, Vogel, & Kwok, 2010). Thus, there is converging evidence to suggest that social networking sites like Facebook may offer a form of social connecting that is particularly appealing to certain types of individuals whose needs for belonging and connection with others are not fully realized in offline social interactions. While Facebook may not offer the anonymity and invisibility that characterized the chat rooms and newsgroups to which McKenna and Bargh (2000) referred, it does offer social interaction without physical proximity and enables greater control over the time and pace of interactions. In addition, particularly with the use of mobile devices, individuals can connect to Facebook virtually anytime, anyplace and anywhere, a characteristic we have referred to elsewhere as the ‘Martini Effect’ (Quinn & Oldmeadow, submitted for publication). These characteristics, more so than anonymity or physical appearance, may make online social interactions particularly appealing for individuals who are anxious about personal closeness or physical intimacy, who anticipate rejection from others, and who therefore tend to avoid developing close personal relationships. These kinds of response sets are described and explained by adult attachment theory (Hazan & Shaver, 1987; Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007). 1.2. Adult attachment theory Adult attachment theory stems from Bowlby’s (Bowlby, 1969/ 1982, 1973, 1980) work on children’s attachment to their primary caregiver, extending the principles of child-parent attachment to close personal relationships in adulthood (Hazan & Shaver, 1987; Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007). Infants’ and children’s experiences with attachment figures shape their working models about themselves, others and relationships, which influence cognitive, emotional, and behavioral response patterns in attachment-relevant contexts. These working models are characterized along two dimensions, referred to as attachment anxiety and avoidance (Brennan, Clark, & Shaver, 1998; Collins & Allard, 2004). When needs for comfort and security are consistently satisfied the infant develops a secure bond towards the attachment figure characterized by a positive view of the self as lovable and of others as dependable. However, if needs are not met by the attachment figure a working model develops in which the individual fears and expects rejection from attachment figures. Individuals with this type of model are high in attachment anxiety, defined as an anxious or fearful preoccupation with relationships (Smith, Murphy, & Coats, 1999). If the experience of neglect is repeated consistently enough the individual may develop a working model of others as untrustworthy and undependable, and of the self as autonomous and self-sufficient. They may then avoid developing close relationships, which they fear will only lead to disappointment. Individuals with this type of working model are

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high in attachment avoidance, defined as a tendency to dismiss or avoid intimate relationships (Smith et al., 1999). Attachment theory was developed to explain children’s attachment to primary care givers, but it has been successfully adapted to explain adult relationships more generally, and romantic partnerships in particular (Hazan & Shaver, 1987; Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007). The working models developed in the context of primary caregivers during childhood generalize to other kinds of social relationships during adulthood. Individuals high in attachment anxiety have a hyper activated attachment system. They expect and fear rejection from others, so are particularly vigilant in detecting cues to untrustworthiness or rejection, and particularly sensitive to criticism and conflict. They may be particularly concerned with managing their self-presentation, engage in behaviors designed to reinforce relationships (e.g. gift giving), and seek regular confirmation of close others’ responsiveness. Individuals high in attachment avoidance have a deactivated attachment system. They down-regulate their needs for closeness and reinforcement from others and avoid situations that activate the attachment system. They tend to avoid developing intimate relationships and are more likely to be socially isolated. The patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving that characterize attachment anxiety and avoidance suggest, firstly, that online social interactions may be particularly attractive to individuals with attachment insecurities and, secondly, that individuals high in attachment anxiety and avoidance may use SNSs such as Facebook in different ways. 1.3. Attachment style and Facebook use In the domain of interpersonal relationships Facebook may offer advantages over offline interactions for individuals high in attachment anxiety and/or avoidance. For example, having the ability to carefully manage self-presentation could be a particularly attractive feature of Facebook for individuals high in attachment anxiety, who desire closeness but anticipate and fear rejection. By managing how they present themselves to others, through text, pictures, links, etc., such individuals may feel more confident in their ability to maintain interpersonal relationships. Similarly, the ability to control the time and pace of interactions and to maintain relationships without physical proximity could appeal to individuals high in attachment avoidance, who tend to avoid closeness and value their autonomy. Thus, online social interactions, and Facebook in particular, may contain a number of features that facilitate the development and maintenance of interpersonal relationships for individuals high in attachment anxiety and/or avoidance. Previous research has alluded to this possibility, as individuals with an anxious or avoidant attachment report approaching and responding to online and offline friendships differently (Buote et al., 2009). Another way in which Facebook may appeal to individuals with attachment issues is by providing a sense of belonging to a social network. Research shows that social network site use can increase a sense of belonging amongst both adults (Sheldon et al., 2011) and children (Quinn & Oldmeadow, in press). Facebook provides a means of staying in touch with what others are doing, observing relationships between others, and maintaining one’s own presence within the network (through wall posts, messages, pokes, etc.). This may appeal to those whose attachment issues extend to social relationships more generally, such as social groups. Very little research has been done on attachment to social groups. However, Smith et al. (1999) reasoned that individuals develop working models of themselves in relation to groups that parallel those underlying interpersonal attachment styles. They developed a measure of group attachment by adapting an existing measure of interpersonal attachment, and found moderate correlations between interpersonal and group attachment anxiety and avoidance. These findings suggest that attachment styles are not restricted to

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interpersonal relationships, but extend to relationships to groups as well. A third way that attachment styles could influence Facebook use is indirectly through social skills. Attachment styles have been shown to influence a number of social skills, including the ability to express emotions, empathy, the use of and understanding of body language, and the ability to control one’s social behavior (DiTommaso, Brannen-McNulty, Ross, & Burgess, 2003). Although to our knowledge there is no research linking social skills with social network site use in particular, a number of studies show associations between social skills and excessive internet use (Caplan, 2005; Engelberg & Sjoberg, 2004; Iacovelli & Valenti, 2009; Liu & Peng, 2009). If attachment style influences social skills, and individuals with certain social skills are attracted to various forms of online interaction, it is possible that attachment may influence Facebook use indirectly through social skills. If so, then Facebook use may not specifically cater to attachment needs and any relationships between attachment style and Facebook use may generalize to other forms of internet use. 1.4. The current study In this study we examined relationships between attachment styles, social skills and use and experience of Facebook. Based on the view that Facebook provides a sense of closeness or belonging that is attractive to individuals who are otherwise anxious in or avoidant of close personal relationships, we hypothesized that there would be direct relationships between attachment style, measured as levels of attachment anxiety and avoidance, and the use and experience of Facebook. Specifically, we hypothesized that (1) attachment anxiety would associate positively with intensity of Facebook use, (2) that individuals high in attachment anxiety would tend to use Facebook more when feeling negative emotions, and also, (3) would express stronger concerns over how they might be viewed by others on Facebook. Since individuals high in attachment avoidance view themselves as autonomous and self-sufficient, it is possible that Facebook does not serve attachment functions in the same way as for individuals high in attachment anxiety. Therefore we hypothesized that, (4) attachment avoidance would be uncorrelated with the intensity of Facebook use. Finally, we expected that (5) social skills would associate with Facebook use and experience, but that their impact would be largely independent of the relationships between attachment style and Facebook use and experience. 2. Method 2.1. Participants Participants were recruited in several ways. Some were recruited from within the psychology student population and received course credit for their participation. Others were recruited through posts on the authors’ social networking sites and received no compensation. The remainder were recruited through Amazon’s Mechanical Turk, a crowd sourcing website, where respondents were paid $0.50 USD for taking the survey. A total of 742 complete responses were received. One hundred twenty five participants who indicated they do not use Facebook were excluded from analyses, leaving 617 participants (50.1% female). Age ranged from 18 to 64 years, with a mean of 27.63 (SD = 8.42). Sixty one percent of the sample identified as Caucasian, 16.1 percent as Asian, 4.9 percent Hispanic, 3.9 percent Indian/South Asian, 3.7 percent Black, and 5.9 percent as ‘Other’. Almost half (46.3%) were employed or selfemployed, and 39.7% were students (28.4% undergraduate; 10.9% postgraduate). 6.5% of the total sample were psychology students.

2.2. Measures 2.2.1. Experiences in Close Relationships Scale (ECR; Brennan et al., 1998) The ECR is a 36-item scale that measures the two major dimensions of attachment (anxiety and avoidance) in the context of close adult relationships. An example item measuring attachment anxiety is ‘‘I need a lot of reassurance that close relationship partners really care about me.’’ An example of an item measuring attachment avoidance is ‘‘I get uncomfortable when someone wants to be very close to me.’’ Across hundreds of studies the scale has shown excellent reliability and validity, and is the scale of choice amongst leading adult attachment researchers (see Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007). The main reason we chose this scale for the current study is that it yields two separate dimension scores for each participant, rather than assigning them to an attachment style category (cf. Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991). It is therefore an appropriate measure for assessing linear relationships between attachment dimensions, social skills, and Facebook use. In the current study Cronbach’s alphas for the anxiety and avoidance subscales were .84 and .91 respectively, and the correlation between the two was .246 (p < .001). 2.2.2. Social Skills Inventory (SSI; Riggio, 1986) The standard SSI uses 90 items to measure six subcomponents of social skills, three each in emotional and social domains: Emotional Expressivity (EE), Emotional Sensitivity (ES), Emotional Control (EC), Social Expressivity (SE), Social Sensitivity (SS), and Social Control (SC). The emotional and social components assess non-verbal and verbal dimensions of social ability respectively. The expressivity subscales focus on one’s ability to communicate, both verbally (SE) and non-verbally (EE); the sensitivity subscales assess ones ability to interpret verbal (SS) and non-verbal (SE) communication; and the control subscales measure the ability to control and regulate non-verbal (EC) and verbal (SC) displays (Riggio, 1989). Because of the length of the SSI and the overall size of the online questionnaire used in this study, we created an abridged version of the SSI by choosing four items to measure each of the six subscales (i.e. 24 items in total; see Appendix A). These items were selected by identifying the four highest loading items from a previous study in which we administered the full SSI to over 600 participants. Within the current sample a principle components factor analysis with oblique rotation carried out on these 24 items returned six factors with eigenvalues above 1, with the intended four items loading separately on each factor. Cronbach’s alphas for the subscales were all above .8, except for emotional expressivity (alpha = .53). Correlations between subscales ranged from .007 to .482. Thus, the four items used for each subcomponent appeared to capture distinct and largely reliable aspects of social skills, indicating they constituted an adequate measure of the intended constructs. Factor scores were computed for each subscale for use in subsequent analyses. 2.2.3. Facebook usage and experience A range of questions were asked about participants’ usage and experience with Facebook. These questions were devised by the authors, drawing on previous research (Farahani, Aghamohamadi, Kazemi, Bakhtiarvand, & Ansari, 2011; Hughes, Rowe, Batey, & Lee, 2012; Moore & McElroy, 2012; Orr et al., 2009). Questions focusing on Facebook usage included: ‘‘How often do you use Facebook?’’ (1 = Less than once a month; 7 = daily); ‘‘Think about the last day you logged onto Facebook. In total, how long did you spend logged onto Facebook?’’ (1 = about 15 min or less; 7 = 3 h or more); ‘‘How often do you post updates on Facebook?’’ (1 = Never; 7 = 4–5 times a week); ‘‘How often do you change your Facebook profile picture?’’ (1 = Never; 7 = Daily); and ‘‘Who do you

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normally include as ‘friends’ on your Facebook profile?’’ (1 = Pretty much anybody; 7 = Close personal friends or family only). An additional 18 items probed a variety of dimensions of participants’ experience with Facebook, including their dependence on Facebook (e.g. ‘‘I get anxious if I cannot check Facebook for a while’’), which emotions motivate them to use Facebook (e.g. ‘‘I find myself wanting to check Facebook particularly when I feel (lonely, stressed, bored, sad, anxious, happy)’’), concern over social evaluation through Facebook (e.g. ‘‘I worry about the impression people might get of me through Facebook’’), pride in Facebook (‘‘I am proud of my Facebook profile’’), and indifference (e.g. ‘‘If I don’t check Facebook for a while I tend to forget about it’’). Responses were given on 7-point scales (1 = Strongly disagree; 7 = Strongly agree). 2.3. Procedure Participants completed an online survey that included the above measures as well as an additional section on video game play. The latter is not relevant to the current study so will not be discussed further. The order in which the various sections of the survey (ECR, SSI, Facebook usage and experience) were presented was randomized across participants. 3. Results Several studies have reported gender differences in attachment styles and social skills (Deniz, Hamarta, & Ari, 2005; DiTommaso et al., 2003). In the current study independent t-tests revealed gender differences in avoidant attachment (p < .001), and on four of the six subcomponents of social skills (ES, EC, EE and SC, ps < .05). To control for these effects, gender was held as a covariate in our analyses of relationships between attachment, social skills and Facebook usage and experience (see DiTommaso et al. for a similar approach). Consequently, hypotheses 1 through 4 were tested using partial correlations (controlling for gender), and hypothesis 5 was tested using a hierarchical regression (also controlling for gender). 3.1. Attachment style and social skills Table 1 shows the associations (partial correlations controlling for gender) between anxious and avoidant attachment scores and each subcomponent of social skills. Attachment anxiety was negatively associated with SE, SC and EE. However, anxiety was most strongly associated with ES and EC. Those high in attachment anxiety were more likely to be sensitive to criticism (ES) and more able to control or hide their emotions (EC). Attachment avoidance was also negatively associated with SE, SC and EE. Those high in attachment avoidance reported being less likely to enjoy socializing and meeting new people (SE), less likely to take a leading role in groups (SC), and less likely to show their emotions (EE).

Table 1 Partial correlations (controlling for gender) between attachment style and social skills. Social skill Social expressivity Social sensitivity Social control Emotional expressivity Emotional sensitivity Emotional control ** *

p < .001. p < .05.

Anxiety 0.119* 0.443** 0.096* 0.209** 0.002 0.338**

Avoidance 0.385** 0.061 0.241** 0.484** 0.045 0.008

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3.2. Attachment, social skills, and Facebook usage and experience The items relating to Facebook usage (e.g. ‘‘How often do you use Facebook?’’, ‘‘How often do you post updates on Facebook?’’) were summed to give a single measure of Facebook usage (alpha = .621). The 18 items relating to Facebook experience were factor analyzed to extract the principle components. Principle components factor analysis with oblique rotation was used. Five factors emerged with eigenvalues greater than 1, explaining 65.3 percent of the variance (see Appendix B). Items loading highly on the first factor included those related to using Facebook particularly when feeling negative emotions (lonely, stressed, sad, anxious). We called this factor ‘‘FB comfort seeking’’. Items loading on the second factor included being happy for others (employer, parents) to view one’s profile. We called this factor ‘‘FB openness’’. The third factor included items relating to concern about how one is perceived by others on Facebook (e.g. ‘‘I am concerned about how I appear to others on Facebook’’). We called this factor ‘‘FB evaluation concern’’. The fourth factor included items relating to detachment from Facebook, such as ‘‘I think about removing my Facebook profile’’, and ‘‘If I don’t check Facebook for a while I tend to forget about it’’. We reverse-scored this factor and called it ‘‘FB attachment’’. The final factor included items expressing a generally positive orientation towards Facebook, such as ‘‘I like my Facebook profile’’ and ‘‘I find myself wanting to check Facebook particularly when I feel happy’’. We called this factor ‘‘FB positivity’’. Factor scores were computed for each of these five factors. Relationships between Facebook usage/experience and attachment and social skills are given in Table 2. In terms of usage, a positive association was found with attachment anxiety, with higher attachment anxiety associating with more intensive use of Facebook. Usage also associated positively with three of the six social skills (SS, SE and SC). Participants higher in social sensitivity, social expressivity and social control tended to use Facebook more intensively than those lower in these social skills. Significant associations were found between attachment style and each aspect of Facebook experience. Notably, attachment anxiety was strongly associated with FB comfort seeking, that is, using Facebook particularly when feeling negative emotions. Attachment anxiety was also associated with FB evaluation concern, that is, worrying about how one appears to others on Facebook. Both comfort seeking and evaluation concern also were associated with attachment avoidance, but less so than attachment anxiety. Attachment avoidance was negatively associated with FB attachment, FB openness and FB positivity. That is, participants high in attachment avoidance were more likely to think about removing their Facebook profile, less happy for significant others to view their profile, and less likely to be happy with and like their Facebook profile. There were numerous significant associations between aspects of Facebook experience and social skills (see Table 2). There was a strong association between social sensitivity (e.g. ‘‘I am often concerned with what others are thinking of me’’) and FB evaluation concern (e.g. ‘‘I am concerned about how I appear to others on Facebook’’). Social sensitivity also was associated with comfort seeking (i.e. using Facebook when feeling negative emotions) and attachment to Facebook. These relationships also held (though weaker) with emotional control (e.g. ‘‘I am very good at maintaining a calm exterior even if I am upset). Thus, those high in social sensitivity and/or emotional control were more concerned with how they appear to others on Facebook, and tended to use Facebook particularly when feeling sad, lonely, stressed or anxious. In contrast, emotional expressivity (e.g. ‘‘I rarely show my feelings 1 Cronbach’s alpha is likely to underestimate the reliability of ordinal scales (Zumbo, Gadermann, & Zeisser, 2007). Given this, and the relatively small number of items (5), we considered an alpha of .62 to be adequate. Nonparametric correlations between items were all positive, significant (<.05), and ranged from .083 to .447.

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Table 2 Partial correlations (controlling for gender) between components of Facebook usage and experience, and attachment and social skills. Usage

** *

Comfort seeking

Evaluation concern

Attachment

Openness

Positivity

Attachment Anxiety Avoidance

0.149** 0.008

0.401** 0.151**

0.378** 0.156**

0.087 0.083*

0.047 0.193**

0.066 0.141*

Social skills EE ES EC SE SS SC

0.001 0.008 0.107 0.157** 0.104* 0.084*

0.182** 0.019 0.202** 0.027 0.223** 0.0001

0.096* 0.055 0.157** 0.026 0.407** 0.052

0.094* 0.056 0.073 0.118* 0.136* 0.028

0.076 0.048 0.004 0.123* 0.059 0.169**

0.062 0.088* 0.032 0.128* 0.038 0.113*

p < .001. p < .05.

Table 3 R2 and standardized beta weights for individual predictors at steps 2 and 3 in the model. Effects of gender were partialled out in step 1 and are not reported here.

Step 2 Step 3

Anxiety Avoidance Anxiety Avoidance EE ES EC SE SS SC

R2 change Total R2 ** *

Usage

Comfort seeking

Evaluation concern

Attachment

Openness

Positivity

.151** 0.044 .142* 0.046 0.024 0.048 -0.04 .179** 0.009 0.032 .034* .061**

.387** 0.06 .343** 0.068 .097* -0.07 -0.063 .094* 0.037 0.031 .025* .194**

.369** 0.066 .225** .175** 0.039 .114* 0.016 0.034 .334⁄⁄⁄ .111* .103** .262**

.107* .111* 0.065 0.013 0.09 0.073 0.014 0.119* 0.103* 0.022 .029* .050**

0.009 .186** 0.030 0.154* 0.011 0.008 0.012 0.010 0.062 .131* 0.019 .054**

0.085 .165** .108* .122* 0.024 0.069 0.000 0.060 0.035 0.050 0.014 .045*

p < .001. p < .05.

or emotions’’ [reversed]) was negatively associated with both comfort seeking and evaluation concern. Those high in emotional expressivity were less likely to use Facebook when feeling negative emotions and less concerned with how they appear to others on Facebook. There were further associations between social skills and openness, positivity, and attachment to Facebook. In particular, those high in social expressivity (e.g. ‘‘I love to socialize’’) were more attached to their Facebook profile and more open and positive about it than those low in social expressivity. Those high in social control (e.g. ‘‘I am often chosen to be the leader of a group’’) were also more open and positive about their Facebook profiles than those lower in social control. 3.3. Regression analyses Hierarchical regression analyses assessed the contributions of attachment dimensions and social skills to explaining each aspect of Facebook usage and experience. In each model gender (dummy coded) was entered first to partial out gender effects. In the second step, attachment anxiety and avoidance were entered. The six social skills subscales were entered in step 3. The total amount of variance explained in the final model and beta weights of each individual predictor are shown in Table 3. In each case the attachment dimensions explained a significant proportion of variance over and above gender (step 2). With the exception of FB openness and FB positivity, adding the social skills subscales in step 3 significantly improved prediction of each outcome. Nevertheless, attachment anxiety remained a significant predictor of FB usage, comfort seeking, evaluation concern and positivity independent of social skills (step 3). Attachment avoidance remained a significant predictor of evaluation concern, openness and positivity independent of social skills.

4. Discussion The aim of the present study was to explore any links between attachment style and Facebook use and experience. In line with our first three hypotheses, we found that individuals with a high attachment anxiety were more likely to spend more time on the site, to use it when they were feeling negative emotions and to show concern over how other Facebook users perceived them. We also found no relationship between the avoidant attachment style and Facebook usage, supporting our fourth hypothesis. Although social skills were found to have some relationship with Facebook use and experience, they were found to have little effect on the relationships between the two attachment styles and Facebook use and experience, supporting our final hypothesis. This suggests that the way people experience and use Facebook may have a direct relationship with their style of attachment. Securely attached individuals have been found to be high in social and emotional expressivity, high in social control, and low in social sensitivity (Deniz et al., 2005; Dereli & Karakus, 2011). In the current study social expressivity and social control both were associated with more openness and positivity towards Facebook. In addition, while those high in social expressivity and social control tended to use Facebook more than those low in social expressivity and social control, there were no associations between these traits and comfort seeking or evaluation concern. This pattern gives rise to an image of a securely attached individual, outgoing, sociable and expressive, who uses Facebook in a positive way. They are happy for important others to view their Facebook profile, they are proud of their Facebook profile and enjoy using Facebook when feeling happy. Since Nadkarni and Hofmann (2012) suggest that Facebook may help to increase a sense of connection to others, our data suggest that securely attached individuals may use Facebook as a tool to augment existing relationships in the offline world.

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Individuals high in attachment anxiety are typically characterized by anxiousness about being alone, being sensitive to criticism received from others and having a need for reassurance (Brennan et al., 1998). In the present study, we found that attachment anxiety was positively related to Facebook usage, comfort seeking and to evaluation concern. This would suggest that Facebook is being used more frequently by those with an anxious attachment style as a way to alleviate their feeling of being alone. In addition, their motivation for logging on and using Facebook may be motivated by their mood – that is, they may seek to improve their negative mood by interacting with others. Social networking sites can offer users instant access to social interaction with a myriad of people (Urista, Dong, & Day, 2009) and it is perhaps this feature that is particularly attractive to users high in attachment anxiety. This instant access offers them interaction with others that may be needed, particularly when their mood is negative. In a qualitative study, Urista et al. (2009) found that receiving comments on a photograph, for example, can result in the user feeling as though they are popular. An anxious Facebook user may log onto their profile when they are in a negative mood to check if any of their ‘friends’ have commented on their content, which may improve their mood by making them feel popular to some degree. What remains to be seen however is whether or not this Facebook usage results in a changed mood and if so, to what degree. It has been suggested elsewhere that the link between user experience and benefits gained from Facebook usage may relate to the characteristics of the user and how they use the site (DiTommaso et al., 2003). Future studies should consider examining the relationships between Facebook use and mood change taking into account each attachment style. Since those high in attachment anxiety are sensitive to criticism and also require frequent reassurance, it could be hypothesized that for those high in attachment anxiety, Facebook interactions would only improve mood if the interactions are constantly positive and continually boost self esteem. We found that Facebook users who were high in attachment anxiety were also more likely to be concerned about how other Facebook users perceive them. Since those high in attachment anxiety are sensitive to criticism, social interactions via Facebook may be particularly attractive to these individuals. The online environment can provide users with greater control over interactions (McKenna & Bargh, 2000) and Facebook may therefore allow these individuals to have greater control over their self-presentation. For example, they can take their time over what to post on their status update, what photos to put on their own profile and how to comment on others’ photos and posts. This may also go some way in explaining why we found that high attachment anxiety was related to higher usage of Facebook. For example, upon posting a photograph, the anxious attachment Facebook user may log on regularly to check if anyone has commented on their photo - being concerned about how others may have perceived them in this photograph. In addition, they may spend more time on the site perfecting their Facebook self-portrayal, in an attempt to ensure that others would view them in a positive light. The present study also provided evidence that regardless of social skills, individuals high in attachment avoidance used Facebook less often, were less likely to be open about their Facebook profile and less likely to hold a positive attitude about Facebook. These findings would seem to fit with the characteristics associated with this type of attachment – that is, someone who is autonomous, reluctant to share emotions and sees others as untrustworthy. However, we also found a significant positive relationship between high attachment avoidance and evaluation concern. This would suggest that although those high in attachment avoidance are typically autonomous, they do have some level of concern over how others view them, at least on Facebook. Since we found no relationship between this style of attachment and social sensitivity, it sug-

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gests that for the present sample those high in attachment avoidance generally do not have concerns over how others perceive them. There may therefore be some unique features of Facebook that, for those high in attachment avoidance, result in being concerned about what others think of them. It must, however, be considered that our study focused only on Facebook users, who may on the whole be relatively low in attachment avoidance. The characteristics typically associated with high attachment avoidance may therefore be slightly weakened within the present sample. This might go some way in explaining why there seems to be a relationship between attachment avoidance and evaluation concern. We included measures of social skills because previous research shows relationships between social skills and attachment style (Deniz et al., 2005; Dereli & Karakus, 2011; DiTommaso et al., 2003) and between social skills and internet use (Caplan, 2005; Engelberg & Sjoberg, 2004; Harman, Hansen, Cochran, & Lindsey, 2005). We therefore wanted to examine whether attachment style would predict Facebook use over and above social skills. Indeed, there were significant relationships between social skills and attachment style, and between social skills and aspects of Facebook use and experience. Social expressivity was positively related to Facebook usage, indicating those who are more outgoing tend to use Facebook more intensively, and there was a strong association between emotional sensitivity and FB evaluation concern. Those who tend to be emotionally sensitive generally tend also to be concerned with how others view them on Facebook. Importantly, though, these associations between social skills and Facebook use did not account for the relationships between attachment style and Facebook use. The relationships of attachment anxiety and avoidance to Facebook use and experience were largely unaffected by the inclusion of social skills in the regression models. This suggests that attachment style influences Facebook use and experience largely independently of social skills, and supports the view that Facebook may serve attachment functions. Social networking sites such as Facebook can be many things to many people. The current study provides initial evidence that Facebook may serve attachment functions for people high in attachment anxiety, and to some extent avoidance. Although the relationships observed between attachment and Facebook use and experience were largely independent of social skills, this does not rule out a role for other individual difference variables. Further research should aim to partial out the effects of attachment style from other variables such as loneliness, extroversion, and more general social anxiety to further clarify the unique role that attachment plays in SNS use. The advantage of an attachment theory approach to SNS use is that it offers a more theoretically grounded framework for understanding how and why people use SNSs than simply identifying associations between personality or other traits and SNS use. An attachment theory approach invites one to ask which components of the attachment behavioral system are implicated in SNS use, and what kinds of SNS use serve attachment functions. As already suggested, further research could examine whether using SNSs actually leads to positive outcomes like improved mood for individuals with different attachment styles. Another avenue would be to examine more closely the effects of activating the attachment system on SNS use. Our data show that individuals high in attachment anxiety reported being motivated to use Facebook particularly when feeling negative emotions such as loneliness. However, a more experimental approach that seeks to activate the attachment system and observe subsequent SNS activity would help to clarify whether SNS use is motivated by attachment needs and not just negative mood per se. A word of caution is warranted when generalizing from Facebook use to other SNSs. Facebook is currently the most popular SNS (Kazeniac, 2009) and 83 percent of our survey respondents

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indicated they use Facebook. However, there are other SNSs and we cannot be sure that the relationships we observed generalize to other sites. In theory these relationships should generalize to other sites that also offer the features of enhanced control, self-presentation and perpetual contact that we theorize make Facebook attractive to individuals with high attachment anxiety. However, they may not generalize to other sites that serve more professional than purely social functions, such as Linkedin or Academia. Further research would be needed to precisely define which types of internet sites and/or usage are related to attachment styles.

5. Conclusion To conclude, the current study provides evidence of theoretically consistent relationships between dimensions of adult attachment and Facebook use and experience that are largely independent of social skills. These findings support the view that Facebook (and possibly other SNSs) can serve attachment functions and may be particularly attractive for individuals high in attachment anxiety. Further research should investigate which attachment functions SNS use serves, or which parts of the attachment behavioral system SNS use responds to. The current study provides a promising first step towards understanding SNS use from the theoretically rich perspective of adult attachment theory. Appendix A Abridged Social Skills Inventory listing the items used to assess each component of social skills. Responses were given on 5-point scales ranging from 1 (not at all like me) to 5 (exactly like me). Emotional Expressivity (EE):  I usually feel uncomfortable touching other people ().  Sometimes I have trouble making my friends and family realize how angry or upset I am with them ().  I often touch my friends when talking to them.  I rarely show my feelings or emotions ().

 I always seem to know what peoples’ true feelings are no matter how hard they try to conceal them.  I can accurately tell what a persons character is upon first meeting him or her.  I can instantly spot a ‘‘phony’’ the minute I meet him or her. Emotional Control (EC):    

I am not very skilled in controlling my emotions (⁄). It is very hard for me to control my emotions (⁄). I am very good at maintaining a calm exterior even if I am upset. I am rarely able to hide a strong emotion (⁄). Social Expressivity (SE):

   

I love to socialize. I always mingle at parties. At parties I enjoy talking to a lot of different people. I enjoy going to large parties and meeting new people. Social Sensitivity (SS):

 I am very sensitive of criticism.  It is very important that other people like me.  I am generally concerned about the impression I am making on others.  I am often concerned what others are thinking of me. Social Control (SC):  When I am with a group of friends I am often the spokesperson for the group.  I find it very difficult to speak in front of a large group of people (⁄).  I am usually very good at leading group discussions.  I am often chosen to be the leader of a group. () Represents a reverse scored item. Appendix B

Emotional Sensitivity (ES):  I can easily tell what a person’s character is by watching his or her interactions with others.

Structure matrix for the principle components factor analysis on Facebook experience items. The highest loading items in each factor are in bold.

Items I get anxious if I cannot check Facebook for a while If I don’t check Facebook for a while I tend to forget about it The longer I am unable to check Facebook the more I want to check it I find myself wanting to check Facebook particularly when I feel lonely I find myself wanting to check Facebook particularly when I feel stressed I find myself wanting to check Facebook particularly when I feel bored I find myself wanting to check Facebook particularly when I feel sad I find myself wanting to check Facebook particularly when I feel anxious I find myself wanting to check Facebook particularly when I feel happy I think about removing my Facebook profile I worry about what people might say about me on Facebook I worry about the impression people might get of me through Facebook I am concerned about how I appear to others on Facebook How I appear to others on Facebook is important to me I am proud of my Facebook profile I like my Facebook profile I would be happy for a potential employer to view my Facebook profile I would be happy for my parents to view my Facebook profile

Factors 0.564 0.268 0.528 0.757 0.823 0.328 0.828 0.838 0.414 0.147 0.400 0.299 0.310 0.292 0.116 0.076 0.045 0.019

0.001 0.030 0.008 0.128 0.023 0.191 0.022 0.049 0.103 0.266 0.034 0.099 0.005 0.093 0.417 0.428 0.814 0.785

0.410 -0.143 0.402 0.282 0.342 0.085 0.343 0.376 0.213 0.058 0.774 0.895 0.914 0.824 0.233 0.099 0.018 0.017

0.647 0.788 0.722 0.165 0.266 0.073 0.198 0.223 0.293 0.600 0.081 0.076 0.162 0.261 0.277 0.385 0.144 0.068

0.149 0.242 0.188 0.308 0.214 0.628 0.171 0.203 0.482 0.185 0.044 0.049 0.126 0.270 0.738 0.770 0.142 0.187

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