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Attitudes of urban South Africans towards drinking and drunkenness
203
Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 2109881203 - 212 Elsevier Scientific Publishers Ireland Ltd.
Attitudes
of urban South Africans towards drinking and drunkenness Lee Rocha-Silva Human Sciences Research Council Pretoria 0002 (Republic of South Afried (Received November 19th. 1987)
The question of whether South Africans approve of drinking and drunkenness was researched. It seems that although they evaluate both drinking and drunkenness in general negatively, and particularly more negatively than for example Finns and Swedes do, substantial proportions accept drinking and drunkenness in certain situations, especially when these are of a nonwork nature. Key words: alcoholism; attitudes; South Africa
Introduction and Objective
Major perspectives on the development and prevention of alcohol-related problems are what Frankel and Whitehead [l] identify as (a) the distribution-of-consumption model, and (b) the sociocultural model; although researchers and policy makers had traditionally tended to isolate these models, some were beginning to stress the need for integrating them. Frankel and Whitehead [l] also showed that in order to be effective, preventive strategies need to be based on both the distribution-ofconsumption model’s emphasis on the availability of alcohol [2] and the sociocultural focus on the social norms surrounding drinking in a community. Not only should the availability of alcohol be restricted but the demand for alcohol, and specifically the social acceptability of drinking and drunkenness should be lowered. The point is also made [l] that an increase in prescriptions against or disapproval of excessive drinking (such as drunkenness) is particularly associated with a decrease in the aggregate level of alcohol intake in a community, which in turn is associated with a decrease in the level of alcohol-related problems in that community. In the light of the above considerations, and
as a part of a research project on drinking attitudes and practices, the question of whether South Africans approve of drinking was investigated. The and drunkenness positiveness, negativeness or neutrality with which drinking and drunkenness are respectively evaluated by major population groups in the RSA was researched. Attention was also given to the matter of the social acceptibility of drinking and drunkenness in particular situations. With a view to ‘placing’ the Republic of South Africa (RSA) among other countries with regard to the matters researched an attempt was made to accumulate comparative data as far as possible. Therefore, this research was operationalized in basically the same way as certain sections of a Scandinavian study [3] on inter alia attitudes towards drinking and drunkenness in Norway, Sweden, Finland and Iceland. Although this Scandinavian study was conducted in 1979 and the present, study in 1985, it, is, as far as could be ascertained, the only overseas research that investigated basically the same areas as the present research. Some attention was also given to the aggregate level of alcohol intake and specifically to the available per capita measures of the aggregate level of intake in the RSA.
0376-8716/88/$03.50 0 1988 Elsevier Scientific Publishers Ireland Ltd. Printed and Published in Ireland.
204
FtesearchDesign
Sampling The wide scope and the emphasis on trends in the drinking-related attitudes of South Africans, as well as the fact that drinking practices in the RSA differentiate in terms of inter alia the major population groups [4,5], necessitated the design of a cross-section survey for respectively the black, coloured, Indian and white population groups in the RSA: Probability sampling permitted the projection of the sample data to the respective research populations. The sampling and fieldwork were carried out during the second half of 1985 by the Opinion Survey Centre of the Human Sciences Research Council. In consideration of the difficulties and the cost involved in compiling lists of members in each population group, a multistage sampling procedure was used, i.e. the respective population groups were divided into various ‘clusters’ of various sample units and within each cluster a particular proportion of units were randomly selected. Because of the practical difficulties involved in reaching rural areas, as well as the time-consuming nature of conducting fieldwork in such areas, this research was restricted to largely urban areas in the RSA. However, as (a) the majority of the coloured, Indian and white population groups in the RSA (more or less 78%, 92% and 90%, respectively), and (b) a substantial proportion (approx. 400/b) of the blacks in the RSA are urbanized, this research may to some extent be generalized to the RSA as a whole. More specifically, although cities and towns in the RSA as a whole served as a sample frame for the coloured, Indian and white respondents in the present research, black respondents were drawn from residential areas in the Pretoria-Witwatersrand district. This decision was based on practical difficulties in reaching blacks and recruiting black fieldworkers. However, it should be noted that a substantial proportion (approx. 45%) of the blacks in the RSA are resident in the Pretoria-witwatersrand district (Table I).
Table I. Urban blacks (19-64 years) in the PretoriaWitwatersrand area and in the various provinces in the RSA according to the 1980 population census Area
No.
Preto+M- Witwatersrand Pretoria and Wonderboom Johannesburg and Ftandburg Alberton and Benoni Boksburg, Germiston and Kemptonpark Krugersdorp, Oberbolzer. Randfontein, Roodepoort, Westonaria
367 384 1030 283 337 177 292 180 375 924
Total
2 402 948’
Cape Natal Transvaal Orange Free State
312 115 3 489 932 517 804
Total (N)
5296835
976 984
‘45.4% of the urban blacks in all the provinces in the RSA.
Table II shows which areas were included in the black sample, the number of people resident in these areas, and the number of respondents selected in each area. The black sample was reasonably representative in that there was comparatively very little difference between the numbers drawn in terms of
Table II.
Black sample.
Township
Atteridgevillel Mamelodi Sosbanguve Soweto Vosloorus Tembisa KwaThema Botleng Mohlakeng Sebokeng Total
Sample w)
Respondents vv)
246
245
55 704 70 150 72 18 70 150 1495
Response rate (%I 99.6
-
693 69
98.4 98.6
127 70 19 69 158
84.7 97.2 105.6 98.6 105.3
1450
97.0
206 Table III. Province
Coloured Indian and White sample Sample w) Coloureds
Respondents uv) Indians
Whites
Coloureds
Response rate (0~) Indians
Whites
Coloureds
Indians
Whites
Cape Orange Free State Natal Transvaal
1249
65
795
1079
51
572
86.4
76.5
72.0
30 67 164
1214 221
98 188 419
24 62 119
1202 217
73 162 344
80.0 92.5 77.3
_ 99.0 98.2
74.5 86.2 82.0
Total
1600
1500
1500
1284
1470
1151
85.6
98.0
76.7
probability sampling principles, and the number of respondents included in the research sample. Bearing in mind the response rates, and the fact that the respondents were selected in terms of probability sampling principles, the coloured, Indian and white samples in the present research may also be regarded as reasonably representative (Table III). The sampling units in the case of all the South African population groups included in this research were (al economic regions (as defined by the Central Statistical Services for the purpose of population censuses). (bl magisterial districts; (cl the street blocks within which towns/townships/cities in the sampled magisterial districts are divided for the purpose of population censuses. Ten to twenty dwellings were randomly selected from each of the sampled street blocks. Within each of the sampled dwellings a respondent, who fell in the age category 18-64 years, was randomly selected from members of the household in the particular dwelling. Data Collection and Analysis
For the purpose of comparing the RSA with other countries abroad, the measuring instruments in this research (questionnaires1 were basically the same as those used in the related Scandinavian study [3,6] on attitudes towards drinking and drunkenness. The present
research’s questionnaires were filled in by trained fieldworkers during home interviews. The positiveness, negativeness or neutrality with which the respondents evaluated drinking and drunkenness was measured in terms of four differential scales. The responses on each scale were marked on a seven-step graphic scale defined by one of the following pairs: unpleasantness/pleasantness, badness/ goodness, dullness/excitement and worthlessness/worthwhileness. The most positive alternative was scored as 7 and the most negative as 1. The respondents had to indicate in respect of, firstly drinking and, secondly, drunkenness the degree to which they regarded each as unpleasant/pleasant, bad/ good, dull/exciting and worthless/worthwhile. Factor analyses showed that the scales to measure the positiveness, negativeness of neutrality with which respondents evaluated drinking were not independent of one another. The same applied to the scales on drunkenness. It was accordingly decided to follow the Scandinavian example [3,6] and to integrate each set of scales into a summary index, with a score of 16 reflecting neutrality and a score higher or lower than 16 positiveness or negativeness, respectively. With regard to the social acceptability of drinking in various situations, the respondents were asked to indicate how fitting/proper they felt it was for a man/woman in his/her thirties
with no special drinking problem to drink (al a beer (‘European’ or sorghum beer) or two; (bl a glass of wine or two; (cl a tot of spirits or two, in particular situations. The situations focused on were: (il everyday situations such as (a) ordinary weekday dinners at home and (bl meals at work; (ii) leisure situations such as visiting friends and having a holiday over weekends. In line with the Scandinavian study the response alternatives, scores and/or category codes with regard to the social acceptability of drinking in various situations. were as follows:
tions on the social acceptability of drinking and drunkenness in various situations (in accordance with the previously mentioned Scandinavian study) that among all the major population groups in the RSA everyday situations and leisure situations represent distinct dimensions with regard to both drinking and drunkenness. The analyses also showed that among all the population groups sex and, where applicable, type of beverage consumed (especially sorghum beer) contributed to response differences. Findings
Response
Score
Unfitting Not very fitting Reasonably all right Quite all right
These scores were mainly directed at facilitating a factor analysis of the relevant responses. In the light of (al research indications [4] that South Africans’ drinking practices frequently vary in terms of the sex of the drinker and the type of beverage consumed, and (b) theoretical and empirical indications [7] that people’s attitudes influence their behaviour, the questions on the social acceptability of drinking were applied to men and women as well as to the use of beer, wine and spirits. With regard to the social acceptability of drunkenness in various situations, the respondents were asked to indicate how fitting/proper they thought it was for a man or a woman in his/ her thirties with no special drinking problem to drink so much as to become slightly drunk in (a) everyday situations such as weekday dinners at home and meals during working hours, and (b) leisure situations such as visiting friends over a weekend, having a holiday, and celebrating New Year’s Eve. The response alternatives and scores with regard to the questions on the social acceptability of drunkenness were similar to those used in the case of the questions on the social acceptibility of drinking. Factor analyses of the responses to the ques-
Evaluation
of drinking
and drunkenness
South Africans evaluate drinking, and drunkenness in particular, more negatively than major Scandinavian population groups do (Figs. 1 and 21. In terms of a 1979 ranking of per capita level of absolute alcohol intake, the Republic of South Africa has a lower per capita intake than Scandinavian countries, e.g., Finland (Table IV). The fact that South Africans seem to have a lower per capita level of absolute alcohol intake than Finns and that they also evaluate drinking and drunkenness more negatively
MEANS 1817**1615141312lllo9a-
Blacks
Col.
Whi.
Ind.
F'ig. 1. Evaluation of drinking and drunkenness among four population groups in the RSA (means* on composite indrinking; . . . . . , drunkenness. *The higher dices). -, the values the more positively drinking and drunkenness are evaluated. **A score of 16 indicates a neutral attitude (middle position).
207 Table IV. Alcohol consumption per capita in various countries, 1979 (total population1 [S]
MEANS 1817**I%:
1312ll10-
.
Rank
Country
Absolute alcohol (litresl
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
France Spain Luxembourg Portugal F.R.G. Italy Hungary Argentina Belgium Austria Switzerland Caechoslov~a Australia New Zealand Netherlands Denmark Canada G.D.R. U.S.A. Romania Poland Y ugoalavia Ireland Bulgaria United Kingdom Finland Chile USSR Greece Sweden RSA Japan Cyprus Uruguay Norway Iceland
15.4 14.1 13.9 13.0 12.8 12.7 11.5 11.3 11.3 11.1 10.6 10.0 9.8 9.6 9.4 9.1 9.0 9.0 8.7 8.3 8.2 7.8 7.7 7.6 7.4 6.3 6.3 6.2 0.2 5.7 5.6 5.1 4.6 4.5 4.4 4.0
/: .** ....*+.*' ,_*...**-* I Swed.
I Finn.
I Norw.
I Icel.
Fig. 2. Evaluation of drinking and drunkenness among four
Scandinavian population groups (means* on composite indices). -, drinking;. . . . . , drunkenness. *The higher the values the more positively drinking and drunkenness are evaluated. **A source of 16 indicates a neutral attitude.
than this Scandinavian country, conincide with overseas research indications [l] that the aggregate level of alcohol intake in a community fre quently covaries with the degree to which drinking, and particularly drunkenness, are approved of. Further, in terms of Figs. 1 and 2, Icelanders and Norwegians are more positively oriented towards drinking than South Africans, Finns and Swedes; Icelanders are particularly so with regard to drunkenness. This is quite unexpected in view of (al the aforementioned finding that the aggregate level of alcohol intake in a community generally covaries with the degree to which drinking and especially drunkeness are approved of; (bl the fact that in terms of a 1979 ranking of the per capita absolute alcohol consumption, Norwegians and Icelanders seemingly have a quite lower per capita level of intake than South Africans, Finns and Swedes {Table IV). Acceptability of drinking various situations
and drunkenness
in
Substantial proportions of South Africans accepted both drinking and drunkenness when occurring in non-work situations. However by far the majority of the surveyed population groups in the RSA did not accept drinking and especially not drunkenness during meals at work (Table V). For example, the highest single
proportion of the blacks who condoned the use of alcohol during meals at work, was 6.2Ok~The corresponding figures were 11.7% 17.4% and 27.9% for coloureds, Indians and whites, respectively. Further, it seems that South Africans disapproved of drinking during meals at work particularly when applicable to women and to the more potent alcoholic beverage, spirits. Indeed, only 0.5% of the blacks, 3.1W of the coloureds, 1.9% of the Indians and 11.7% of the
Table V. Percentage of respondents approving of drinking and drunkenness’ in selected situations, analysed according to alcoholic beverageb and sex for four population groups in the RSA, for four Scandinavian countries, as well as for Ontario, Scotland, Mexico and Zambiac. Beer
Population group
Sorghum beer
Wine
Spirits
M
F
M
F
M
F
M
F
4.4 11.0 11.0 22.0 4.0 1.0 12.0 3.0 7.0 18.0 5.0 7.0
1.6 9.7 3.1 17.6
4.4 3.3 3.9 4.9
1.4 2.3 1.6 4.3
6.2 11.7 17.4 27.9
4.1 7.1 7.4 24.7
1.8 6.8 9.0 14.9
0.5 3.1 1.9 11.7
4.8 4.2 4.4 2.4 0.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 2.0
2.2 1.9 1.2 1.7
Approval of drinking Blacks (RSA) Coloureds (RSA) Indians (RSA) Whites!RSA) Finland Norway Sweden Iceland
40.9 37.9 42.9 67.9 41.0 36.0 59.0 21.0
18.5 22.0 11.3 61.9
38.8 7.8 15.2 11.6
20.2 4.9 5.6 15.6
45.5 37.3 51.5 76.6
29.2 24.8 26.5 74.6
12.9 19.5 32.2 49.7
3.3 9.1 7.9 45.3
Approval of drunkenness Blacks (RSA) Coioureds fRSA1 Indians fRSA1 Whites (RSA) Finland Norway Sweden Iceland
76.1 66.3 61.2 44.6 7.0 4.0 7.0 3.0
50.6 40.5 29.9 39.4
With food at work of drinking Blacks (RSAl Coloureds (RSA) Indians tRSA1 Whites (RSAl Finland Norway Sweden
Aprowl
Iceland Ontario Scotland Mexico Zambia Agog
of d~~kenness
Blacks (RSAl Coloureds CRSAl Indians (RSAl Whites (RSAl Finland Norway Sweden Iceland Ontario Scotland Mexico Zambia Dnring weekday dinner at borne
209
Table V (continued) Beer
Population group
Sorghum beer
Wine
Spirits
M
F
M
F
M
F
M
F
76.1 62.3 66.2 89.6 80.0 84.0 87.0 83.0 Q6.0* 98.0d 91.0d 76.06
38.8 37.8 23.8 84.2
62.6 16.3 16.4 17.4
30.7 9.9 8.9 17.0
70.3 56.6 68.4 90.0
42.6 32.9 38.0 87.6
27.7 51.4 57.2 81.2
8.2 24.9 16.8 74.4
72.9 49.8 50.8 33.3 64.0 59.0 57.0 73.0 69.Od 66.0d 5O.Od 57.od
38.7 24.8 15.9 27.6
38.0 10.3 9.6 16.7 73.0 81.0 86.0 84.0
17.0 4.1 4.2 8.3
4.9 4.1 4.4 2.4
2.2 1.9 1.2 1.7
72.9 49.8 50.8 33.3
38.7 24.8 15.9 27.4
75.2 56.2 57.6 35.0
43.0 32.2 22.2 29.6
75.2 56.2 37.6 35.0 59.0 57.0 60.0 76.0
43.1 32.2 22.2 29.6
With friends on a weekend Approval
of dtinking Blacks (RSA) Coloureds (RSA) Indians (RSA) Whites (RSA) Finland Norway Sweden Iceland Ontario Scotland Mexico Zambia
Approval
of drunkenness
Blacks (RSA) Coloureds (RSA) Indians (RSA) Whites (RSA) Finland Norway Sweden Iceland Ontario Scotland Mexico Zambia
on holldeye Approval
of drinking
Blacks (RSA) Coloureds (RSA) Indians (RSA) Whites (RSA) Finalnd Norway Sweden Iceland Approval
of drunkenness
Blacks (RSA) Coloureds (RSA) Indians (RSAI Whites (RSA) Finland Norway Sweden Iceland
210 Table V kmtinred)
Population group
On New Year’s Eve Approval of drunkenness Blacks (RSA) Coloureds (RSA) Indians fItSA1 Whites (RSA) Finland Norway Sweden Iceland
Sorghum beer
Beer M
F
76.1 66.3 61.2 44.6 72.0 67.0 66.0 78.0
50.6 40.5 33.1 39.4
M
F
Spirits
Wine M
F
M
F
~~n~ng/drunkenness is ‘reasonably all right/quite all right’ in the case of men and women respectively. bOnly applicable to the questions on the approval of drinking. ‘The Scandinavian data as well as the data for Ontario, Scotland, Mexico and Zambia are only applicable to men and do not differentiate in terms of the alcoholic beverage consumed. dApplicable to drinking (all beverage types) or drunkenness at a party at someone else’s house - males.
whites approved of the drinking of spirits by women during meals at work. The comparative percentages for the use of spirits by men during meals at work were l.ge~, 6.8%, 9.0% and 14.9%. The South Africans were somewhat more lenient in respect of beer and particularly of wine drinking. It also appears that non-whites were somewhat less approving of the use of alcohol during meals at work than the whites, except in respect of drunkeness, in which ease more or less equal proportions of whites and non-whites disapproved (Table Vl. While the majority of South Africans disapprove of drinking and especially of drunkenness during meals at work, Scandinavians (such as Icelanders, Finns, Swedes and Norwegians), as well as those in Ontario (Canada), Scotland and Zambia, responded similarly with regard to drinking and drunkenness during work hours (Table Vl. Further, in line with practices in Scandinavian countries, the south Africans were generally comparatively more ready to integrate drinking with weekday dinners at home than with work (Table Vl. Although a majority of the South Africans, and particularly of the non-
whites, were generally prepared to accept drunkenness at weekday dinners at home, the opposite view prevailed in the case of the mentioned Scandinavians. That a majority of the South Africans, and particularly of non-whites, found drunkenness during weekday dinners at home acceptable is somewhat unexpected in view of the finding that the proportions of non-whites especially who were agreeable to drinking during weekday dinners at home were substantially smaller the who condoned than proportions drunkenness during weekday dinners (Table V). A possible explanation is that the nonwhites in the RSA, and to some extent the whites, responded to the questions on the acceptability of drunkenness during weekday dinners at home in the light of their feelings about the occurrence of drunkenness at gatherings with friends over weekends, during holidays and on New Year’s Eve. It seems that particularly the non-whites in the RSA felt that drunkenness during weekday dinners at home was more acceptable than drunkenness at gatherings with friends over weekends or during holidays, particularly when males are
211
involved. Drunkenness during weekday dinners at home may be seen as less ‘risky’, in harmful effects, than terms of, e.g., drunkenness outside one’s home. South Africans’ responses with regard to the aceep~bility of drunkenness during weekday dinners at home were largely similar to their responses with regard to the acceptability of drunkenness on New Year’s Eve. A substantial proportion approved of drunkenness in these situations. Indeed, it seems that among South Africans drunkenness during weekday dinners is ‘excused’ to the same extent as drunkenness on New Year’s Eve which is usually a festive occasion when inhibitions are easily thrown overboard. It also seems that among the South Africans as well as among the populations of countries such as Finland, Norway, Sweden, Iceland, Scotland, Canada (Ontario), Mexico and Zambia, response patterns with regard to the acceptability of drinking and drunkenness in leisure situations were reasonably similar (Table Vl. In these situations not only drinking but also intoxication were generally readily accepted. For example, by far the majority of the populations in Norway, Sweden, Finland, Iceland, Ontario, Scotland, Mexico and Zambia condone drinking at gatherings with friends over weekends; with regard to drunkenness the proportions were somewhat lower, but still comparatively high, i.e. between 50.0% and ‘73.0%. By far the majority of the whites in the RSA indicated that drinking at a gathering with friends over a weekend was reasonably or quite all right. However the proportion of whites who accepted the situation of a man becoming drunk at gatherings with friends over weekends, totals one third, with a somewhat smaller proportion (27.6%) in respect of women. However, as was noted to some extent with regard to drinking at work, the South Africans’ attitudes with regard to the acceptability of drinking varied in terms of not only the situation in which drinking takes place, but also in terms of the beverage that is imbibed. The consumption of sorghum beer was far more accept-
able to the South African blaeks than to the other population groups in the RSA, whether consumed during dinner at home or with friends over a weekend (Table Vl. This is understandable as sorghum beer is the traditional home brewed alcoholic beverage consumed by South African blacks. South Africans were generally more agreeable to consumption of spirits and wine when on holiday or at gatherings with friends over a weekend, than when having a meal at home. The consumption of spirits and wine seemed to be particularly acceptable during holidays (Table V). Further, the consumption of malt beer generally seemed to be particularly acceptable among the South Africans when consumed at gatherings with friends over weekends (Table Vf. In line with drinking practices throughout the world, drinking and drunkenness generally seemed to be less acceptable among the various South African population groups when women were involved than when men were involved (Table Vl. Conclusion It seems that although South Africans evaluate both drinking and drunkenness in general negatively, substantial proportions accepts both in certain situations, particularly when the situation of concern is of a non-work nature. While, in terms of the most recent comparable data South Africans evaluate drinking and drunkenness more negatively than Finns and Swedes they also have a lower per capita level of alcohol intake than these latter two groups. Although South Africans evaluate drinking and drunkenness more negatively than Icelanders and Norwegians, and are therefore (in terms of the thesis that a comparatively low acceptability of drinking and particularly drunkenness is associated with a low aggregate level of alcohol intake1 supposed to have a lower per capita level of alcohol intake than the latter population groups, the opposite seems to be the case. A reason for this disparity may be the fact that Icelanders and Norwegians are subjected
212
to quite stringent governmental restrictions regarding the accessibility of alcoholic beverages. Overseas research has shown that restrictions on the accessibility of alcohol have a major impact on the lowering of the aggregate level of alcohol intake in a community. Thus, to some extent it seems appropriate that policy makers in the RSA should attempt to restrict the accessibility of alcohol to a greater extent than they have done in the past, with a view to further lowering the aggregate level of alcohol intake and consequently curbing the incidence of alcohol-related problems in this country. Finally, it is important to note that methodological difficulties such as sampling and time differences between the studies that were compared, necessitate some reservation when dealing with the conclusions reached in this paper.
References B.G. Frankel and P.C. Whitehead, Drinking and damage: Theoretical advances and implications for prevention, Rutgers Center of Alcohol Studies, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 1981. B. Rush and L. Gliksman, Adv. Alcohol Subst. Abuse, 5 (4lG9881. K. Mgikeli, Attitudes towards drinking and drunkenness in four Scandinavian countries. Oslo: National Institute for Alcohol Research, 1984, in press. Lee Bocha-Silva, Drinking in the RSA: 1982, Human Sciences Research Council, Pretoria, 1985. C. Van Der Burgh, The drinking patterns of White, Black, Coloured and Indian South Africans. Alcohol in Perspective Conference, Department of Health and Welfare, Pretoria, 1981. K. Milkeli, Scandinavian drinking. Construction of composite indices of drinking attitudes and personal experiences related to drinking, National Institute for Alcohol Research, Oslo, 1981. M. Fishbein (Ed.), Beadings in attitude theory and measurement, John Wiley, New York, 1987. G. Armyr, A. Elmer and U. Herz, Alcohol in the world of the 89s. Habits, attitudes, preventive policies and voluntary efforts, Sober F&lags AB, Stockholm, 1982.
Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 2109881203 - 212 Elsevier Scientific Publishers Ireland Ltd.
Attitudes
of urban South Africans towards drinking and drunkenness Lee Rocha-Silva Human Sciences Research Council Pretoria 0002 (Republic of South Afried (Received November 19th. 1987)
The question of whether South Africans approve of drinking and drunkenness was researched. It seems that although they evaluate both drinking and drunkenness in general negatively, and particularly more negatively than for example Finns and Swedes do, substantial proportions accept drinking and drunkenness in certain situations, especially when these are of a nonwork nature. Key words: alcoholism; attitudes; South Africa
Introduction and Objective
Major perspectives on the development and prevention of alcohol-related problems are what Frankel and Whitehead [l] identify as (a) the distribution-of-consumption model, and (b) the sociocultural model; although researchers and policy makers had traditionally tended to isolate these models, some were beginning to stress the need for integrating them. Frankel and Whitehead [l] also showed that in order to be effective, preventive strategies need to be based on both the distribution-ofconsumption model’s emphasis on the availability of alcohol [2] and the sociocultural focus on the social norms surrounding drinking in a community. Not only should the availability of alcohol be restricted but the demand for alcohol, and specifically the social acceptability of drinking and drunkenness should be lowered. The point is also made [l] that an increase in prescriptions against or disapproval of excessive drinking (such as drunkenness) is particularly associated with a decrease in the aggregate level of alcohol intake in a community, which in turn is associated with a decrease in the level of alcohol-related problems in that community. In the light of the above considerations, and
as a part of a research project on drinking attitudes and practices, the question of whether South Africans approve of drinking was investigated. The and drunkenness positiveness, negativeness or neutrality with which drinking and drunkenness are respectively evaluated by major population groups in the RSA was researched. Attention was also given to the matter of the social acceptibility of drinking and drunkenness in particular situations. With a view to ‘placing’ the Republic of South Africa (RSA) among other countries with regard to the matters researched an attempt was made to accumulate comparative data as far as possible. Therefore, this research was operationalized in basically the same way as certain sections of a Scandinavian study [3] on inter alia attitudes towards drinking and drunkenness in Norway, Sweden, Finland and Iceland. Although this Scandinavian study was conducted in 1979 and the present, study in 1985, it, is, as far as could be ascertained, the only overseas research that investigated basically the same areas as the present research. Some attention was also given to the aggregate level of alcohol intake and specifically to the available per capita measures of the aggregate level of intake in the RSA.
0376-8716/88/$03.50 0 1988 Elsevier Scientific Publishers Ireland Ltd. Printed and Published in Ireland.
204
FtesearchDesign
Sampling The wide scope and the emphasis on trends in the drinking-related attitudes of South Africans, as well as the fact that drinking practices in the RSA differentiate in terms of inter alia the major population groups [4,5], necessitated the design of a cross-section survey for respectively the black, coloured, Indian and white population groups in the RSA: Probability sampling permitted the projection of the sample data to the respective research populations. The sampling and fieldwork were carried out during the second half of 1985 by the Opinion Survey Centre of the Human Sciences Research Council. In consideration of the difficulties and the cost involved in compiling lists of members in each population group, a multistage sampling procedure was used, i.e. the respective population groups were divided into various ‘clusters’ of various sample units and within each cluster a particular proportion of units were randomly selected. Because of the practical difficulties involved in reaching rural areas, as well as the time-consuming nature of conducting fieldwork in such areas, this research was restricted to largely urban areas in the RSA. However, as (a) the majority of the coloured, Indian and white population groups in the RSA (more or less 78%, 92% and 90%, respectively), and (b) a substantial proportion (approx. 400/b) of the blacks in the RSA are urbanized, this research may to some extent be generalized to the RSA as a whole. More specifically, although cities and towns in the RSA as a whole served as a sample frame for the coloured, Indian and white respondents in the present research, black respondents were drawn from residential areas in the Pretoria-Witwatersrand district. This decision was based on practical difficulties in reaching blacks and recruiting black fieldworkers. However, it should be noted that a substantial proportion (approx. 45%) of the blacks in the RSA are resident in the Pretoria-witwatersrand district (Table I).
Table I. Urban blacks (19-64 years) in the PretoriaWitwatersrand area and in the various provinces in the RSA according to the 1980 population census Area
No.
Preto+M- Witwatersrand Pretoria and Wonderboom Johannesburg and Ftandburg Alberton and Benoni Boksburg, Germiston and Kemptonpark Krugersdorp, Oberbolzer. Randfontein, Roodepoort, Westonaria
367 384 1030 283 337 177 292 180 375 924
Total
2 402 948’
Cape Natal Transvaal Orange Free State
312 115 3 489 932 517 804
Total (N)
5296835
976 984
‘45.4% of the urban blacks in all the provinces in the RSA.
Table II shows which areas were included in the black sample, the number of people resident in these areas, and the number of respondents selected in each area. The black sample was reasonably representative in that there was comparatively very little difference between the numbers drawn in terms of
Table II.
Black sample.
Township
Atteridgevillel Mamelodi Sosbanguve Soweto Vosloorus Tembisa KwaThema Botleng Mohlakeng Sebokeng Total
Sample w)
Respondents vv)
246
245
55 704 70 150 72 18 70 150 1495
Response rate (%I 99.6
-
693 69
98.4 98.6
127 70 19 69 158
84.7 97.2 105.6 98.6 105.3
1450
97.0
206 Table III. Province
Coloured Indian and White sample Sample w) Coloureds
Respondents uv) Indians
Whites
Coloureds
Response rate (0~) Indians
Whites
Coloureds
Indians
Whites
Cape Orange Free State Natal Transvaal
1249
65
795
1079
51
572
86.4
76.5
72.0
30 67 164
1214 221
98 188 419
24 62 119
1202 217
73 162 344
80.0 92.5 77.3
_ 99.0 98.2
74.5 86.2 82.0
Total
1600
1500
1500
1284
1470
1151
85.6
98.0
76.7
probability sampling principles, and the number of respondents included in the research sample. Bearing in mind the response rates, and the fact that the respondents were selected in terms of probability sampling principles, the coloured, Indian and white samples in the present research may also be regarded as reasonably representative (Table III). The sampling units in the case of all the South African population groups included in this research were (al economic regions (as defined by the Central Statistical Services for the purpose of population censuses). (bl magisterial districts; (cl the street blocks within which towns/townships/cities in the sampled magisterial districts are divided for the purpose of population censuses. Ten to twenty dwellings were randomly selected from each of the sampled street blocks. Within each of the sampled dwellings a respondent, who fell in the age category 18-64 years, was randomly selected from members of the household in the particular dwelling. Data Collection and Analysis
For the purpose of comparing the RSA with other countries abroad, the measuring instruments in this research (questionnaires1 were basically the same as those used in the related Scandinavian study [3,6] on attitudes towards drinking and drunkenness. The present
research’s questionnaires were filled in by trained fieldworkers during home interviews. The positiveness, negativeness or neutrality with which the respondents evaluated drinking and drunkenness was measured in terms of four differential scales. The responses on each scale were marked on a seven-step graphic scale defined by one of the following pairs: unpleasantness/pleasantness, badness/ goodness, dullness/excitement and worthlessness/worthwhileness. The most positive alternative was scored as 7 and the most negative as 1. The respondents had to indicate in respect of, firstly drinking and, secondly, drunkenness the degree to which they regarded each as unpleasant/pleasant, bad/ good, dull/exciting and worthless/worthwhile. Factor analyses showed that the scales to measure the positiveness, negativeness of neutrality with which respondents evaluated drinking were not independent of one another. The same applied to the scales on drunkenness. It was accordingly decided to follow the Scandinavian example [3,6] and to integrate each set of scales into a summary index, with a score of 16 reflecting neutrality and a score higher or lower than 16 positiveness or negativeness, respectively. With regard to the social acceptability of drinking in various situations, the respondents were asked to indicate how fitting/proper they felt it was for a man/woman in his/her thirties
with no special drinking problem to drink (al a beer (‘European’ or sorghum beer) or two; (bl a glass of wine or two; (cl a tot of spirits or two, in particular situations. The situations focused on were: (il everyday situations such as (a) ordinary weekday dinners at home and (bl meals at work; (ii) leisure situations such as visiting friends and having a holiday over weekends. In line with the Scandinavian study the response alternatives, scores and/or category codes with regard to the social acceptability of drinking in various situations. were as follows:
tions on the social acceptability of drinking and drunkenness in various situations (in accordance with the previously mentioned Scandinavian study) that among all the major population groups in the RSA everyday situations and leisure situations represent distinct dimensions with regard to both drinking and drunkenness. The analyses also showed that among all the population groups sex and, where applicable, type of beverage consumed (especially sorghum beer) contributed to response differences. Findings
Response
Score
Unfitting Not very fitting Reasonably all right Quite all right
These scores were mainly directed at facilitating a factor analysis of the relevant responses. In the light of (al research indications [4] that South Africans’ drinking practices frequently vary in terms of the sex of the drinker and the type of beverage consumed, and (b) theoretical and empirical indications [7] that people’s attitudes influence their behaviour, the questions on the social acceptability of drinking were applied to men and women as well as to the use of beer, wine and spirits. With regard to the social acceptability of drunkenness in various situations, the respondents were asked to indicate how fitting/proper they thought it was for a man or a woman in his/ her thirties with no special drinking problem to drink so much as to become slightly drunk in (a) everyday situations such as weekday dinners at home and meals during working hours, and (b) leisure situations such as visiting friends over a weekend, having a holiday, and celebrating New Year’s Eve. The response alternatives and scores with regard to the questions on the social acceptability of drunkenness were similar to those used in the case of the questions on the social acceptibility of drinking. Factor analyses of the responses to the ques-
Evaluation
of drinking
and drunkenness
South Africans evaluate drinking, and drunkenness in particular, more negatively than major Scandinavian population groups do (Figs. 1 and 21. In terms of a 1979 ranking of per capita level of absolute alcohol intake, the Republic of South Africa has a lower per capita intake than Scandinavian countries, e.g., Finland (Table IV). The fact that South Africans seem to have a lower per capita level of absolute alcohol intake than Finns and that they also evaluate drinking and drunkenness more negatively
MEANS 1817**1615141312lllo9a-
Blacks
Col.
Whi.
Ind.
F'ig. 1. Evaluation of drinking and drunkenness among four population groups in the RSA (means* on composite indrinking; . . . . . , drunkenness. *The higher dices). -, the values the more positively drinking and drunkenness are evaluated. **A score of 16 indicates a neutral attitude (middle position).
207 Table IV. Alcohol consumption per capita in various countries, 1979 (total population1 [S]
MEANS 1817**I%:
1312ll10-
.
Rank
Country
Absolute alcohol (litresl
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
France Spain Luxembourg Portugal F.R.G. Italy Hungary Argentina Belgium Austria Switzerland Caechoslov~a Australia New Zealand Netherlands Denmark Canada G.D.R. U.S.A. Romania Poland Y ugoalavia Ireland Bulgaria United Kingdom Finland Chile USSR Greece Sweden RSA Japan Cyprus Uruguay Norway Iceland
15.4 14.1 13.9 13.0 12.8 12.7 11.5 11.3 11.3 11.1 10.6 10.0 9.8 9.6 9.4 9.1 9.0 9.0 8.7 8.3 8.2 7.8 7.7 7.6 7.4 6.3 6.3 6.2 0.2 5.7 5.6 5.1 4.6 4.5 4.4 4.0
/: .** ....*+.*' ,_*...**-* I Swed.
I Finn.
I Norw.
I Icel.
Fig. 2. Evaluation of drinking and drunkenness among four
Scandinavian population groups (means* on composite indices). -, drinking;. . . . . , drunkenness. *The higher the values the more positively drinking and drunkenness are evaluated. **A source of 16 indicates a neutral attitude.
than this Scandinavian country, conincide with overseas research indications [l] that the aggregate level of alcohol intake in a community fre quently covaries with the degree to which drinking, and particularly drunkenness, are approved of. Further, in terms of Figs. 1 and 2, Icelanders and Norwegians are more positively oriented towards drinking than South Africans, Finns and Swedes; Icelanders are particularly so with regard to drunkenness. This is quite unexpected in view of (al the aforementioned finding that the aggregate level of alcohol intake in a community generally covaries with the degree to which drinking and especially drunkeness are approved of; (bl the fact that in terms of a 1979 ranking of the per capita absolute alcohol consumption, Norwegians and Icelanders seemingly have a quite lower per capita level of intake than South Africans, Finns and Swedes {Table IV). Acceptability of drinking various situations
and drunkenness
in
Substantial proportions of South Africans accepted both drinking and drunkenness when occurring in non-work situations. However by far the majority of the surveyed population groups in the RSA did not accept drinking and especially not drunkenness during meals at work (Table V). For example, the highest single
proportion of the blacks who condoned the use of alcohol during meals at work, was 6.2Ok~The corresponding figures were 11.7% 17.4% and 27.9% for coloureds, Indians and whites, respectively. Further, it seems that South Africans disapproved of drinking during meals at work particularly when applicable to women and to the more potent alcoholic beverage, spirits. Indeed, only 0.5% of the blacks, 3.1W of the coloureds, 1.9% of the Indians and 11.7% of the
Table V. Percentage of respondents approving of drinking and drunkenness’ in selected situations, analysed according to alcoholic beverageb and sex for four population groups in the RSA, for four Scandinavian countries, as well as for Ontario, Scotland, Mexico and Zambiac. Beer
Population group
Sorghum beer
Wine
Spirits
M
F
M
F
M
F
M
F
4.4 11.0 11.0 22.0 4.0 1.0 12.0 3.0 7.0 18.0 5.0 7.0
1.6 9.7 3.1 17.6
4.4 3.3 3.9 4.9
1.4 2.3 1.6 4.3
6.2 11.7 17.4 27.9
4.1 7.1 7.4 24.7
1.8 6.8 9.0 14.9
0.5 3.1 1.9 11.7
4.8 4.2 4.4 2.4 0.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 2.0
2.2 1.9 1.2 1.7
Approval of drinking Blacks (RSA) Coloureds (RSA) Indians (RSA) Whites!RSA) Finland Norway Sweden Iceland
40.9 37.9 42.9 67.9 41.0 36.0 59.0 21.0
18.5 22.0 11.3 61.9
38.8 7.8 15.2 11.6
20.2 4.9 5.6 15.6
45.5 37.3 51.5 76.6
29.2 24.8 26.5 74.6
12.9 19.5 32.2 49.7
3.3 9.1 7.9 45.3
Approval of drunkenness Blacks (RSA) Coioureds fRSA1 Indians fRSA1 Whites (RSA) Finland Norway Sweden Iceland
76.1 66.3 61.2 44.6 7.0 4.0 7.0 3.0
50.6 40.5 29.9 39.4
With food at work of drinking Blacks (RSAl Coloureds (RSA) Indians tRSA1 Whites (RSAl Finland Norway Sweden
Aprowl
Iceland Ontario Scotland Mexico Zambia Agog
of d~~kenness
Blacks (RSAl Coloureds CRSAl Indians (RSAl Whites (RSAl Finland Norway Sweden Iceland Ontario Scotland Mexico Zambia Dnring weekday dinner at borne
209
Table V (continued) Beer
Population group
Sorghum beer
Wine
Spirits
M
F
M
F
M
F
M
F
76.1 62.3 66.2 89.6 80.0 84.0 87.0 83.0 Q6.0* 98.0d 91.0d 76.06
38.8 37.8 23.8 84.2
62.6 16.3 16.4 17.4
30.7 9.9 8.9 17.0
70.3 56.6 68.4 90.0
42.6 32.9 38.0 87.6
27.7 51.4 57.2 81.2
8.2 24.9 16.8 74.4
72.9 49.8 50.8 33.3 64.0 59.0 57.0 73.0 69.Od 66.0d 5O.Od 57.od
38.7 24.8 15.9 27.6
38.0 10.3 9.6 16.7 73.0 81.0 86.0 84.0
17.0 4.1 4.2 8.3
4.9 4.1 4.4 2.4
2.2 1.9 1.2 1.7
72.9 49.8 50.8 33.3
38.7 24.8 15.9 27.4
75.2 56.2 57.6 35.0
43.0 32.2 22.2 29.6
75.2 56.2 37.6 35.0 59.0 57.0 60.0 76.0
43.1 32.2 22.2 29.6
With friends on a weekend Approval
of dtinking Blacks (RSA) Coloureds (RSA) Indians (RSA) Whites (RSA) Finland Norway Sweden Iceland Ontario Scotland Mexico Zambia
Approval
of drunkenness
Blacks (RSA) Coloureds (RSA) Indians (RSA) Whites (RSA) Finland Norway Sweden Iceland Ontario Scotland Mexico Zambia
on holldeye Approval
of drinking
Blacks (RSA) Coloureds (RSA) Indians (RSA) Whites (RSA) Finalnd Norway Sweden Iceland Approval
of drunkenness
Blacks (RSA) Coloureds (RSA) Indians (RSAI Whites (RSA) Finland Norway Sweden Iceland
210 Table V kmtinred)
Population group
On New Year’s Eve Approval of drunkenness Blacks (RSA) Coloureds (RSA) Indians fItSA1 Whites (RSA) Finland Norway Sweden Iceland
Sorghum beer
Beer M
F
76.1 66.3 61.2 44.6 72.0 67.0 66.0 78.0
50.6 40.5 33.1 39.4
M
F
Spirits
Wine M
F
M
F
~~n~ng/drunkenness is ‘reasonably all right/quite all right’ in the case of men and women respectively. bOnly applicable to the questions on the approval of drinking. ‘The Scandinavian data as well as the data for Ontario, Scotland, Mexico and Zambia are only applicable to men and do not differentiate in terms of the alcoholic beverage consumed. dApplicable to drinking (all beverage types) or drunkenness at a party at someone else’s house - males.
whites approved of the drinking of spirits by women during meals at work. The comparative percentages for the use of spirits by men during meals at work were l.ge~, 6.8%, 9.0% and 14.9%. The South Africans were somewhat more lenient in respect of beer and particularly of wine drinking. It also appears that non-whites were somewhat less approving of the use of alcohol during meals at work than the whites, except in respect of drunkeness, in which ease more or less equal proportions of whites and non-whites disapproved (Table Vl. While the majority of South Africans disapprove of drinking and especially of drunkenness during meals at work, Scandinavians (such as Icelanders, Finns, Swedes and Norwegians), as well as those in Ontario (Canada), Scotland and Zambia, responded similarly with regard to drinking and drunkenness during work hours (Table Vl. Further, in line with practices in Scandinavian countries, the south Africans were generally comparatively more ready to integrate drinking with weekday dinners at home than with work (Table Vl. Although a majority of the South Africans, and particularly of the non-
whites, were generally prepared to accept drunkenness at weekday dinners at home, the opposite view prevailed in the case of the mentioned Scandinavians. That a majority of the South Africans, and particularly of non-whites, found drunkenness during weekday dinners at home acceptable is somewhat unexpected in view of the finding that the proportions of non-whites especially who were agreeable to drinking during weekday dinners at home were substantially smaller the who condoned than proportions drunkenness during weekday dinners (Table V). A possible explanation is that the nonwhites in the RSA, and to some extent the whites, responded to the questions on the acceptability of drunkenness during weekday dinners at home in the light of their feelings about the occurrence of drunkenness at gatherings with friends over weekends, during holidays and on New Year’s Eve. It seems that particularly the non-whites in the RSA felt that drunkenness during weekday dinners at home was more acceptable than drunkenness at gatherings with friends over weekends or during holidays, particularly when males are
211
involved. Drunkenness during weekday dinners at home may be seen as less ‘risky’, in harmful effects, than terms of, e.g., drunkenness outside one’s home. South Africans’ responses with regard to the aceep~bility of drunkenness during weekday dinners at home were largely similar to their responses with regard to the acceptability of drunkenness on New Year’s Eve. A substantial proportion approved of drunkenness in these situations. Indeed, it seems that among South Africans drunkenness during weekday dinners is ‘excused’ to the same extent as drunkenness on New Year’s Eve which is usually a festive occasion when inhibitions are easily thrown overboard. It also seems that among the South Africans as well as among the populations of countries such as Finland, Norway, Sweden, Iceland, Scotland, Canada (Ontario), Mexico and Zambia, response patterns with regard to the acceptability of drinking and drunkenness in leisure situations were reasonably similar (Table Vl. In these situations not only drinking but also intoxication were generally readily accepted. For example, by far the majority of the populations in Norway, Sweden, Finland, Iceland, Ontario, Scotland, Mexico and Zambia condone drinking at gatherings with friends over weekends; with regard to drunkenness the proportions were somewhat lower, but still comparatively high, i.e. between 50.0% and ‘73.0%. By far the majority of the whites in the RSA indicated that drinking at a gathering with friends over a weekend was reasonably or quite all right. However the proportion of whites who accepted the situation of a man becoming drunk at gatherings with friends over weekends, totals one third, with a somewhat smaller proportion (27.6%) in respect of women. However, as was noted to some extent with regard to drinking at work, the South Africans’ attitudes with regard to the acceptability of drinking varied in terms of not only the situation in which drinking takes place, but also in terms of the beverage that is imbibed. The consumption of sorghum beer was far more accept-
able to the South African blaeks than to the other population groups in the RSA, whether consumed during dinner at home or with friends over a weekend (Table Vl. This is understandable as sorghum beer is the traditional home brewed alcoholic beverage consumed by South African blacks. South Africans were generally more agreeable to consumption of spirits and wine when on holiday or at gatherings with friends over a weekend, than when having a meal at home. The consumption of spirits and wine seemed to be particularly acceptable during holidays (Table V). Further, the consumption of malt beer generally seemed to be particularly acceptable among the South Africans when consumed at gatherings with friends over weekends (Table Vf. In line with drinking practices throughout the world, drinking and drunkenness generally seemed to be less acceptable among the various South African population groups when women were involved than when men were involved (Table Vl. Conclusion It seems that although South Africans evaluate both drinking and drunkenness in general negatively, substantial proportions accepts both in certain situations, particularly when the situation of concern is of a non-work nature. While, in terms of the most recent comparable data South Africans evaluate drinking and drunkenness more negatively than Finns and Swedes they also have a lower per capita level of alcohol intake than these latter two groups. Although South Africans evaluate drinking and drunkenness more negatively than Icelanders and Norwegians, and are therefore (in terms of the thesis that a comparatively low acceptability of drinking and particularly drunkenness is associated with a low aggregate level of alcohol intake1 supposed to have a lower per capita level of alcohol intake than the latter population groups, the opposite seems to be the case. A reason for this disparity may be the fact that Icelanders and Norwegians are subjected
212
to quite stringent governmental restrictions regarding the accessibility of alcoholic beverages. Overseas research has shown that restrictions on the accessibility of alcohol have a major impact on the lowering of the aggregate level of alcohol intake in a community. Thus, to some extent it seems appropriate that policy makers in the RSA should attempt to restrict the accessibility of alcohol to a greater extent than they have done in the past, with a view to further lowering the aggregate level of alcohol intake and consequently curbing the incidence of alcohol-related problems in this country. Finally, it is important to note that methodological difficulties such as sampling and time differences between the studies that were compared, necessitate some reservation when dealing with the conclusions reached in this paper.
References B.G. Frankel and P.C. Whitehead, Drinking and damage: Theoretical advances and implications for prevention, Rutgers Center of Alcohol Studies, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 1981. B. Rush and L. Gliksman, Adv. Alcohol Subst. Abuse, 5 (4lG9881. K. Mgikeli, Attitudes towards drinking and drunkenness in four Scandinavian countries. Oslo: National Institute for Alcohol Research, 1984, in press. Lee Bocha-Silva, Drinking in the RSA: 1982, Human Sciences Research Council, Pretoria, 1985. C. Van Der Burgh, The drinking patterns of White, Black, Coloured and Indian South Africans. Alcohol in Perspective Conference, Department of Health and Welfare, Pretoria, 1981. K. Milkeli, Scandinavian drinking. Construction of composite indices of drinking attitudes and personal experiences related to drinking, National Institute for Alcohol Research, Oslo, 1981. M. Fishbein (Ed.), Beadings in attitude theory and measurement, John Wiley, New York, 1987. G. Armyr, A. Elmer and U. Herz, Alcohol in the world of the 89s. Habits, attitudes, preventive policies and voluntary efforts, Sober F&lags AB, Stockholm, 1982.