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Basic education and national development: Lessons from China and India: Manzoor Ahmed with Cheng Kai Ming
BOOK REVIEWS contents only appears in Volume 1, with the result that the reader constantly has to refer back to Volume 1. Given the enormous price of the Encyclopedia it should not be asking too much to have a list of contents for each volume at the beginning of that volume. The introduction describes the Encyclopedia as ‘thematic, internationally comparative, logically integrated and contextually explanatory’ (p. xxvi). It is these things up to a point. Obviously not everything you ever wanted to know about higher education appears. The role of national and international organisations involved in higher education - e.g. UNESCO. the World Bank, ministries of education/higher education - are not included. Nor are articles on those philosophers or theorists who have profoundly influenced the shape and thinking about higher education such as Cardinal Newman, Robert Hutchings or Eric Ashby. Nevertheless this is a very ambitious project and publishers, editors, both overall and those responsible for the different sections, as well as the enormous number of individual contributors should be congratulated on producing such a scholarly, well researched and highly readable set of volumes. As a whole the Encyclopedia clearly hangs together, but so does each component part, whether volume, section or individual article. The main criticisms, apart from the contents and the price, which puts it beyond the range of most individual academics, are that some of the national contributions in Volume 1 are already dated and that Volume 4 which looks at academic disciplines is over ambitious. To some extent this is inevitable. Any book that takes two and a half years to produce is bound to be dated; is bound to be selective; it cannot deal with all the disciplines and inevitably it leaves out what, for some, may be very important. To illustrate the point. Under the Social Sciences section (Volume 4, Part 2) there is no mention of development studies or of education per se, both of which would have been of interest to readers of this journal. Under Humanities nothing appears under music, for which there is a growing body of international research literature, nor is there mention of the ethical debates current in modern medical sciences and in issues relating to race, ethnicity and gender. However, these are relatively minor criticisms. Volume 1 is devoted to an analysis of 138 national case studies. These inevitably vary in length and quality, but they do provide a quick and useful summary concerning historical developments, structures, issues and problems. Most LDCs are well represented by national authors. Some offer an excellent overview of enrolment and institutional data together with a critical analysis. Others are less critical. It would normally be invidious to highlight particular contributions, but those on Canada, China, Malaysia and the U.S.A. are especially informative. Unfortunately, there are a few unnecessary proof reading errors. For example, on p. 762 (United Kingdom) the UFC and PCFC are referred to as Founding Councils as opposed to Funding Councils, although they have now become the Higher Education Funding Council. Volumes 2 and 3 are interlinked and over 120 analytical perspectives based around five themes: 1. Higher Education and Society, takes topics across countries. Thus issues such as credentialism, the diploma disease, student mobility and different forms of planning are looked at internationally. The whole is held together by a very thoughtful introductory chapter by Gareth Williams which traces differing perceptions of higher education’s role in society; different models of higher education - American,
391
British, French and German: the problems of planning; the impact of higher education on school curricula; conflicting views about higher education as a preserver of cultural traditions or as a harbinger of change etc. 2. The second theme relates to the Institutional Fabric of Higher Education. Following a useful oversight chapter from Geiger 30 papers explore the growing divergence and differentiation within higher education systems. Thus papers appear on agricultural universities, business schools, theological seminaries, technical institutions, community colleges. There are also three excellent, but distinctive, accounts of the historical development of universities from about 1100 AD. Whatever one’s position or interest in higher education there is a wealth of information to be found in this section. 3. The third theme, which completes Volume 2, relates to different aspects of governance, finance and administration. Grant Harman offers a masterly overview for the 27 articles which explore issues as diverse as academic freedom, accreditation, salaries and planning; finance, leadership and autonomy. This section is of greatest interest to those who are concerned with the administration, finance and politics of higher education. It does, however, offer some fascinating insights from an international perspective of many topics of current debate. Volume 3 covers the remaining two themes, 4. teaching, learning and research, and 5. perspectives on different academic disciplines. Under the first of these themes there are some fascinating papers relating to different ‘cultures’ within higher education - faculty cultures, student cultures, the place of ethnic minorities and late returners, different types of curriculum and degree. There is also a most unusual and interesting account of the history of the’ professoriate. The final theme, under the general editorship of Tony Becher, offers some disciplinary perspectives on higher education (e.g. comparative education, law, philosophy, policy analysis, public administration etc.). Some, such as organisation theory, fit rather uncomfortably, and it is unclear how these differ from those accounts of specific academic disciplines which make up the bulk of Volume 4 already alluded to. There are bound to be some academics who will not find their particular discipline referred to and who might, therefore, be dismissive of the whole. They would be wrong to do so, for not only is there a wealth of information but the reader’s horizons are likely to be considerably broadened simply by ‘dipping into’ different topics or themes. This series is a very welcome addition to the literature on higher education internationally and is to be warmly welcomed. Those involved in the the project are to be congratulated and thanked. KEITH WATSON University of Reading
Basic Education and National Development: Lessons from China and India: M-r Ahmed with Cheng Kai Ming:
A. K. Jalaluddin and K. Ramachandran. York, 1991, 265~~. , paperback.
UNICEF, New
If the goals of Education for AN outlined at the Jomtien
392
BOOK
Conference in Thailand in 1990 are ever to be achieved the place of India and China in this area cannot be underestimated, counting as they do for 40% of the world’s population. India hopes to make 80 million literate by 1995, China 72 million. Unfortunately, political uncertainties, the lack of resources. the academic bias of primary schooling and the high rates of dropout in many countries are only hampering progress. Only by looking afresh at alternative forms of financing education, the involvement of NGOs and the private sector, decentralizing decision making, striking the right balance between skills training and academic knowledge. improving teacher training and local community participation and by looking afresh at a more varied curriculum is there likely to be progress. At least that is the theme of this particular book. The volume under review is based on the evidence of two research teams, supported by UNICEF, working in India and China in the late 1980s. Manzoor Ahmed and his team have synthesised the main findings of the research reports in the first two thirds of the book and set these into the wider context of the debates concerning national development and basic education. The final third summarises the two country reports. The result is an odd mixture. While there are some very useful statistics and some interesting observations about recent developments in the two countries, and while there is a coherence to the book there is, at the same time, a sense in which this is a bland report, typical of much of the literature emanating from international agencies. As a result there are a number of general observations and idealistic statements unsubstantiated by any research evidence, e.g. on the value of private sector education or decentralised decision making. That said, however, there is much useful discussion in this book about development, the place of basic education, quality and relevance as well as insights into India and China. It will be particularly valuable for students of educational development. The first few chapters are devoted to a general discussion about basic education. the eradication of illiteracy and poverty, teacher effectiveness, the confusion over development goals. and the need for greater community participation and local inputs into curriculum planning and skill requirements. There is a clear recognition that decisions concerning not only the shape of socio-economic development, but the priority attached to basic education needs, are highly politically charged; that top down decision making, especially in countries the size of India and China are frequently inefficient; and that the statistical bases used are not only flawed but have different interpretations. Is UPE measured by the gross enrolment ratio, the net enrolment ratio, those who begin in Grade 1 or those who complete Grade 6? Too many governments are more concerned with formal primary education and pay too little attention to nonformal provision or accept any responsibility for the eradication of adult illiteracy. This is particularly true in India. Another issue highlighted is that many governments lack clear goals for their education system with the result that there is both high dropout and inadequate linkages between education and socio-economic development. There is a useful discussion in Chapter 4 on the relationship between basic education - primary schooling and adult literacy, especially in the Asian Tigers and the
REVIEWS older industrialised world but a sober recognition, also. that however good the literacy rates may be, if there is inter ethnic conflict (Sri Lanka), mismanagement of the economy (Burma) or political corruption (Philippines) socio-economic development will be constrained. Turning specifically to India and China certain aspects necessary for the improvement of basic education are compared and contrasted. In both countries. for example, the quality of the buildings and lack of financial inputs at basic education level are hampering progress. Both have developed ‘Key schools’ as trend setters and models for others to emulate. Unfortunately, there are poor levels of assessment and no national data for accurate comparability purposes to see if standards have been raised. There are still too many overcrowded classrooms, unqualified teachers and excessive teaching hours. especially in rural areas. but the real problem identified in both countries ‘is twofold and much more intractable: (a) the low morale and motivation of teachers in basic education especially primary education, and (b) the absence of a functioning model of the teacher’s professional training and performance that prepares and permits him or her to perform effectively to achieve the multiple goals of basic education’ (P. 91). In both countries teachers are badly paid, there are differentials between urban/rural, state/community schools, and teaching as a profession does not attract the best students. There is an interesting discussion on promotion, remuneration and training problems. Amongst the suggestions for improving the quality of teaching are internships/mentorships, ‘parateachers’ (i.e. teaching assistants), decentralisation of recruitment and appraisal. Concern is expressed about the academic orientation of the curriculum, though there is a valuable discussion about how this has changed and is changing especially in China. In India the danger of curriculum overload comes about because of the different languages that have to be studied, a problem not evident in China. There is an excellent chapter on the planning and administrative structures in both countries. The argument favours greater decentralisation. even localisation of decision making. However, whereas in China decision making reaches local community level in.India it stops at the state level. The results of this can be seen in some of the failures of Operation Blackboard. The author sadly The states seem to be so comments about India, preoccupied with just looking after day to day government business and keeping the existing system going that they have little interest in engaging in any strategic planning for human development or, for that matter, taking any development initiative. The central authorities also seem to have failed to involve the states actively in the process of initiating reform ideas or to encourage the states to come up with their own ideas’ (pp. 121-2). Unfortunately, that is a comment that could apply to many countries. Basic Education and Narional Development provides a useful and well structured addition to the debates not only about basic education but also about quality, administrative decentralisation and community participation. It should appear on many students’ reading lists. KEITH WATSON University of Reading
391
British, French and German: the problems of planning; the impact of higher education on school curricula; conflicting views about higher education as a preserver of cultural traditions or as a harbinger of change etc. 2. The second theme relates to the Institutional Fabric of Higher Education. Following a useful oversight chapter from Geiger 30 papers explore the growing divergence and differentiation within higher education systems. Thus papers appear on agricultural universities, business schools, theological seminaries, technical institutions, community colleges. There are also three excellent, but distinctive, accounts of the historical development of universities from about 1100 AD. Whatever one’s position or interest in higher education there is a wealth of information to be found in this section. 3. The third theme, which completes Volume 2, relates to different aspects of governance, finance and administration. Grant Harman offers a masterly overview for the 27 articles which explore issues as diverse as academic freedom, accreditation, salaries and planning; finance, leadership and autonomy. This section is of greatest interest to those who are concerned with the administration, finance and politics of higher education. It does, however, offer some fascinating insights from an international perspective of many topics of current debate. Volume 3 covers the remaining two themes, 4. teaching, learning and research, and 5. perspectives on different academic disciplines. Under the first of these themes there are some fascinating papers relating to different ‘cultures’ within higher education - faculty cultures, student cultures, the place of ethnic minorities and late returners, different types of curriculum and degree. There is also a most unusual and interesting account of the history of the’ professoriate. The final theme, under the general editorship of Tony Becher, offers some disciplinary perspectives on higher education (e.g. comparative education, law, philosophy, policy analysis, public administration etc.). Some, such as organisation theory, fit rather uncomfortably, and it is unclear how these differ from those accounts of specific academic disciplines which make up the bulk of Volume 4 already alluded to. There are bound to be some academics who will not find their particular discipline referred to and who might, therefore, be dismissive of the whole. They would be wrong to do so, for not only is there a wealth of information but the reader’s horizons are likely to be considerably broadened simply by ‘dipping into’ different topics or themes. This series is a very welcome addition to the literature on higher education internationally and is to be warmly welcomed. Those involved in the the project are to be congratulated and thanked. KEITH WATSON University of Reading
Basic Education and National Development: Lessons from China and India: M-r Ahmed with Cheng Kai Ming:
A. K. Jalaluddin and K. Ramachandran. York, 1991, 265~~. , paperback.
UNICEF, New
If the goals of Education for AN outlined at the Jomtien
392
BOOK
Conference in Thailand in 1990 are ever to be achieved the place of India and China in this area cannot be underestimated, counting as they do for 40% of the world’s population. India hopes to make 80 million literate by 1995, China 72 million. Unfortunately, political uncertainties, the lack of resources. the academic bias of primary schooling and the high rates of dropout in many countries are only hampering progress. Only by looking afresh at alternative forms of financing education, the involvement of NGOs and the private sector, decentralizing decision making, striking the right balance between skills training and academic knowledge. improving teacher training and local community participation and by looking afresh at a more varied curriculum is there likely to be progress. At least that is the theme of this particular book. The volume under review is based on the evidence of two research teams, supported by UNICEF, working in India and China in the late 1980s. Manzoor Ahmed and his team have synthesised the main findings of the research reports in the first two thirds of the book and set these into the wider context of the debates concerning national development and basic education. The final third summarises the two country reports. The result is an odd mixture. While there are some very useful statistics and some interesting observations about recent developments in the two countries, and while there is a coherence to the book there is, at the same time, a sense in which this is a bland report, typical of much of the literature emanating from international agencies. As a result there are a number of general observations and idealistic statements unsubstantiated by any research evidence, e.g. on the value of private sector education or decentralised decision making. That said, however, there is much useful discussion in this book about development, the place of basic education, quality and relevance as well as insights into India and China. It will be particularly valuable for students of educational development. The first few chapters are devoted to a general discussion about basic education. the eradication of illiteracy and poverty, teacher effectiveness, the confusion over development goals. and the need for greater community participation and local inputs into curriculum planning and skill requirements. There is a clear recognition that decisions concerning not only the shape of socio-economic development, but the priority attached to basic education needs, are highly politically charged; that top down decision making, especially in countries the size of India and China are frequently inefficient; and that the statistical bases used are not only flawed but have different interpretations. Is UPE measured by the gross enrolment ratio, the net enrolment ratio, those who begin in Grade 1 or those who complete Grade 6? Too many governments are more concerned with formal primary education and pay too little attention to nonformal provision or accept any responsibility for the eradication of adult illiteracy. This is particularly true in India. Another issue highlighted is that many governments lack clear goals for their education system with the result that there is both high dropout and inadequate linkages between education and socio-economic development. There is a useful discussion in Chapter 4 on the relationship between basic education - primary schooling and adult literacy, especially in the Asian Tigers and the
REVIEWS older industrialised world but a sober recognition, also. that however good the literacy rates may be, if there is inter ethnic conflict (Sri Lanka), mismanagement of the economy (Burma) or political corruption (Philippines) socio-economic development will be constrained. Turning specifically to India and China certain aspects necessary for the improvement of basic education are compared and contrasted. In both countries. for example, the quality of the buildings and lack of financial inputs at basic education level are hampering progress. Both have developed ‘Key schools’ as trend setters and models for others to emulate. Unfortunately, there are poor levels of assessment and no national data for accurate comparability purposes to see if standards have been raised. There are still too many overcrowded classrooms, unqualified teachers and excessive teaching hours. especially in rural areas. but the real problem identified in both countries ‘is twofold and much more intractable: (a) the low morale and motivation of teachers in basic education especially primary education, and (b) the absence of a functioning model of the teacher’s professional training and performance that prepares and permits him or her to perform effectively to achieve the multiple goals of basic education’ (P. 91). In both countries teachers are badly paid, there are differentials between urban/rural, state/community schools, and teaching as a profession does not attract the best students. There is an interesting discussion on promotion, remuneration and training problems. Amongst the suggestions for improving the quality of teaching are internships/mentorships, ‘parateachers’ (i.e. teaching assistants), decentralisation of recruitment and appraisal. Concern is expressed about the academic orientation of the curriculum, though there is a valuable discussion about how this has changed and is changing especially in China. In India the danger of curriculum overload comes about because of the different languages that have to be studied, a problem not evident in China. There is an excellent chapter on the planning and administrative structures in both countries. The argument favours greater decentralisation. even localisation of decision making. However, whereas in China decision making reaches local community level in.India it stops at the state level. The results of this can be seen in some of the failures of Operation Blackboard. The author sadly The states seem to be so comments about India, preoccupied with just looking after day to day government business and keeping the existing system going that they have little interest in engaging in any strategic planning for human development or, for that matter, taking any development initiative. The central authorities also seem to have failed to involve the states actively in the process of initiating reform ideas or to encourage the states to come up with their own ideas’ (pp. 121-2). Unfortunately, that is a comment that could apply to many countries. Basic Education and Narional Development provides a useful and well structured addition to the debates not only about basic education but also about quality, administrative decentralisation and community participation. It should appear on many students’ reading lists. KEITH WATSON University of Reading