Automotive shredder residue (ASR) management: An overview

Waste Management xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

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Automotive shredder residue (ASR) management: An overview R. Cossu, T. Lai ⇑ DII Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Padua, via Venezia 1, 35131 Padova, Italy

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 10 April 2015 Revised 22 July 2015 Accepted 23 July 2015 Available online xxxx Keywords: End-of-life vehicles (ELVs) Automobile shredder residue (ASR) Treatment processes Recycling Recovery Sustainable management

a b s t r a c t On the basis of statistical data, approximately 6.5 million tons of ELVs were produced in Europe in 2011. ELVs are processed according to a treatment scheme comprising three main phases: depollution, dismantling and shredding. The ferrous fraction represents about 70–75% of the total shredded output, while nonferrous metals represent about 5%. The remaining 20–25% is referred to as automotive shredder residue (ASR). ASR is largely landfilled due to its heterogeneous and complex matrix. With a start date of January 1st 2015, the European Directive 2000/53/EC establishes the reuse and recovery of a minimum of 95% ELV total weight. To reach these targets various post-shredder technologies have been developed with the aim of improving recovery of materials and energy from ASR. In order to evaluate the environmental impacts of different management options of ELVs, the life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology has been applied taking into account the potential implication of sustainable design of vehicles and treatment of residues after shredding of ELVs. Findings obtained reveal that a combination of recycling and energy recovery is required to achieve European targets, with landfilling being viewed as the least preferred option. The aim of this work is to provide a general overview of the recent development of management of ELVs and treatment of ASR with a view to minimizing the amount of residues disposed of in landfill. Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Worldwide, the amount of end-of-life vehicles (ELVs) reached over 40 million units per year in 2010 (Sakai et al., 2014). The management of ELVs and related environmental issues is addressed using a series of different strategies in many countries (Kanari et al., 2003; Kim et al., 2004; Mergias et al., 2007; Konz, 2009; Kumar and Sutherland, 2009; Che et al., 2011; Zhao and Chen, 2011; Wang and Chen, 2013; Nayak and Apelian, 2014). However, the management of ELVs is increasingly oriented towards taking into account social and environmental aspects in addition to economic and technological aspects, in the perspective of a sustainable waste management (Bellmann and Khare, 2000; Kanari et al., 2003; Koplin et al., 2007; Orsato and Wells, 2007a,b; Seuring and Müller, 2008). Generally, ELVs are processed according to a treatment scheme comprising three main phases: depollution, dismantling and shredding. The ferrous fraction represents approximately 70–75% of total shredded output, while nonferrous metals represent about 5%. The remaining 20–25% is referred to as automotive shredder residue (ASR). This latter fraction is destined to rise in the future ⇑ Corresponding author.

due to an increase in the amounts of light material content (polymers, aluminum and other non-ferrous materials) in new vehicle production at the expense of metals, with the aim of reducing vehicle weight, as well as decreasing fuel consumption and emissions (Tonn et al., 2003; Alonso et al., 2007; Davies, 2012). Currently, ASR is generally landfilled due to its heterogeneous and complex matrix, although landfill disposal presents significant environmental problems (Staudinger and Keoleian, 2001; GHK/BioIS, 2006; Duranceau and Spangenberger, 2011). Leachate from ASR landfills is characterized by a significant presence of organic compounds and heavy metals that may cause a potential threat for the environment (Lanoir et al., 1997; Gonzalez-Fernandez et al., 2008; Fiore et al., 2012; Cossu and Lai, 2013), while biogas is characterized by the presence of organic compounds, PAHs and VOCs (Urbini et al., 2014). A recent survey on the quality of the biogas produced by an ASR landfill has evidenced the presence of 16 PAHs and 35 VOCs and highlighted the most important indications of toxicological concern for the detected compounds (Raboni et al., 2015). Previous laboratory studies have estimated fluorocarbon release from shredder residue disposed in a landfill (Scheutz et al., 2010). The European Directive 2000/53/EC establishes, starting from January 1st 2015, the reuse and recovery of a minimum of 95% ELV total weight. Therefore, considerable emphasis has been

E-mail address: [email protected] (T. Lai). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2015.07.042 0956-053X/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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placed on an increase in ASR recovery over the past decade (Simic, 2013). Various studies have focused on the recycling of ASR plastics fraction (Jody et al., 2010) or its use for energy recovery due to its high calorific value (Harder and Forton, 2007; Cossu et al., 2014). The aim of this work is to provide a general overview of the recent development of ELVs management and ASR treatment with a view to minimizing the amount of residues disposed of in landfill.

2. End-of-life vehicle treatment The total number of ELVs in the EU increased significantly from about 6.3 million in 2008 to 9.0 million in 2009; this is likely due to vehicle scrappage schemes introduced by some Member States in 2008 and 2009 (Eurostat, 2013). In 2010, the number of ELVs subsequently decreased to a level of 6.8 million vehicles in 2011 (Fig. 1). The Directive 2000/53/EC on ELVs was established with the aim of setting clear targets for depollution, reuse, recycling and recovery of vehicles and their components (Gerrard and Kandlikar, 2007). According to the Directive the following targets should be attained: – no later than 1st January 2006 a rate of reuse and recovery of 85% and a rate of reuse and recycling equal to 80%; – no later than 1st January 2015 a rate of reuse and recovery of 95% and a rate of reuse and recycling equal to 85%. In 2006, nineteen Member States achieved the reuse and recycling target of 80%, and only thirteen the reuse and recovery target of 85%. The most recent data demonstrate a general improvement of these results, although revealing differences between Member States; on average the reuse and recovery and reuse and recycling rates reach 88.4% and 84.05%, respectively (Fig. 2). On the basis of statistical data, the specific weight per vehicle varies from less than 800 kg to more than 1200 kg; on average the weight per vehicle was 953 kg for an estimated amount of about 6.5 million tonnes of ELVs in 2011 (Eurostat, 2013). Table 1 illustrates the average composition of ELVs. ELVs are treated in authorized treatment facilities according to a treatment scheme (Fig. 3) comprising three main phases: depollution, dismantling and shredding (GHK/BioIS, 2006; Nourreddine, 2007; Dalmijn and De Jong, 2007). Depollution is a mandatory pre-treatment finalized towards removing hazardous components (JRC, 2008; Kindzierski et al., 2010). During this phase not all polluted components are efficiently removed: some are removed routinely as they may

Fig. 1. Total number of ELVs in EU from 2006 to 2011 (Eurostat, 2013).

Fig. 2. Rates for reuse and recycling and for reuse and recovery of ELVs achieved in the EU from 2006 to 2011 (Eurostat, 2013).

Table 1 Composition in percentage by weight of ELVs (Vermeulen et al., 2011). Material

(%)

Ferrous metal Non-ferrous metal Plastics Tyres and rubber Glass Fluids Battery Process polymers Electrical/electronics Other

65.4–71 7–10 7–9.3 4–5.6 2.9–3 0.9–6 1–1.1 1–1.1 0.4–1 1–5.9

represent a source of income (fuel, motor oil, batteries) or may hinder the subsequent shredding process (i.e. air bags), while others (i.e. brake fluid, windscreens washer fluid, and hydraulic oil, components containing Hg, such as discharge lamps for headlight application or fluorescent tubes used in instrument panel displays; electrical components containing Pb such as printed circuit boards) are usually left in place or only partly removed (GHK/BioIS, 2006; ENVI, 2010; DEFRA, 2011; Berzi et al., 2013). The average weight of these materials is approximately 3% of ELV (Table 1). In addition, tyres removed in this phase represent approximately 3% of ELVs weight. As other ELVs residues, the landfill disposal of end-of-life tyres poses a serious environmental threat. Alternatively, recycling and thermal treatment (co-combustion in cement kilns, pyrolysis, gasification) are applied (Kindzierski et al., 2010; Naveed et al., 2011; Antoniou et al., 2014). The dismantling phase consists in the removal of spare parts and materials (i.e. glass, bumpers) for reuse or recycling as prescribed in the ELV Directive (Annex I), although implementation may differ on a national scale. For example the removal of glass may be carried out either before or after shredding, however, the latter implies that it will be down-cycled (e.g. production of cement, use as aggregate) but not for glass recycling. This fraction, representing approximately 3% of ELV weight (Glass, 2009), may rise in the future due to the current trend of increasing the glazing surface (Farel et al., 2013a). A cost benefit analysis conducted by Farel et al. (2013b) demonstrates that an improvement of ELV glazing recycling network would result in increased income and saving of costs, as well as affording numerous environmental benefits (decrease of waste landfill disposal, energy consumption, CO2 emission). Moreover, according to the amount of plastic components in vehicle, the recycling technologies for typical plastic components of ELVs are evaluated (Berzi et al., 2013; Zhang and Chen, 2014; Tian and Chen, 2014; Zhao and Chen, 2015).

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Fig. 3. ELVs treatment scheme (modified by GHK/BioIS, 2006; Berzi et al., 2013).

The shredding phase consists of the shredding of ELVs to recover ferromagnetic material, resulting in the recovery of the highest amounts of recyclable materials. In a trial aimed at determining the actual rate of ELVs recycling in Italy, Santini et al. (2011) demonstrated the achievement of 80.8% recycling rate and, on the basis of the characterization of the shredder residue, highlighted that 8% of metals and 40% of polymers are potentially recoverable. In a more recent survey, Schmid et al. (2013) evaluated the contribution of each stage of the treatment to the rate of recycling, reuse and recovery; results showed that the contribution of depollution was less than 4% of the ELV mass, dismantling ranged from 5% to 10% of ELV mass, while shredding and post-shredding stage enabled the recovery of an amount of materials from 67% to 70% of ELV mass. On this basis, to achieve the EU-Directive targets dictated for implementation by 2015, additional recycling and recovery will be required, improving both recovery and recycling of materials and bulky parts separated during dismantling process (i.e. bumpers, dashboards, cushions) and size-reduced materials, resulting from shredding process (Weiß et al., 2003; Nitta and Ito, 2013; Buekens and Zhou, 2014; Farzana et al., 2014; Sawyer-Beaulieu and Tam, 2015; Widmer et al., 2015).

3. ASR composition The residual fraction of ELVs, automotive shredder residue, which represents 20–25% of ELV mass, is currently largely disposed of in landfill. ASR contains non-metallic combustible materials (plastics, rubber, foam, textiles, paper and wood), non-combustible materials (i.e. inerts, such as glass) and metals (magnetic, non-magnetic and PVC wrapped wires) (Fiore et al., 2012; Ahmed et al., 2014). The ASR generated from the entire ELV treatment process can be divided into two streams (Duranceau and Spangenberger, 2011; Vermeulen et al., 2011; Zorpas and Inglezakis, 2012; Sakai et al., 2014): – light fraction: this includes a larger proportion of light materials such as plastic, foam, textiles and rubber, produced when the non-ferrous fraction is separated into metal and non-metallic streams using air classification processes (ca. 75% of the total ASR; 10–24% of the total ELV); – heavy fraction: heavy ASR represents rejected materials extracted during processing and includes a larger proportion of heavy materials like glass and metal fines, produced during separation of the various metal streams (ca. 25% of the total ASR; 2–8% of the total ELV); soil/sand fraction is usually included as part of the heavy ASR (ca. 0–2.5% of the total ELV).

Table 2 Composition in percentage by weight of ASR. Material

(%)

Textiles and foam Plastics Metal Rubber Cellulose Fines

27–27.2 19–20.2 1–4.6 2.8–7 0.2–1 45

ASR composition may vary strongly depending on the shredding input mix and on the depollution operation carried out; an average composition is reported in Table 2 (Morselli et al., 2010; Cossu and Lai, 2013). The management of waste generated from ELVs is considered a significant environmental issue due to its composition, as well as to the presence of hazardous materials: PVC/chlorine and PCBs in addition to trace elements and heavy metals (Zorpas and Inglezakis, 2012; Sakai et al., 2014). If ELVs are not treated appropriately, hazardous compounds may remain in the shredder residue (Gonzalez-Fernandez et al., 2009; Yano et al., 2014). Recently, several components of ELVs and ASR have been reclassified as hazardous waste (Forton et al., 2006; Gomes, 2006; ENVI, 2010; Zorpas and Inglezakis, 2012). The amount of ELVs waste considered to be hazardous is estimated around 25%, representing approximately 10% of the total hazardous waste generated each year in the EU (EC, 2007). The classification of shredder residue according to the European waste catalogue and hazardous waste list is reported in Table 3. Despite the latter, to date, ASR has traditionally been disposed of in landfills together with non-hazardous wastes.

Table 3 Classification of ASR according to the European waste catalogue and hazardous waste list. Classification

Description

19 10 03⁄ 19 10 04 19 12 11⁄

Fluff — light fraction containing dangerous substances Fluff — light fraction other than those mentioned in 19 10 03 Other wastes (including mixtures of materials) from mechanical treatment of waste containing dangerous substances Other wastes (including mixtures of materials) from mechanical treatment of wastes other than those mentioned in 19 12 11

19 12 12

⁄

Hazardous waste.

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4. ASR treatment processes Various treatment processes have been developed with an aim to improving recovery of material and energy from ASR: the main categories of technologies applied are based on mechanical sorting of the ASR in order to concentrate material fractions that can be recycled, and on thermal treatment for energy generation. Furthermore, pre-treatment could be applied with the aim of reducing pollutant release before further recovery processes or disposal, or to recover valuable metals from the shredder residue (Granata et al., 2011; Cossu and Lai, 2013). For instance, in the case of thermal treatments the high content of PVC may limit the use of ASR due to the risk of corrosion of the plants due to the formation of HCl, chlorine (Cl2) and other chlorinated compounds, or to the risk of toxic compounds such as dioxins/furans (PCCD/Fs); moreover, in the case of pyrolysis treatment the presence of PVC may result in a lower quality of pyrolysis oils (Zevenhoven and Saeed, 2003; Vermeulen et al., 2011). Kurose et al. (2006) investigated the fate of heavy metals (As, Se, Pb, Cr, Cd) during a nonferrous materials separation process followed by a washing procedure using a hydrochloric acid solution. Results demonstrate that heavy metal content in the ASR was efficiently decreased and satisfied the elution criteria of the Environmental Quality Standards for Soil. A washing procedure of ASR fly ash using HCl leaching solution, investigated by Shibayama et al. (2006), resulted in a high recovery of Cu and Zn (97%). Lewis et al. (2011) obtained a similar recovery rate (95%) using an integrated hydrometallurgical process for the selective recovery of metals, specifically Cu and Zn. More recently, Ferella et al. (2015) presented results from a preliminary study aimed at the recovery of metals (Cu, Zn, Fe, Pb) from ASR using different leaching solutions, and Singh and Lee (2015) evaluated the extraction characteristics of Mn, Fe, Ni, and Cr, at varying pH, temperature, particle size, and liquid/solid ratio. Mechanical treatment of ASR may include several stages of separation and cleaning aimed both at obtaining a separate fraction for recycling and improving the quality of the residue to be submitted to subsequent treatments. Currently, operating technologies consist of air classification, magnetic and eddy current separation and screening or trommel separation. Different steps of float/sink separation are most commonly used in the separation of mixed plastics on the basis of density differences; other techniques for plastic separation have been developed such as froth flotation, thermo-mechanical sorting or static hydrodynamic separation (Al-Salem et al., 2009; Hopewell et al., 2009; Vermeulen et al., 2011; Miller et al., 2014). Various methods for use in the separation and recycling of specific fractions, such as polyolefins, ABS, or polyurethane have been tested (i.a. Winslow et al., 2004; Lee et al., 2012; Buekens and Zhou, 2014). However, the efficient separation of plastics from ASR is not generally widely applied (Davies, 2012; Passarini et al., 2012). A promising alternative consists in the possibility of reusing residues from ELVs in the production of aggregates for the concrete industry after appropriate pre-treatment (Xu et al., 1995; Péra et al., 2004; Alunno Rossetti et al., 2006, 2011). As reported previously, high quantities of ASR are made up of combustible materials (plastic, rubber, foam and textiles, wood and paper) with a Lower Heating Value (LHV) of about 15–30 MJ/kg, depending on its composition (Fiore et al., 2012). Therefore, ASR may be forwarded to thermal treatment and subsequent energy recovery, even in the presence of other waste streams (i.e. MSW, WWT sludge) (Van Caneghem et al., 2010; Vermeulen et al., 2011; Edo et al., 2013), or used as alternative fuel

in the foundry and cement industries (Boughton, 2007; Rahman et al., 2015). Some limitations in these procedures are represented by the characteristics of ASR: high ash content (50%) and a varying moisture content (up to 25%), as well as elevated SOCs, including chlorinated materials (PCBs and PVC), and heavy metal concentrations (Trouvé et al., 1998; Jody et al., 2010). In order to improve ASR characteristics for use as fuel, pre-treatment options including separation of the finest fraction, with highest ash and lowest calorific value, and PVC removal by means of density separation or thermal pre-treatment in combination with washing of the char to remove soluble chlorides, have been applied (Hwang et al., 2008; Cossu et al., 2014). In addition to incineration, alternative thermo-chemical processes such as pyrolysis and gasification have been developed (Srogi, 2008). The outputs of these processes consist of liquids and/or gases suitable for use as fuel and a solid residue, containing a carbonaceous char, mineral ash and metals. In recent decades, numerous studies have been carried out to identify appropriate pyrolysis conditions geared at obtaining products suitable for subsequent resource recovery processes and to control harmful products (Day et al., 1996; Rausa and Pollesel, 1997; Zolezzi et al., 2004). The heterogeneity in ASR composition heavily influences the outcome of pyrolysis (de Marco et al., 2007) and, as a consequence, the possibility of recovery of secondary materials (charcoal). Galvagno et al. (2001) reported findings obtained in a pilot-scale plant experiment; while vacuum pyrolysis and microwave pyrolysis experiments were reported by Roy and Chaala (2001), and Donaj et al. (2010), respectively. Another advanced pyrolysis method used in the processing of shredder residue is described in Santini et al. (2012). However, this treatment is still generally considered unwarranted for the full-scale treatment of ASR, and very few commercial applications have been developed to date (Harder and Forton, 2007). The use of gasification/combustion systems has also been reported (Lin et al., 2010; Mancini et al., 2010; Viganò et al., 2010; Taylor et al., 2013). To summarize, although further studies should be undertaken, gasification appears to represent an attractive alternative for use in the sustainable management of ASR. A series of experimental research and full scale applications of post-shredder techniques are reported in Tables 4 and 5.

5. Life cycle assessment issue on ELVs and ASR management Recently, life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology has been applied to evaluate the environmental impacts of different management options of ELVs (i.a. Castro et al., 2003; Funazaki et al., 2003; Bandivadekar et al., 2004; Fonseca et al., 2013; Gradin et al., 2013). In particular, the potential implication of sustainable design of vehicles (reduction of number of materials used to simplify mechanical separation and recycling, increase of non-ferrous materials employed to reduce vehicle weight etc.) and treatment of residues after shredding of ELVs, have been evaluated (Mazzanti and Zoboli, 2006; Passarini et al., 2012; Mayyas et al., 2012; Millet et al., 2012; Sakai et al., 2014). Moreover, a series of models have been proposed to support decision makers in improving the ELVs recycling system (Williams et al., 2007; Simic and Dimitrijevic, 2012; Simic and Dimitrijevic, 2013; Simic, 2015). The potential environmental impacts and benefits of different scenarios have been considered and compared to landfilling: recovery of different materials through use of post-shredder

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Pre-treatment before further processes or disposal

Mechanical-physical separation processes to recover recyclable materials (plastics, wire, metal. . .)

Recovery by incorporation into manufactured products (composites, asphalt, concrete)

Thermal treatment and coincineration with other waste streams

Reuse in metallurgical processes

Thermo-chemical treatment (pyrolysis, gasification, hybrid processes)

Singh and Lee (2015)

Miller et al. (2014)

Alunno Rossetti et al. (2011)

Mancini et al. (2014)

Ni and Chen (2015)

Ferella et al. (2015)

Passarini et al.. (2014)

Tai and He. (2014)

Toyota. (2014)

Guignot et al. (2013) Bodénan et al. (2012) Markowski et al. (2012)

Cossu and Lai (2013) Edo et al. (2013) Cossu et al. (2012) Kuwayama et al. (2011)

Valerio. (2014) Lee et al. (2012) Nikje and Tavassoli (2012) Santini et al. (2012)

2006–2010

Kameda et al. (2009) Hwang et al. (2008)

Panaitescu et al. (2008) Gomes (2006) Sendijarevic et al. (2006)

Alunno Rossetti et al. (2006)

Pedersen et al. (2010) Van Caneghem et al. (2010) Lopes et al. (2009 Genon and Brizio (2008) US EPA (2008) Boughton (2007) Kwon et al. (2007)

2000–2005

Kusaka and Iida (2000)

Sendijarevic et al. (2005) Fabrizi et al. (2003) Lee and Oh (2003) Ambrose et al. (2002) Gesing and Wolanski (2001)

Kakimoto et al. (2004) Péra et al. (2004) Robson and Goodhead (2003)

Mirabile et al. (2002) Redin et al. (2001)

2011–2015

Van Caneghem and Vandecasteele (2014) Van Caneghem et al.. (2014) Vermeulen et al. (2012b)

Taylor et al. (2013) Guo et al. (2012) Santini et al. (2012) Donaj et al. (2011) Grause et al. (2011) Naveed et al. (2011)

Jalkanen (2006)

Cho et al. (2010) Donaj et al. (2010) Lin et al. (2010) Mancini et al. (2010) Viganò et al. (2010) de Marco et al. (2007) Chiarioni et al. (2006) Joung et al. (2006) Winslow and Adams (2004) Zolezzi et al. (2004) Pasel and Wanzl (2003) Galvagno et al. (2001) Roy and Chaala (2001)

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Table 4 ASR experimental research during the period 2000–2015.

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Table 5 Overview of post shredder technologies (PSTs). Technology/developer Argonne

a

a

Salyp

WESA SLF processa Wittena

Sortec processb VW – Sicon

a,b,c

Gallooa,b,c Suitb R-Plus

b,c

Toyota processa,d Nissan processa,e Siemens-KWU processa

Batrec processa

Takuma processa Citron Oxy-reducer processa,b,c VOEST-ALPINE Processa TwinRec Process

a,b,c

SVC processa,b,f

a b c d e f

Type of technology

Plant scale

Description

Dry mechanical separation system Mechanical separation Mechanical separation Mechanical separation

Pilot plant, treatment of 2 tonnes per hour Trial plant

Mechanical separation Mechanical separation Mechanical separation Mechanical separation Mechanical separation Mechanical separation Thermal treatment to energy recovery Pyrolysis

Full scale plant, treatment of 40,000 tonnes per year Full scale plant, 100,000 tonnes per year Operating plants

Recovery of 90% of polymers (>6 mm) and 90% of residual ferrous and nonferrous materials (>6 mm) Recovery of ferrous and non-ferrous materials and a clean plastic concentrate without wood and glass impurity Recovery of ferrous metals, copper, minerals and mixed metals, and organic materials Outputs of the process: 3–8% ferrous materials containing 80–95% of iron, 8–23% of a mixed Fe/Cu/Al fraction, 25% of low-density organic fraction, 15– 25% of higher-density organic fraction, 25–35% of high-ash fraction Recovery of metals and organic fraction

Pyrolysis combined with mechanical separation Pyrolysis combined with sorting process Pyrolysis at high temperatures

Trial plant (400 kg/h)

High-temperature gasification process Fluidized-bed gasification with ash melting Gasification process

Full scale plant, treatment of 4 tonnes per hour Full scale plant, treatment of 30,000 tonnes per year

Outputs of the process: shredder granules 36%, shredder fibres 31%, metals 8%, wastes 26% Outputs of the process: recycled plastics 9%, metals 30%, refuse derived fuel 13%, wastes 48% Outputs of the process: organic plastic 50%, mineral 20%, metals 10%, water 20% Outputs of the process: organic fraction 60%, minerals 35%, metals 5%

Operating plants Operating plants Pilot plant: capacity of 15,000 ELVs per month Full-scale operating plant, treatment of 400 tonnes per month Trial plant (one trial using 30 tonnes of shredder residue)

Plant with a capacity of 90 tonnes per day Trial plant with a capacity of 130,000 tonnes per year of waste (12,000 tonnes of ASR) Trial plant Operating plants 8 tonnes per hour

Trial plant, using a ratio of 30% shredder residue/70% other solid and liquid wastes

Outputs of the process: foam and fabric sorted and recycled into soundproofing material, recycling copper from wire harnesses Thermal energy generated during incineration is converted into steam Indirect heated rotary kiln operating at 450 °C to convert the feed material to a pyrolysis gas and coke. Solids (including the char) are discharged from the kiln for recovery of metals. The pyrolysis gas and solid char are then combusted in an incinerator for steam production Pyrolysis of the ASR organic fraction followed by mechanical separation of metals (iron and copper) from the residual solids Pyrolysis of the ASR following by sorting of the residual solids to recover metals (1% of copper, 10% of mixed metals) Outputs of the process: Ca Fe concentrate 45%, zinc concentrate 4.3%, mercury 0.7%, wastes 50% Tests were conducted in which the shredder residue was blended with mixed plastics, waste oils, and fuel oil Outputs of the process: metals 8%, glass granulate 25%, recovery 52%, wastes 15% Outputs of the process: synthetic gas 75%, metals 8%, wastes 17%

Jody et al. (2010). GHK/BioIS (2006). Cossu and Gadia (2012). Toyota (2014). Nissan (2005). SVZ (2005).

technologies (PSTs) with a view to recycling, incineration of ASR with energy recovery (waste-to-energy) and thermo-chemical treatment of ASR (pyrolysis, gasification) (Boughton and Horvath, 2006; Ferrão and Amaral, 2006; Ciacci et al., 2010; Vermeulen et al., 2012b; Ruffino et al., 2014). On the basis of specific assumptions (such as indicators and system boundaries) the main conclusions reached may differ from author to author, although there is a general consensus that a combination of recycling and energetic valorization of ASR is required to achieve the European targets, with landfilling being viewed as the least preferred option (Vermeulen et al., 2012a). However, an integrated approach associating socio-economic impacts with ecodesign and LCA could be applied with an aim to better understanding the complete ELV recycling system (Mayyas et al., 2012; Simic, 2013).

recycling of 85% and energy recovery of 10%, by 2015. On the basis of most recent Eurostat data, substantial efforts are still needed in order to achieve the ELV reuse and recycling/recovery targets. On the one hand the producers need to develop a sustainable design of vehicles and provide dismantling information for each new type of vehicle in order to improve the recycling and recovery of ELV materials during the dismantling phase, in particular glass and plastics, and on the other post-shredder technologies, such as mechanical sorting of different ASR fractions and thermal treatment to energy recovery, should be developed. From the application of LCA methodology to ASR treatment processes, it would seem that a combination of recycling and energy recovery is required to achieve European targets, with landfilling being viewed as the least preferred option. References

6. Conclusions The European ELV Directive provides for an increase in the rate of reuse and recovery of 95%, which includes a rate of reuse and

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Please cite this article in press as: Cossu, R., Lai, T. Automotive shredder residue (ASR) management: An overview. Waste Management (2015), http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2015.07.042