Benjamin Franklin: Student of life

Journal of

The Pranklin Institute D e v o t e d to Science a n d t h e M e c h a n i c Arts Vol. 233

APRIL, 1942

No. 4

BENJAMIN FRANKLIN: STUDENT OF LIFE.* BY R O B E R T E. S P I L L E R , P h . D . , Swarthmore College. I.

So m a n y a s p e c t s of F r a n k l i n ' s life, t h o u g h t , and w o r k h a v e a l r e a d y been d i s c u s s e d b y the p r e c e d i n g s p e a k e r s in this s e r i e s t h a t t h e r e s h o u l d be l i t t l e left t o say. But p e r h a p s I h a v e one a d v a n t a g e over the o t h e r s . T h e y h a v e all b e e n l i m i t e d t o specific s u b j e c t s , w h e r e a s I a m a s k e d t o talk a b o u t l i f e - - o r a t l e a s t , F r a n k l i n ' s r e a d i n g of life, w h i c h m i g h t lead m e i n t o a l m o s t a n y t h i n g . B u t I s h a l l try t o l i m i t m y s e l f t o a n a t t e m p t t o d e f i n e the p o i n t of v i e w w h i c h s e e m s t o m e t o have b e e n a t the root of all his m a n y a n d v a r i e d a c t i o n s , a n d t h e r e b y p r o v i d e one more c o m m e n t on t h a t s e n s e of w h o l e n e s s a n d u n i t y of c h a r a c t e r w h i c h we all feel in his p r e s e n c e b u t w h i c h we all find so d i f f i c u l t t o define. H o w e v e r m a n y a v e n u e s of his t h o u g h t a n d e x p e r i e n c e one f o l l o w s out t o t h e i r m a n i f o l d e x p r e s s i o n s , the r e t u r n trip b r i n g s one a l w a y s t o the s a m e s o u r c e . F r a n k l i n a s k e d only o n e q u e s t i o n of life a n d of the t h i n g s in i t : " D o e s it w o r k ? " T h e m e t h o d * Delivered in the Hall of T h e F r a n k l i n Institute, M a r c h I, I94O. one of the papers i n the " M e e t Dr. F r a n k l i n " Conference.

This was

(Note-The Franklin Institute i s not responsible for the statements and opinions advanced by contributors i n the JOOItNAL.) VOL. 233, NO. I396---:3 309

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[J. F. I.

of his t h i n k i n g s e e m s t o m e a l w a y s t o be p r a g m a t i c . H e r e l i e s in e v e r y p r o b l e m u p o n experience in the i m m e d i a t e s e n s e as his f i n a l a u t h o r i t y . If this s e e m s too s i m p l e a s t a t e m e n t of the q u e s t i o n a n d too e a s y a n a n s w e r , m y e x c u s e is t h a t I a m n o t a philosopher, t h a t I do n o t b e l i e v e F r a n k l i n t o h a v e been one, a n d t h a t I do not look t o p h i l o s o p h y in the s t r i c t s e n s e of the term t o p r o v i d e m u c h more than some of the l a n g u a g e of the d i s c u s sion t h a t I have u n d e r t a k e n . I t is the h a b i t of l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s a n d h i s t o r i a n s t o d e s c r i b e p e o p l e in t e r m s of the m a i n - s p r i n g s of t h e i r a c t i o n s a n d t h o u g h t . S u c h a s t a t e m e n t a s I have m a d e a b o u t F r a n k l i n is p e r h a p s as m u c h a c o m m e n t u p o n m y s e l f a n d m y t r i b e a s u p o n him. W e find o u r s e l v e s c o n s t a n t l y u s i n g s u c h p h r a s e s a s " p h i l o s o p h y of l i f e , " " r e a d ing of l i f e , " a n d " r o m a n t i c a n d c l a s s i c , " t o the a l a r m a n d d i s g u s t of m o r e d i s c i p l i n e d t h i n k e r s . B e c a u s e l i t e r a t u r e inv o l v e s the e m o t i o n s as well as the m i n d , the t e r m s w h i c h a r e u s u a l l y a p p l i e d t o the definitions of t h i n k e r s are i n a d e q u a t e . T h e y m u s t e i t h e r be a b a n d o n e d or h a v e t h e i r m e a n ings s t r e t c h e d t o i n c l u d e e m o t i o n a l a t t i t u d e s as well a s r a t i o n a l s y s t e m s . W h e n I call F r a n k l i n " p r a g m a t i c , " therefore, I a m a t t e m p t i n g t o d e s c r i b e his w h o l e p e r s o n a l i t y a n d the m e a n i n g of his a t t i t u d e t o w a r d life. In this s e n s e I a m t r e a t i n g F r a n k lin as a l i t e r a r y f i g u r e , w h i c h u n d o u b t e d l y he is, r a t h e r t h a n p r i m a r i l y a s a philosopher, scientist, s t a t e s m a n , or s o c i a l critic, even t h o u g h I m a y give m u c h a t t e n t i o n t o t h e s e a s p e c t s of his t h o u g h t a n d p a y l i t t l e or none t o the form a n d s t y l e of his w r i t i n g s . T h e p l g e o n - h o l i n g of a g r e a t m a n in so s u m m a r y a f a s h i o n m u s t a l w a y s i m p l y the p h r a s e " i t s e e m s t o m e . " If y o u ' w i l l c o n s e n t t o m y c a l l i n g his a t t i t u d e " p r a g m a t i c , " I s h a l l try t o d e f i n e a n d t o i l l u s t r a t e w h a t the w o r d m a y m e a n w i t h i n the l i m i t s of this d i s c u s s i o n . If we are satisfied t h a t the e l u s i v e s e n s e of u n i t y w h i c h is so o b v i o u s t o m o s t s t u d e n t s of F r a n k l i n h a s b e e n t h e r e b y d e f i n e d , we m a y r a i s e the f u r t h e r q u e s t i o n s of w h e t h e r this a t t i t u d e is characteristically, even • t h o u g h not exclusively, A m e r i c a n , a n d w h e t h e r it is a s a t i s f a c t o r y p h i l o s o p h y of llfe in i t s e l f - - i n s h o r t we m a y a s k whether pragmatism works.

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T o s a y t h a t F r a n k l i n was a p r a g m a t i s t is n o t t o i m p l y t h a t he w o u l d even u n d e r s t a n d the a c c u s a t i o n w e r e he a l i v e t o d a y . A s far a s I k n o w , the term h a s been in use in this s e n s e for s c a r c e l y more t h a n half a c e n t u r y . I n 19o7, W i l l i a m J a m e s c a l l e d it " a n e w n a m e for some old w a y s of t h i n k i n g , " i a n d p r o c e e d e d t o put it i n t o the p h i l o s o p h e r ' s e v e r y - d a y v o c a b u lary a s one m o r e mystification for the l a y m a n . I t is the s a m e s y s t e m of t h o u g h t t h a t has m o r e r e c e n t l y been c a l l e d i n s t r u m e n t a l i s m b e c a u s e , in the w o r d s of J a m e s h i m s e l f , in it " t h e o r i e s t h u s b e c o m e instruments, not a n s w e r s t o e n i g m a s . " I t is l i t t l e m o r e t h a n a p o i n t of v i e w , " t h e a t t i t u d e of l o o k i n g a w a y from f i r s t t h i n g s , principles, ' c a t e g o r i e s , ' s u p p o s e d necessities, and of l o o k i n g t o w a r d l a s t t h i n g s , f r u i t s , c o n s e q u e n c e s , f a c t s . " T h e r e s u l t is t h a t " i d e a s ( w h i c h t h e m s e l v e s are b u t p a r t s of o u r experience) b e c o m e t r u e j u s t in so far a s t h e y help us t o g e t i n t o s a t i s f a c t o r y r e l a t i o n with o t h e r p a r t s of o u r e x p e r i e n c e . " 2 I d e a s , t h e n , h a v e no i n t r i n s i c v a l u e a p a r t from e x p e r i e n c e ; they are v a l i d only in so far a s they c a n be p r o v e d u s e f u l in p r a c t i c e . T h e y t h e r e f o r e c a n n o t form a p h i l o s o p h y in the u s u a l s e n s e . if P r a g m a t i s m is n o t in the full s e n s e a p h i l o s o p h y t o d a y , i t was even less so in F r a n k l i n ' s t i m e ; a n d F r a n k l i n , w h o d i d not e v e n h a v e this t e r m by w h i c h t o d e s c r i b e his p o i n t of v i e w , was n o t a philosopher. I t was c u s t o m a r y for his c o n t e m p o r a r i e s t o call him one, a n d he h i m s e l f f o u n d e d a s o c i e t y w h i c h he c a l l e d philosophical. R e c e n t b i o g r a p h e r s h a v e cont i n u e d t o use the term in d e s c r i b i n g him, b u t it m u s t be r e m e m b e r e d t h a t the w o r d " p h i l o s o p h e r " in the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y o f t e n m e a n t " n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h e r , " or w h a t we s h o u l d m e a n by the term " n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h e r . " This was F r a n k l i n ' s own use of i t w h e n he n a m e d a s r e s i d e n t m e m b e r s 1 William James delivered a series of lectures on Pragmatism at the Lowell Institute in 19o6 and at Columbia University in 19o7. These lectures were published in 19o7 under the title: Pragmatism: A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking. Although The New English Dictionary gives seven earlier uses of the term, its use in philosophy was invented by C. S. Pierce in discussions with James, and its special meaning was expounded by him in an article " H o w to Make our Ideas Clear," Popular Science Monthly, January, 1878. 2 W. James, op. cit., Lecture II, " W h a t Pragmatism Means," pp. 53, 54-55.

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[J. F. I.

of the American Philosophical Society a physician, a botanist, a mathematician, a chemist, a mechanician, a geographer, and a general natural philosopher? This last Franklin himself unquestionably was, and his membership in foreign scientific societies was fit tribute to his attainments in this field. But metaphysician or logician he was not. The danger of attempting to explain Franklin's mind in terms of systematic philosophy is illustrated by a recent analysis of his thought by Chester Jorgenson who strives to attach him to what he calls "scientific deism," a metaphysical system based upon Newtonian physics and the rationalism of Locke. Mr. Jorgenson develops his thesis at some length and concludes: "To see the reflection of Newton and his progeny in Franklin's activities, be they economic, political, literary, or philosophical, lends a compelling u n i t y to the several sides of his genius, heretofore seen as unrelated." His modus operandi is best explained "in reference to the thought pattern of scientific deism." 4 This theory is undeniably suggestive if it be used merely as an explanation of the formative period of Franklin's thought, but Mr. Jorgenson has neglected to give full weight to Franklin's emphatic rejection of the naive system-building of his youth. His short period of philosophical inquiry, I725-29, ended with his Modest Inquiry into the Nature and Necessity of [not Liberty, or God, but] a Paper Currency.~ Related in so formal a sense I do not believe that the sides of his genius were. To be sure, Franklin absorbed the spirit of inquiry and experiment from the intellectual atmosphere of his day and he may j u s t l y be thought of as a product of the eighteenth century enlightenment, but to assume from this that he formulated in his own mind and held to a philosophical basis for his actions is to push a half-truth too far. It would be difficult to document the statement that " F r a n k l i n was a disinterested scientist in the sense that he interrogated nature 3 " A Proposal for Promoting Useful Knowledge among the British Plantations in America." Phila.: May I4, I743. Writings, ed. by A. H. Smyth, New York: 19o5-o7, II, 228-232. 4 Benjamin Franklin, Representative Selections, with an Introduction, Bibliography, and Notes, by F r a n k Luther Mott and Chester E. Jorgenson. New York: I936. Introduction, p. cxli. 5 Writings, II, 133-154.

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with a n eye t o d i s c o v e r i n g its i m m u t a b l e l a w s . " 6 A s far a s I k n o w , F r a n k l i n only once a t t e m p t e d a n i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d s y s t e m a t i c s t a t e m e n t of his p h i l o s o p h y . T h i s was in his e a r l y p a m p h l e t , A D i s s e r t a t i o n on L i b e r t y and N e c c e s s i t y , P l e a s u r e and P a i n ( I 7 2 5 ) , p u b l i s h e d w h e n he was only n i n e t e e n . By f o l l o w i n g the l o g i c of his own propositions t h r o u g h , he r e a c h e d c o n c l u s i o n s w h i c h s e e m e d t o h i m n o t t o w o r k . A m o n g his s u r p r i s i n g r e s u l t s are the s t a t e m e n t s t h a t , " I f t h e r e is no s u c h T h i n g a s F r e e - W i l l in C r e a t u r e s , t h e r e can be n e i t h e r M e r i t nor D e m e r i t in C r e a t u r e s , " a n d t h a t , " P l e a s u r e is e q u a l t o P a i n . " " I p r i n t e d a s m a l l N u m b e r , " the old m a n w r o t e in l o o k i n g b a c k over the follies of his y o u t h . " I t o c c a s i o n ' d m y b e i n g m o r e c o n s i d e r ' d by M r . P a l m e r , a s a y o u n g M a n of some I n g e n u i t y , tho' h e s e r i o u s l y E x p o s t u l a t e d with m e u p o n the P r i n c i p l e s of m y Pamphlet w h i c h to him appear'd abominable. M y printing of this p a m p h l e t , " he c o n c l u d e s , " w a s a n o t h e r E r r a t u m . ''7 T h a t was the b e g i n n i n g a n d the end of the p h i l o s o p h e r Franklin. B u t a n o t h e r kind of sage was born a t t h a t m o m e n t , one w h o l i v e d r a t h e r t h a n f o r m u l a t e d his t h o u g h t . F i f t y y e a r s l a t e r he e x p l a i n e d t o B e n j a m i n V a u g h a n t h a t " t h e g r e a t u n c e r t a i n t y I f o u n d in m e t a p h y s i c a l r e a s o n i n g s d i s g u s t e d me, a n d I q u i t t e d t h a t kind of r e a d i n g and s t u d y for o t h e r s m o r e s a t i s f a c t o r y . " s If we w i s h , therefore, t o d i s c o v e r a " c o m p e l l i n g o r g a n i c u n i t y " in his t h o u g h t , we m u s t seek it r a t h e r in his a t t i t u d e a n d a c t i o n s than in his e x p r e s s i o n of t h e o r i e s . T h e s e n s e of w h o l e n e s s with w h i c h he i m p r e s s e s us is p e r h a p s m o r e a c c u r a t e l y a t t r i b u t e d by M r . V a n D o r e n t o the f a c t t h a t " h i s p o w e r s w e r e from f i r s t t o l a s t in a flexible e q u i l i b r i u m . " 9 W h e r e s h o u l d we look for the s e c r e t of t h a t p o i s e ? .

T h e f i r s t a n d m o s t o b v i o u s field for o u r i n q u i r y is of c o u r s e t h a t of scientific e x p e r i m e n t , w h i c h he i n s i s t e d in c a r r y i n g Ibid., p. cxi. 7 "Autobiography," Writings, I, 277-78. s Passy, November 9, 1779. Writings, VII, 4x2. 9 C. Van Doren, Benjamin Franklin. New York: I928, p. 782.

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out in s p i t e of the p r o t e s t s of the G o o d M o u s e A m o s , w h o l i v e d , a c c o r d i n g t o R o b e r t L a w s o n , in B e n ' s f u r cap. " I s h a l l tear the l i g h t e n i n g from t h e s k i e s , " A m o s q u o t e s h i m as s a y i n g , " a n d h a r n e s s it t o do the b i d d i n g of m a n . " " P e r s o n a l l y , " said the m o u s e , " I t h i n k the s k y ' s a n exc e l l e n t p l a c e for it." 10 T h e f a m i l i a r s t o r i e s of the P e n n s y l v a n i a fireplace, or the e l e c t r i c k i t e , or a n y of the o t h e r e x a m p l e s of F r a n k l i n ' s i n v e s t i g a t i v e m i n d w o u l d a n y of t h e m r e v e a l the p r o c e s s of t h i n k i n g in w h i c h I a m here i n t e r e s t e d . A p p a r e n t l y he read the r e p o r t s of i n v e s t i g a t i o n s b e i n g c o n d u c t e d e l s e w h e r e a n d k e p t up a c o r r e s p o n d e n c e with o t h e r e x p e r i m e n t a l s c i e n t i s t s , b u t of theoretical r e a d i n g t h e r e is l i t t l e r e c o r d e x c e p t in his y o u t h . H i s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e with Collinson, K a m e s , H a r t l e y , a n d o t h e r E u r o p e a n t h i n k e r s is full of d i s c u s s i o n s of scientific e x p e r i m e n t s a n d political a n d e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t s , with s o m e p r a c t i c a l m o r a l i t y , a n d no m e t a p h y s i c s . Phenomena themselves first attracted him--smoky chimneys, the c o m m o n c o l d , oil on w a t e r , l i g h t n i n g s t r i k i n g b a r n s a n d s t e e p l e s . T h e n f o l l o w e d a few s i m p l e e x p e r i m e n t s t o det e r m i n e the c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h each o p e r a t e d . W h e n h e had satisfied his c u r i o s i t y on this p o i n t , he did n o t , a s w o u l d m o s t e x p e r i m e n t a l scientists, f o r m u l a t e a l a w or h y p o t h e s i s a n d p u s h the p r o b l e m f u r t h e r i n t o theoretical r e g i o n s . R a t h e r , h e t u r n e d a b o u t a n d s o u g h t t o h a r n e s s the l i g h t n i n g with rods a n d w i r e s , m a k e a l a d d e r for his b o o k s h e l v e s , or w o r k out a s y s t e m of d i e t a n d e x e r c i s e t h a t w o u l d c h e c k the c o m m o n c o l d . S u c h a b s t r a c t i o n s as a t o m s , c a l o r i e s , a n d v i t a m i n s w o u l d have h a d no i n t e r e s t for him. But he was tireless in the o b s e r v a t i o n of p h e n o m e n a . I n a l e t t e r t o Lord K a m e s , J u n e 2, 1765, he o b s e r v e s t h a t a f t e r w e a r i n g g r e e n s p e c t a c l e s the p a g e he is r e a d i n g a p p e a r s r e d d i s h , b u t d r a w s no c o n c l u s i o n s e x c e p t t h a t here is a r e l a t i o n s h i p bet w e e n g r e e n a n d red " n o t y e t e x p l a i n e d . " n In a n o t h e r l e t t e r , t o the Abbe S o u l e v i e , he e x p r e s s e s his p r e f e r e n c e for t h a t " m e t h o d of philosophizing, w h i c h p r o c e e d s u p o n a c t u a l o b s e r v a t i o n s , m a k e s a collection of f a c t s , a n d c o n c l u d e s no f u r t h e r t h a n t h o s e f a c t s will w a r r a n t . " 12 H e d i s c i p l i n e d his 10 R. Lawson, Ben and Me. n Writings, IV, 380. 12Ibid., VIII, 6oi.

Boston: ~939, P. 4I.

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imagination to discover only observable facts and then asked to what use his findings m i g h t be put to improve the lot of man, and more particularly of Philadelphians. It would seem that Franklin's mind ran a similar course with reference to social thinking. His fire company, his postal service, his library, and his newspapers and magazines at home and in o t h e r colonies were developed to answer the public need r a t h e r than for personal profit alone. Experience in each case pointed out a situation w h i c h needed the exercise of his ingenuity, and his solution to the problem was so obvious, once it had been put into practice, that it immediately became p u b l i c habit. Often it was a scientific discovery w h i c h was turned into a social channel and the two currents of his mind flowed together. He had no consistent view of the nature of society o t h e r than that dictated by his understanding of the needs of his own country. Rousseau's Sophie, the Comtesse d'Houdetot, made him the hero of a fore champOtre at her house at Samois, but the social reformer Franklin seems to have shown more interest in the lady than in the theories of the social idealist Rousseau. Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations, which appeared in I776, does not seem to have had much direct influence, although he had met its author in 1759 at the house of Dr. Robertson in Edinburgh. When he reached the conclusiofl that American independence was inevitable, he joined Jefferson in approving an agricultural economy. " T h e r e seem to be but three ways for a nation to acquire wealth," he wrote. "The first is by war, as the Romans did, in plundering t h e i r conquered neighbours. This is robbery. The second is by commerce, which is generally cheating. The t h i r d is by agriculture, the only honest way, wherein man receives a real increase of the seed t h r o w n into the ground, in a kind of continual miracle." 13 Such a simplification of Physiocratic doctrines could only be made by a man who had his eye fixed upon the practical pr6blems of a young and unexploited country. In the education of youth, he revealed the same lack of concern for abstract theory, the same practical and farsighted wisdom with reference to fact. In his several tracts on educational matters, he stresses the need for the estab18 Writings,

V, 202.

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lishment of academies in the colony and outlines a pragmatic curriculum in which facility in speaking and writing, and the reading of contemporary and recent English literature, share with history and natural science the places habitually assigned to logic, theoretical mathematics, and the classics. He even urges that, with this study, excursions might be made "to the neighbouring Plantations of the best Farmers, t h e i r Methods observ'd and reason'd upon for the Improvement of Youth." 14 The modern " a c t i v i t y " school which has developed from John Dewey's pragmatic theories of education, with its emphasis upon the study of the immediate environment, is largely a rediscovery of practices which Franklin advocated in 1749. H i g h e r education, with its diversified vocational schools, has followed a similar pattern. To Franklin, it was enough that America needed young men to carry forward the material welfare of the colonies and their people. A similarly pragmatic attitude is to be discovered in his political thought. Such men as Tom Paine and Jefferson were left to absorb the theories of the French political radicals and to draft the Declaration of Independence while Franklin sat back behind his square spectacles and merely helped it to do its work by writing perhaps his most stinging and famous satire, " R u l e s by Which a Great Empire may be Reduced." Conciliator that he had been up to this time, he was ready to add a barb to the shaft. Apparent inconsistencies in his position during the years when the revolutionary movement in the colonies was taking shape are explained when reference is made to his fact-finding approach to the problem rather than to any systematic political philosophy. Professor Verner Crane has analyzed this problem so carefully and convincingly in the last of his Colver Lectures, 15 and doubtless again in his lecture in this series, that I shall merely agree here with his main point: that Franklin's first ideal was one of federated imperialism, but that colonial loyalty led him to a l t e r his actions in terms of developing circumstances which were beyond his control. The really significant conclusion 14Proposals Relating to the Education of Youth in Pennsylvania.

I 8 4 9 . Ibid., II, 3 8 6 - 3 9 6 . 1~ V. W. Crane, Benjamin Franklin, Englishman and American. R. I.: 1936.

Phila.:

Providence,

April, 1942.]

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is not w h e t h e r he held to this or that political philosophy, but that in the crisis he used his far-sighted understanding of men and events to lead r a t h e r than to follow colonial thinking into channels which brought the most satisfactory results, within the limits of possibility. He changed his plan for action with changing circumstances. .

When we turn from consideration of scientific, social, and political questions to the more subjective realms of ethics and h u m a n relationships, the problems become more difficult and more subject to misunderstanding. This is the real test of the t h e o r y I have proposed. I once asked a loyal scholar of Franklin why he was so much interested in him, why he was willing to devote so much time to a study of him and of his ideas. The answer was immediate and spoken with firm conviction, "Because he knew how to deal with women." If I repeated my question here, I should probably receive a variety of answers, but I suspect that many of them would be variations on the theme, "Because he knew how to deal with life." We are attracted to many great figures of the past because of t h e i r ideas or t h e i r works; Franklin, I think, draws us because he so obviously worked out a rule of life which brought an unusual degree of satisfaction to him and to most people with whom he came into contact. T h e r e are two k i n d s of sources which m i g h t be used in reformulating Franklin's attitude on personal experience and m o r a l conduct: the record of his relationships with o t h e r people, and his own formulation of his ethical code. On a superficial view, the conclusions derived from one of these k i n d s o f sources do not agree with those based on the other. T h e r e appears to many people an inconsistency between the experimenter with life and people, who emerges from a review of the biographical facts, and the dogmatic moralists of the Autobiography, Poor Richard, and some of the letters. So g r e a t has this inconsistency appeared to some people that poor old Ben emerges from their studies as little more than a smug hypocrite. "Although I still believe that honesty is

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the b e s t p o l i c y , " w r i t e s the E n g l i s h m a n D. H. L a w r e n c e , " I d i s l i k e p o l i c y a l t o g e t h e r ; t h o u g h it is j u s t as well n o t t o c o u n t y o u r c h i c k e n s b e f o r e t h e y are h a t c h e d , it's s t i l l m o r e h a t e f u l t o c o u n t them with g l o a t i n g a f t e r they are h a t c h e d . I t has t a k e n m e m a n y y e a r s a n d c o u n t l e s s s m a r t s t o g e t out of t h a t b a r b e d w i r e m o r a l e n c l o s u r e t h a t Poor R i c h a r d r i g g e d up. H e r e a m I now in t a t t e r s a n d s c r a t c h e d t o r i b b o n s , s i t t i n g in the m i d d l e of B e n j a m i n ' s A m e r i c a l o o k i n g a t the b a r b e d w i r e , a n d the f a t s h e e p c r a w l i n g u n d e r the f e n c e t o g e t fat o u t s i d e a n d the w a t c h d o g s y e l l i n g a t the gate lest by c h a n c e a n y o n e s h o u l d g e t out by the p r o p e r exit. Oh A m e r i c a ! Oh B e n j a m i n ! A n d I j u s t u t t e r a long l o u d c u r s e a g a i n s t B e n j a m i n a n d the A m e r i c a n c o r r a l . " M o r a l America! Most moral Benjamin. S o u n d , satisfied B e n ! " 16 T h e r e h a s n e v e r b e e n a more w r o n g - h e a d e d c o m m e n t m a d e on F r a n k l i n , y e t it is e a s y t o see w h y this r o m a n t i c , m y s t i c a l E n g l i s h m a n , w h o d o u b t l e s s k n e w no o t h e r F r a n k l i n t h a n t h a t he e x t r a c t e d from the Autobiography a n d the Almanacks, s h o u l d r e b e l a g a i n s t w h a t s e e m e d t o h i m t o be a self-appointed C h i e f J u s t i c e of H u m a n N a t u r e : " E a t not t o f u l n e s s ; d r i n k n o t t o e l e v a t i o n . " L o s e no t i m e , be a l w a y s e m p l o y e d in s o m e t h i n g u s e f u l ; cut off all u n n e c e s s a r y a c t i o n . " A v o i d extremes, forebear resenting injuries as much as you t h i n k they d e s e r v e . " Do w h a t you w a n t t o do, but d o n ' t do too m u c h of i t - a " D o " a n d a " D o n ' t " in e v e r y s e n t e n c e ! No w o n d e r t h a t L a w r e n c e f o u n d s m u g n e s s h e r e , a n d t r i e d t o free h i m s e l f from the inhibitions he had l e a r n e d from Poor R i c h a r d ! But he c o m p l e t e l y m i s s e d the fact t h a t t h e s e m o r a l d o g m a s w e r e n o t s e t down for him. In t h e i r f i r s t f o r m , t h e y w e r e m e r e l y w o r k i n g g u i d e s for the y o u n g m a n F r a n k l i n , n o t a f i n a l s t a t e m e n t of his i d e a l of perfection. T h e y f u r n i s h e d a m e a n s of p i n c h i n g h i m s e l f in the a r m w h e n he f o u n d h i m s e l f d o i n g s o m e t h i n g of w h i c h he, in the long run, c o u l d n o t a p p r o v e . A n d , from his own t e s t i m o n y , s u c h o c c a s i o n s w e r e n o t r a r e . M a n y a good N e w Y e a r ' s r e s o l u t i o n w o u l d m a k e a b a d l a w of 16 D. H . Lawrence, Studies in Classic American Literature. I923, p. 21.

New York:

A p r i l , ~942.]

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the l a n d . T h e m o s t t h a t the old m a n F r a n k l i n h o p e d was t h a t s o m e of t h e s e l i t t l e i n s t r u m e n t s of c o n d u c t m i g h t be u s e f u l t o s o m e of his d e s c e n d a n t s a s w e l l . . T h e y h a d b e e n s h a r p e n e d by his own e x p e r i e n c e a n d w e r e of v a l u e t o him c h i e f l y a s a w a y of p a r i n g down his own excesses. H e r e c o r d e d the w h o l e e x p e r i m e n t with the d e t a c h m e n t of a scientific o b s e r v e r , h i m s e l f the s t u d e n t a n d h i m s e l f the o b j e c t of s t u d y . H i s p r o p o s e d b o o k , The Art of Virtue, w h i c h he n e v e r w r o t e , was i n t e n d e d , he e x p l a i n s , t o help t h o s e w h o h a d lost the b e t t e r s u p p o r t of C h r i s t i a n faith, t o r e t a i n a t least a working moralityY The f r a n k n e s s of the Autobiography has c h a r m e d a n d t r o u b l e d the c r i t i c s from the s t a r t ; c h a r m e d b e c a u s e , in s i m p l e A d d i s o n i a n E n g l i s h , F r a n k l i n s e t t o w o r k like an h o n e s t t r a d e s m a n t o take a n i n v e n t o r y of his life, its s u c c e s s e s a n d f a i l u r e s ; t r o u b l e d b e c a u s e the t r a d e s m a n i n c l u d e d in his c o u n t the q u a l i t i e s of s p i r i t w h i c h for s o m e have a n u n t o u c h a b l e s a n c i t y . W h i c h is the p r u d e : the m a n w h o can e v a l u a t e his i m p u l s e s a n d m e a s u r e t h e i r c o n s e q u e n c e s or the m a n w h o l o o k s u p o n his own ego a s the m y s t e r i o u s , u n t o u c h a b l e m y s t e r y of the e t e r n a l ? T h e e l e m e n t s w h i c h m a k e up cond u c t are no more e x e m p t from F r a n k l i n ' s a n a l y s i s than are t h o s e w h i c h c o n t r o l the p h e n o m e n a of n a t u r e . T h e s a m e s c a l e s m u s t be u s e d for w e i g h i n g o n e ' s self t h a t h a v e p r o v e d t h e i r w o r t h in the w e i g h i n g of o b j e c t i v e n a t u r e . F a t h e r A b r a h a m ' s s p e e c h (Poor Richard's Aimanack for I758 ) p r e a c h e s f r u g a l i t y a n d i n d u s t r y a s p r a c t i c a l a n s w e r s t o the q u e s t i o n of h i g h t a x e s .TM T h e difficulty of a p p r a i s i n g F r a n k l i n ' s m o r a l a t t i t u d e l i e s , therefore, in this a p p a r e n t i n c o n s i s t e n c y b e t w e e n his o b v i o u s l y e x p e r i m e n t a l w a y of l i v i n g a n d the codified s y s t e m of c o n t r o l s w h i c h he a t t e m p t s in the e a r l y p a g e s of the Autobiography a n d w h i c h f i n d s e x p r e s s i o n in the s a y i n g s of Poor R i c h a r d a n d e l s e w h e r e . In his w r i t i n g s , F r a n k l i n a p p a r e n t l y s t a t e s a t h e o r y of c o n d u c t f i r s t a n d u r g e s o t h e r s t o a c c e p t a n d a p p l y it t o t h e m s e l v e s ; in his own a c t i o n s he s e e m s t o r e v e r s e the process, t o work e x p e r i m e n t a l l y toward a n i n n e r equilibrium of d e s i r e a n d c o n t r o l w i t h o u t d e l i b e r a t e f o r m u l a t i o n of 1T Letter t o Lord Kames. ls Writings, III, 408.

Wr#ings, IV, I2-I 3.

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p r i n c i p l e s u n t i l a f t e r the fact. T h e i n c o n s i s t e n c y is a real one if his s t a t e m e n t s on m o r a l q u e s t i o n s be a c c e p t e d prim a r i l y a s a n e f f o r t t o g u i d e o t h e r s . U n q u e s t i o n a b l y he is h i m s e l f t o b l a m e . H e p l a y e d the p a r t of the m o r a l t e a c h e r , he gave the a p p e a r a n c e of w i s h i n g t o pass on t o o t h e r s his own r u l e s of c o n d u c t . But, a t the s a m e t i m e , this i m p r e s s i o n of F r a n k l i n as a d o g m a t i c m o r a l i s t is m i s l e a d i n g . B e f o r e he was t w e n t y - t h r e e he h a d w e i g h e d p l e a s u r e a g a i n s t r e a s o n in the c h a r a c t e r s of P h i l o c l e s a n d H o r a t i o . T h e r e s u l t i n g rule of m o d e r a t i o n was s t i l l his fifty y e a r s l a t e r w h e n he w r o t e " T h e W h i s t l e . " I t was a rule of l i v i n g w h i c h w o u l d a l w a y s a l l o w a p r a g m a t i c t e s t , a l w a y s be flexible. 19 I t is, therefore, i m p o r t a n t t o j u d g e h i m n o t so m u c h by w h a t he s e e m e d t o be or by w h a t he t h o u g h t h i m s e l f t o be, a s by w h a t he was, a n d I t h i n k i t safe t o say, even in the face of all the m o r a l a p h o r i s m s t h a t d o t his p a g e s , t h a t in his own life he t e s t e d c o n d u c t a s he d i d n a t u r e by the e x p e r i m e n t a l m e t h o d , bala n c i n g r e a s o n a n d p l e a s u r e a n e w in each n e w c i r c u m s t a n c e . In this v i e w , his p r o v e r b s , e p i g r a m s , a n d r u l e s b e c o m e m e r e l y the l a b o r a t o r y n o t e - b o o k of a p r a g m a t i c m o r a l i s t ; n o t t e x t s from a s e c u l a r p u l p i t . " H e t h a t f a l l s in love with h i m s e l f will h a v e no r i v a l s . " F r a n k l i n k n e w t h a t he was v e r y m u c h in love w i t h h i m s e l f . " T h e m o s t e x q u i s i t e f o l l y is m a d e of w i s d o m s p u n too fine." H e had t r i e d it h i m s e l f a n d g i v e n it up. " W e c a n give a d v i c e b u t we c a n n o t give c o n d u c t . " H e h a d seen his own a d m o n i t i o n s d i s r e g a r d e d , a s w e r e F a t h e r Abraham's. S u c h a p h o r i s m s a s t h e s e have the a p p e a r a n c e of c h e m i c a l f o r m u l a e d e r i v e d from the test t u b e . E v e n the m o r a l i s t i c p a s s a g e s from the Autobiography m a y be so i n t e r p r e t e d bec a u s e F r a n k l i n is a s c o n s c i e n t i o u s in r e p o r t i n g his f a i l u r e s a s he is his s u c c e s s e s in l i v i n g up t o his own i d e a l s and r u l e s of c o n d u c t . B u t this interpretation of his m o r a l a t t i t u d e c a n s c a r c e l y be a v o i d e d w h e n the f a c t s of his c o n d u c t are r e v i e w e d a p a r t from the e v i d e n c e of the Autobiography. I t is his lack of d o g m a t i s m w h i c h c h a r m e d in all his p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , his r e c e p t i v i t y t o the i d e a s of o t h e r s , his a d j u s t a b i l i t y t o t h e i r m o o d s . H i s c o m m e n t on his two old J u n t o f r i e n d s , 19 Writings,

II,

I57-17o.

A p r i l , I942.]

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P o t t s and P a r s o n s , w o u l d s u g g e s t t h a t he r e c o g n i z e d t h i n g s in h u m a n n a t u r e w h i c h w i s d o m c o u l d not a l t e r : " P a r s o n s was a wise m a n t h a t o f t e n a c t e d foolishly; P o t t s a wit t h a t s e l d o m a c t e d w i s e l y . If enough w e r e the m e a n s t o m a k e a m a n h a p p y , one had a l w a y s the m e a n s of h a p p i n e s s w i t h o u t ever e n j o y i n g the t h i n g ; the o t h e r h a d a l w a y s the t h i n g w i t h o u t ever p o s s e s s i n g the m e a n s . P a r s o n s even in his p r o s p e r i t y a l w a y s f r e t t i n g ; P o t t s in the m i d s t of his p o v e r t y a l w a y s l a u g h i n g . I t s e e m s , t h e n , t h a t h a p p i n e s s in this life r a t h e r d e p e n d s on i n t e r n a l s t h a n e x t e r n a l s ; and t h a t , b e s i d e s the n a t u r a l effects of w i s d o m and v i r t u e , vice a n d folly, t h e r e is s u c h a t h i n g a s a h a p p y or a n u n h a p p y c o n s t i t u t i o n . " ,~0 This is i n d e e d an a d m i s s i o n for one w h o s u p p o s e d l y b e l i e v e d so f u l l y in the correctability of h u m a n n a t u r e . N o t u n l i k e the m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of L a w r e n c e is t h a t of t h o s e r e c e n t c r i t i c s w h o have l a b e l e d F r a n k l i n " t h e f i r s t civilized A m e r i c a n , " a n d " t h e a p o s t l e of M o d e r n T i m e s , " b u t the e r r o r is of a c o n t r a r y sort31 P h i l l i p s R u s s e l l a n d B e r n a r d F~iy r e v o l t e d , a s d i d L a w r e n c e , a g a i n s t the s a n c t i m o n i o u s l a y - p r e a c h e r of the m i s - r e a d Autobiography. B u t i n s t e a d of m e r e l y c o n d e m n i n g him, they a t t e m p t a p o l o g i e s by p l a y i n g up in a d e p l o r a b l y s e n s a t i o n a l f a s h i o n his w o r d l i n e s s , his c o s m o p o l i t a n v i c e s , his d o u b t s , a n d his w e a k n e s s e s . T h e r e s u l t i n g p i c t u r e s are a s d i s t o r t e d a s t h a t w h i c h they set out t o correct. The c h i e f v a l u e of t h e s e b o o k s , in s p i t e of the superficiality of the one a n d the s u p p o s e d l y d o c u m e n t e d t h o r o u g h n e s s of the o t h e r , is t h a t they free F r a n k l i n from the c l u t c h e s of M r s . G r u n d y a n d r e s t o r e him t o the m o r e cong e n i a l society of M a d a m e B r i l l o n . Ford 32 h a d a l l o w e d the l a t t e r l a d y ' sc o n f e s s i o n t h a t s h e s a t on the s a g e ' s lap, but o t h e r e v i d e n c e even more d a m a g i n g was a s y e t u n r e v e a l e d . A f t e r the b a d t a s t e and the m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the R u s s e l l book h a d o p e n e d the w a y , it was p o s s i b l e for Mr. V a n D o r e n a n d o t h e r s t o d i s c u s s , w i t h o u t a p o l o g y , the p r e s e n c e of i l l e g i t i m a c y in the F r a n k l i n f a m i l y t o the f o u r t h g e n e r a t i o n , cut s h o r t t h e r e by u n t i m e l y d e a t h . A n d a f t e r the F~iy b o o k , it was e a s i e r t o 2o Writings, III, 457. 21 p . Russell, Benjamin Franklin, the First Civilized American. New York: 1926. B. F i i y , Franklin, the Apostle of Modern Times. Boston: 1929. 22 p . L. Ford, The Many-Sided Franklin. New York: 1899.

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[J. F. I.

a p p r e c i a t e F r a n k l i n ' s life a s a s t r u g g l e with h i m s e l f a n d with c i r c u m s t a n c e s . T h e s t a r c h was w a s h e d out of the b o u r g e o i s saint. S u c h r e v e l a t i o n s a n d interpretations are in t h e m s e l v e s of no m o m e n t e x c e p t t o p r o v e once a n d - f o r all t h a t F r a n k l i n ' s m o r a l a p h o r i s m s w e r e e x p r e s s e d with c o n v i c t i o n b e c a u s e m o d e r a t i o n was for him an a c q u i r e d a r t r a t h e r t h a n a r e s u l t of p r u d i s h i n h i b i t i o n s . T h e y r e a s s u r e us t h a t he was a h u m a n b e i n g w h o d e v e l o p e d c h a r a c t e r a n d k i n d l i n e s s by f a c i n g life s q u a r e l y and e v a l u a t i n g it in its v a r i o u s a n d cont r a d i c t o r y m o o d s as it p r e s e n t e d i t s e l f t o him. T h e m o r a l i z ing of the old m a n was the s u m m a r y of a life w h i c h h a d b e e n r i c h l y , if n o t a l w a y s w i s e l y or e v e n a d m i r a b l y l i v e d . Poor Richard was the n o t e - b o o k of a l a b o r a t o r y moralist. I t is h a r d l y n e c e s s a r y t o r e v i e w for this a u d i e n c e the m a n y e v i d e n c e s of F r a n k l i n ' s k i n d l y i n t e r e s t in o t h e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n y o u n g people, t h r o u g h o u t his long life. M r . S t i f l e r ' s 23 coll e c t i o n of his c o r r e s p o n d e n c e with P o l l y S t e v e n s o n a n d the S h i p l e y g i r l s , c o v e r i n g m o r e than t h i r t y y e a r s , is a l m o s t t e s t i m o n y e n o u g h . B u t t o this m a y be a d d e d a list of all t h o s e y o u n g m e n w h o m he s t i m u l a t e d a n d a i d e d t o s u c c e s s f u l l i v e s t h r o u g h the J u n t o , by m e a n s of l e t t e r s of i n t r o d u c t i o n a s in the case of T o m P a i n e , a n d by s e t t i n g t h e m up in b u s i ness for t h e m s e l v e s a f t e r a n a p p r e n t i c e s h i p with him. A n d if e v i d e n c e s of his t o l e r a n c e be s o u g h t , his t r e a t m e n t of A r t h u r Lee and S i l a s D e a n e , both of w h o m he r e f u s e d o p e n l y t o c o n d e m n even w h e n the t i d e of p o p u l a r f e e l i n g was s t r o n g a g a i n s t t h e m , m i g h t be sufficient. I t m a y be a r g u e d t h a t good b u s i n e s s s e n s e a n d self-interest led F r a n k l i n t o set his p a r t n e r s up in the p r i n t i n g a n d p u b l i s h i n g b u s i n e s s in n e i g h b o r i n g colonies, b u t no s u c h e x p l a n a t i o n can be g i v e n for his w i l l i n g n e s s t o a c c e p t the risk of p u b l i c s t i g m a r a t h e r t h a n t o d e n o u n c e the w e a k n e s s e s of his d i p l o m a t i c a s s o c i a t e s , T h e s e i n s t a n c e s are t a k e n from w i d e l y s p r e a d e p o c h s in his life, and the l a t e r ones r e v e a l even m o r e p a t i e n c e a n d k i n d l i n e s s than do the e a r l i e r o n e s . F r a n k l i n v e r i f i e d by, e x p e r i e n c e his e a r l y b e l i e f t h a t more flies are c a u g h t by mol a s s e s t h a n by v i n e g a r , t h a t a w o r l d in w h i c h p e o p l e g e t on J. M. Stifler, My Dear Girl; the Correspondence of Benjamin Franklin with Polly Stevenson, Georgiana and Catherine Shipley. New York: I 9 2 7 .

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with each o t h e r is h a p p i e r and more comfortable than one in which they do not. Perhaps this point of view is sufficient explanation of the change in his political philosophy from a belief in British federation to one in American independence. His m o r a l philosophy was as pragmatic and adjustable as was his political. 5. In no sphere of experience, however, is this trial-and-error method of Franklin more dramatically revealed than in that of religion. Those who w o u ld accept his guidance for the whole of life must follow him through to this, and it is here that many of his w a r m e s t admirers are forced to stop. Because he was so n e a r l y successful in depriving God himself of his mystery, he shocks many a potential disciple who admires his experimental approach to problems of science, society, and politics, and even those who are willing to a p p l y with him the same methods to the problems of h u m a n conduct. A careful analysis of Franklin's religious beliefs and practices would d e m a n d a review of I8th century Deism, but once more I shall be content with a discussion of his attitude alone. Again he is more interested in a workable practice of religion than in the formulated dogmatisms and skepticisms of his age. Brought up in a society which accepted a dogmatic Calvinism, the same r e v o l t w h i c h took him to Philadelphia carried him over spiritually to the company of the religious doubters who owed t h e i r Deistic beliefs to N e w t o n and Locke in the first instance. His first experiments in formulating a f a i t h of his own show the traces of both influences, but they proved unsatisfying. He soon gave up the a t t e m p t to define the n a t u r e and scope of the power of God when his reasoning brought him to the conclusion that freedom of the will was a logical impossibility but a practical necessity. A system of living founded upon such premises w o u ld not work and was therefore not for him. Y e t h e felt the need of a God to whom he could pray. The resulting D e i t y was little more than a fellow-traveler, one who stood r e a d y With his higher authority to sanction the actions which experience t a u g h t him were best. Franklin, I believe, never defined his D e i t y in these words, but in all his contacts with religious sects and religious people,

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h e a s k e d only t h a t w h a t e v e r G o d they m i g h t p r o f e s s w o u l d p r o v e his g o o d n e s s by d i r e c t i n g them i n t o the w i s e a n d v i r t u o u s w a y s of l i v i n g . H e t e l l s us t h a t , r e l i g i o u s l y educ a t e d a P r e s b y t e r i a n , he a t t e n d e d no s e r v i c e s for p u b l i c w o r s h i p w i t h a n y r e g u l a r i t y b e c a u s e he b e c a m e i m p a t i e n t with theological d i s c u s s i o n . N e v e r t h e l e s s he r e c o g n i z e d the p r a c t i c a l v i r t u e s of the c h u r c h e s a s a g e n c i e s for the p u b l i c w e l f a r e , a n d was w i l l i n g t o c o n t r i b u t e t o a n y s e c t t h a t w o u l d s e r v e the c i v i l i n t e r e s t s as well a s t h e i r own. F o r the s a m e r e a s o n he w e l c o m e d a n d s u p p o r t e d G e o r g e W h i t e f i e l d w h e n he c a m e t o P h i l a d e l p h i a in 1739, a n d his justification for j o i n i n g the M a s o n s was t h a t G o d j u d g e s m e n more for w h a t t h e y do than for w h a t t h e y t h i n k .24 H i s Articles of Belief and Acts of Religion (1728), 2a w r i t t e n a t the age of 22, p o s i t s a D i e s t i c C h r i s t i a n G o d w h o h a s infinite p o w e r but is a b o v e u s i n g it a r b i t r a r i l y , a n d a c u r i o u s h i e r a r c h y of b e i n g s s u p e r i o r t o m a n t h a t is s u g g e s t i v e of p a g a n p / m t h e i s m . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t c l a u s e in this c r e e d , h o w e v e r , is the s t a t e m e n t t h a t G o d is good a n d w i s e , a n d t h e r e f o r e B e n j a m i n F r a n k l i n of P h i l a d e l p h i a sees e v e r y r e a s o n for m a k i n g H i m his f r i e n d . In this s p i r i t of i n d e p e n d e n c e , h e p r o c e e d s t o his d e v o t i o n s a s he w o u l d t o a c o n v e r s a t i o n with a s u p e r i o r m o r a l a d v i s e r for w h o m he f e e l s d e e p reverence. All of his l a t e r r e l i g i o u s efforts, i n c l u d i n g his p r o p o s e d a b r i d g e m e n t of the Book of Common Prayer, w e r e d e s i g n e d t o m a k e more e a s y a n d imm e d i a t e the e v e r y - d a y i n t e r c o u r s e b e t w e e n m a n , the s u p e rior of the a n i m a l s , and God, the s u p r e m e in w i s d o m a n d j u d g m e n t of all b e i n g s . B u t in his m o s t r e l i g i o u s m o o d s , this i n t e r c o u r s e was s t i l l in the n a t u r e of a c o n v e r s a t i o n b e t w e e n one b e i n g a n d a n o t h e r . S u r e l y no one h a s ever d e v i s e d a more h e l p f u l God, b u t the e x p e r i e n c e of r e l i g i o u s e x u l t a t i o n is l a c k i n g in the relationship. I t was for i m m e d i a t e and p r a c t i c a l aid t h a t he u r g e d the C o n s t i t u t i o n a l C o n v e n t i o n of 1786 t o t u r n t o God, a n d the p s y c h o l o g i c a l e f f e c t of his s u g g e s t i o n was g o o d ?6 F r a n k l i n ' s p r a g m a t i c a t t i t u d e s e e m s t o s t a n d this f i n a l t e s t ; he c r e a t e d a n d c l u n g t o a G o d w h o h e l p e d h i m 24 Letter to Josiah Franklin, April 13, 1838. Writings, II, 214-16. Writings, II, 91-1oo. ~6 M. Farrand, The Records o f the Federal Convention o f x787. Rev. ed. 4 v. New Haven: 1937, I, 450-52.

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d i s c o v e r how t o l i v e , a n d a l l o w e d h i m t o m a k e the d i s c o v e r y for h i m s e l f . W i t h o t h e r p r o b l e m s of the n a t u r e a n d f u n c t i o n of the D e i t y he e a r l y lost interest. A n d w h e n E z r a S t i l e s a s k e d him a m o n t h b e f o r e his d e a t h , t o s t a t e his o p i n i o n on the D i v i n i t y of C h r i s t , he r e p l i e d : " I t is a q u e s t i o n I do n o t d o g m a t i z e u p o n , h a v i n g n e v e r s t u d i e d i t , a n d t h i n k it n e e d l e s s t o busy m y s e l f with it now, w h e n I e x p e c t soon a n O p p o r t u n i t y of k n o w i n g the T r u t h with less Trouble;." . F r a n k l i n ' s w a y of t h i n k i n g a n d l i v i n g m a y be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from t h o s e of his E u r o p e a n c o n t e m p o r a r i e s like V o l t a i r e a n d J o h n s o n in t h a t it was so characteristically A m e r i c a n . T h e p a r t i c u l a r form w h i c h his p r a g m a t i s m took was a r e s u l t of his p a r t i c i p a t i o n a s a p r i n c i p a l a c t o r in the g r e a t e s t m a s s m o v e m e n t of civilization t h a t h i s t o r y r e c o r d s . L e w i s M u m f o r d s u m m a r i z e s it in a s e n t e n c e : " T h e s e t t l e m e n t of A m e r i c a had its o r i g i n s in the u n s e t t l e m e n t of E u r o p e . " ~7 N e v e r b e f o r e had m a n m a d e so d e l i b e r a t e a n d so a m b i t i o u s an e f f o r t t o t r a n s f e r a m a t u r e d civilization t o a p r i m i t i v e l a n d . T h e m o v e m e n t s of G r e e k c u l t u r e t o R o m e and of L a t i n c u l t u r e t o E n g l a n d are trifling w h e n c o m p a r e d t o the g i g a n t i c t a s k of t r a n s f e r r i n g the c u l t u r e of W e s t e r n E u r o p e t o A m e r i c a n s h o r e s . N o r was the c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n the sophistication of the c u l t u r e a n d the b a r b a r i s m of the l a n d ever so s t r i k i n g . H i s t o r i a n s h a v e l a b e l e d the effort "the f r o n t i e r m o v e m e n t " and have m o r e a n d m o r e , s i n c e F r e d e r i c k J a c k s o n T u r n e r d e f i n e d it in I893, come t o r e a l i z e t h a t m u c h in A m e r i c a n c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y c a n be b e t t e r e x p l a i n e d w h e n r e f e r r e d t o this b a s i c f a c t o r . F r a n k l i n l i v e d a t a time w h e n the f r o n t i e r c u l t u r e of the e a s t e r n s e a b o a r d colonies was r e a c h i n g m a t u r i t y t h r o u g h a p a i n f u l a d o l e s c e n c e . A s a result, his p r a g m a t i s m h a s a p e c u l i a r l y A m e r i c a n flavor, a v i t a l i t y a n d a g g r e s s i v e n e s s w h i c h the t i r e d s k e p t i c i s m of c o n t e m p o r a r y E u r o p e a n t h i n k e r s l a c k e d . W h a t e v e r his p r e d i l e c t i o n s m a y be t o w a r d a life of c o n t e m p l a t i o n a n d d o g m a t i c belief, the A m e r i c a n philosop h e r from the e a r l i e s t d a y s h a s been f o r c e d out of his a s s u m p t i o n s a n d i n t o a m o l d of v i g o r o u s p r a g m a t i s m by the very 27 L. Mumford, The Golden Day.

New York: 1926, p. II.

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c i r c u m s t a n c e s of his life. H o w e v e r s o u n d his p h i l o s o p h y w h e n k e p t in the r e a l m of t h e o r y , a n d h o w e v e r a d m i r a b l e his love of s e c u r i t y a n d r e t i r e m e n t for c o n t e m p l a t i o n , the i m m e d i a t e need for a c t i o n h a s a l w a y s been too g r e a t t o a l l o w a n y s y s t e m of t h i n k i n g w h i c h c a n n o t j u s t i f y i t s e l f by prov i d i n g s w i f t l y the n e e d s and the m i n i m a l c o m f o r t s of life. " A m e r i c a was p r o m i s e s , " s i n g s o u r l a t e s t L a u r e a t e A r c h i b a l d M a c L e i s h ; but the A m e r i c a n is p r a g m a t i s t . H e m u s t m a k e s o m e of the p r o m i s e s w o r k . I s h o u l d like t o a s k y o u r i n d u l g e n c e for p e r h a p s too long a d i g r e s s i o n a t this p o i n t b e c a u s e I feel t h a t we can only a p p r e c i a t e F r a n k l i n ' s p r a g m a t i s m by d i s c o v e r i n g the. s a m e t r a i t in o t h e r A m e r i c a n s and s e e i n g it a s a d o m i n a n t s t r a i n t h r o u g h out the long h i s t o r y of o u r intellectual d e v e l o p m e n t . I t t a k e s little a r g u m e n t t o p r o v e t h a t the o r i g i n a l s e t t l e r s in this c o u n t r y w e r e p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d with p r a c t i c a l p r o b l e m s . T h o s e w h o w e r e n o t , did n o t live t o p r o d u c e b o o k s o r d e s c e n d a n t s . E v e n w h e n they w e r e m o t i v a t e d by r e l i g i o u s i d e a l s a s w e r e the P l y m o u t h colonists a n d the P e n n s y l v a n i a Q u a k e r s , t h e i r f i r s t acts w e r e s u c h c o m m o n s e n s e t r a n s l a t i o n s of t h e i r t h e o r i e s i n t o w o r k a b l e p r a c t i c e s a s the Plymouth Compact a n d the c l a s s i c t r e a t y with the I n d i a n s . A n d even w h e n the colonies w e r e f a i r l y s e t t l e d , t h e r e was more d e b a t e on p r o b l e m s of e c o n o m i c s a n d g o v e r n m e n t than u p o n t h e a b s t r a c t i o n s of p h i l o s o p h y a n d the a m e n i t i e s of l i t e r a t u r e . In the f a m o u s Bloudy Tenent c o n t r o v e r y itself, R o g e r W i l l i a m s was p r o t e s t i n g p e r s e c u t i o n for c a u s e of c o n s c i e n c e a s a w o r k ing p r i n c i p l e of t h r o t t l i n g free s p e e c h in a d e m o c r a c y r a t h e r t h a n a s a s c h o l a s t i c d o g m a . I t was more t h a n a c e n t u r y b e f o r e the c o l o n i e s p r o d u c e d in J o n a t h a n E d w a r d s a philosopher w h o is w o r t h y t o take r a n k a m o n g o r i g i n a l a n d systematic thinkers, and almost two hundred years before that t y p e % f l i t e r a t u r e w h i c h is c o n c e r n e d with the p l e a s u r e s a n d a m e n i t i e s of life took s h a p e in C o o p e r , I r v i n g , a n d B r y a n t . T h e g r e a t t h e o r i s t of the R e v o l u t i o n , T o m P a i n e , h a d few o r i g i n a l i d e a s a n d d e v o t e d his e n e r g i e s t o a p p l y i n g the p r i n c i p l e s w h i c h he had l e a r n e d in his r e a d i n g t o the P r o b l e m s w h i c h his a d o p t e d c o u n t r y f a c e d in the fact. This u n u s u a ' l p h e n o m e n o n of a w h o l e n a t i o n w o r k i n g in a c c o r d with a p h i l o s o p h y w h i c h it h a d n o t , in a l m o s t two

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c e n t u r i e s , h a d t i m e t o f o r m u l a t e is c o m m e n t e d on s o m e y e a r s l a t e r by the a s t u t e F r e n c h m a n , de T o q u e v i l l e : " I t h i n k t h a t in no c o u n t r y in the civilized w o r l d is less a t t e n t i o n paid t o p h i l o s o p h y t h a n in the U n i t e d S t a t e s , " he w r i t e s . " T h e A m e r i c a n s h a v e no philosophical s c h o o l of t h e i r own ; and they care b u t l i t t l e for all the s c h o o l s i n t o w h i c h E u r o p e is d i v i d e d , the v e r y n a m e s of w h i c h are s c a r c e l y k n o w n t o t h e m . Y e t it is e a s y t o p e r c e i v e t h a t a l m o s t all the i n h a b i t a n t s of the U n i t e d S t a t e s c o n d u c t t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g in the s a m e m a n ner, a n d g o v e r n i t by the s a m e r u l e s . . . . E a c h A m e r i c a n a p p e a l s t o the i n d i v i d u a l e x e r c i s e of his own u n d e r s t a n d i n g a l o n e . . . . A s it is on t h e i r own t e s t i m o n y t h a t they are a c c u s t o m e d t o r e l y , they like t o d i s c e r n the o b j e c t w h i c h e n g a g e s t h e i r a t t e n t i o n w i t h e x t r e m e c l e a r n e s s ; they t h e r e fore s t r i p off a s m u c h as p o s s i b l e all t h a t c o v e r s it, t h e y rid t h e m s e l v e s of w h a t e v e r s e p a r a t e s t h e m from it, they r e m o v e w h a t e v e r c o n c e a l s it from s i g h t , in o r d e r t o v i e w it m o r e c l o s e l y a n d in the b r o a d l i g h t of d a y . " 28 W i t h this s h r e w d e x p l a n a t i o n of the A m e r i c a n h a b i t of p r a g m a t i c i n d e p e n d e n c e of m i n d , even s u c h i d e a l i s t s a s E m e r s o n a n d T h o r e a u c o n s e n t t o fall i n t o the p a t t e r n . Kenn e t h M u r d o c k h a s p o i n t e d out t h a t the P u r i t a n s t h e m s e l v e s w e r e m e n of a f f a i r s a n d t i e d t h e i r i d e a l i s m c l o s e l y i n t o t h e i r d a i l y l i v e s 3 " By I84O, P u r i t a n i s m h a d s t r i p p e d i t s e l f of all the i n h i b i t i o n s a n d r e g i m e n t a t i o n s of theological d o g m a , a n d life c o u l d be d e f i n e d and l i v e d as a new t e s t i n g of e x p e r i ence each d a y by each i n d i v i d u a l . E m e r s o n c a m e very n e a r t o f o r m u l a t i n g an e t h i c a l philosophy, even t h o u g h he f a i l e d t o s y s t e m a t i z e his m e t a p h y s i c s a n d aesthetics. In The American Scholar, in 1837, he p r e a c h e d an i d e a l i z a t i o n of the m o r a l c o d e of w h i c h F r a n k l i n was, in m a n y r e s p e c t s , a n e x a m p l e . I m p a t i e n c e with b o o k s a s b o o k s is c o u n t e r e d by a plea for c l o s e r c o m m u n i o n with n a t u r e and for a c t i o n . F r a n k l i n ' s n a t u r e was of the h u m a n v a r i e t y , but we can e a s i l y i m a g i n e him, g r a n t e d E m e r s o n ' s gift of t o n g u e s , s p e a k i n g the f o l l o w i n g l i n e s : " I f it w e r e only for a v o c a b u l a r y , the s c h o l a r 28A. de Toqueville, Democracy in America, trans, by H . Reeve. New York: 1898, II, 1-7. ,9 K. Murdock, "The Puritan Tradition," The Reinterpretation of American Literature, edited by Norman Foerster, New York: 1928, p. lO5.

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ROBERT E . SPILLER.

[J. F. I.

w o u l d be c o v e t o u s of a c t i o n . Life is o u r d i c t i o n a r y . Y e a r s a r e well s p e n t in c o u n t r y l a b o r s ; in t o w n s ; in the i n s i g h t i n t o t r a d e s a n d m a n u f a c t u r e s ; in f r a n k i n t e r c o u r s e with m a n y m e n a n d w o m e n ; in s c i e n c e ; in art; t o the one end of m a s t e r i n g in all t h e i r f a c t s a l a n g u a g e by w h i c h t o i l l u s t r a t e a n d e m b o d y o u r p e r c e p t i o n s . . . . Life lies b e h i n d us a s the q u a r r y from w h i c h we g e t t i l e s a n d c o p e s t o n e s for the m a s o n r y of t o - d a y . ''3° I a m f u l l y a w a r e t h a t in c a l l i n g E m e r s o n a p r a g m a t i s t , a t l e a s t in some p h a s e s of his t h o u g h t , I a m f l y i n g in the face of m u c h of the t r a d i t i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of his a t t i t u d e , a l t h o u g h I a m not a l o n e a m o n g his r e c e n t c r i t i c s in c o m m i t ting this c r i m e . F r e d e r i c k Ives C a r p e n t e r w r i t e s : " E m e r s o n ' s p h i l o s o p h y m a y p e r h a p s be d e s c r i b e d as a P r a g m a t i c M y s t i c i s m . I t is i d e a l i s t i c in t h a t it puts the m y s t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e first. I t is d u a l i s t i c in t h a t it l o o k s both w a y s from its p o s i t i o n on the b r i d g e b e t w e e n soul a n d n a t u r e . I t is m o n i s t i c in t h a t i t m a i n t a i n s t h a t this b r i d g e is the only r e a l i t y . But i t is p r a g m a t i c in t h a t it t e s t s all t r u t h s ( i n c l u d i n g the m y s t i c a l b e l i e f in the v a l u e of life) by experience. "It remains to suggest," continues Mr. Carpenter, " t h a t this p r a g m a t i c m y s t i c i s m is e s s e n t i a l l y the A m e r i c a n p h i l o s o p h y . " 31 W i t h this c o n c l u s i o n I a m i n c l i n e d h e a r t i l y t o a g r e e a l t h o u g h it has b e e n p o i n t e d out c o n v i n c i n g l y t h a t E m e r s o n , in his m o r e m y s t i c a l m o o d s , r e j e c t s the e x p e r i m e n t a l a t t i t u d e t o w a r d p h y s i c a l f a c t s w h i c h is characteristic of the p r a g m a t i s m of F r a n k l i n a n d of o t h e r more p r a c t i c a l p e o p l e from W i l l i a m Penn t o W i l l i a m J a m e s . B u t the d i s c o v e r y of p r a g m a t i s m in a n y s e n s e in E m e r s o n is akin t o the s e n s a t i o n a l . In him, a n d p e r h a p s also in T h o r e a u , W h i t m a n , a n d the o t h e r l e a d e r s of the m i d - n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y r e n a i s s a n c e of i d e a l i s m in l i t e r a t u r e a n d life, the m y s t i c a l is more i m p o r t a n t than the c i r c u m s t a n t i a l experience. B u t if we c o m p a r e t h e s e i d e a l i s t s w i t h E u r o p e a n l i t e r a r y m e n a n d philosophers of the s a m e g e n e r a l s t a m p , like C o l e r i d g e , G o e t h e , and K a n t , the h o r n s of the Y a n k e e t r a d e s m a n a p p e a r a b o v e the all-seeing eye. T h r o u g h o u t the A m e r i c a n experience, therefore, o u r c h i e f p r o b l e m h a s been the a d j u s t m e n t of an e x t r e m e form of 30 R. W. Emerson, Works (Cent. E d . ) , I, 97-98. 31 F. I. Carpenter, Ralph WaldoEmerson, Representative Selections, New York: 1934. Introduction, p. xxxvii.

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pragmatic individualism, demanded by the circumstances of our civilization, to the fundamental hunger of h u m a n n a t u r e for something higher and better than it can obtain in this world. The p u r e r forms of idealism have seldom t a k e n root in our soil because of the urgency of the p r a g m a t i c challenge, especially in the e a r l y days. Franklin, more successfully than any o t h e r Colonial, faced this issue and was temperamentally able to make the adjustment which the circumstances of his time and country demanded. He reduced religion to practical ethics and he tested conduct by experience. Emerson, a m y s t i c by temperament, founded his ethics, as his P u r i t a n forefathers had done before him, on the same pragmatic base. It was left for William James to r e t u r n to the foundations which Franklin had laid by the pattern of his life and to formulate a theory which Franklin had lived without formulation. T h e r e is much reason to believe that this modern pragmatism is the characteristic American philosophy, the one which our experience has dictated from the start. We may not each of us accept it without qualifications for ourselves, but as a people we have learned it and applied it throughout our history. We may, like E m e r s o n and many another American, feel the need for accepting the mystical experience and explaining the universe in terms of a polarity r a t h e r than of a single p o i n t of reference. But in Franklin's singleness lay his strength and his unity. It m i g h t prove a sanitive to these troubled times and to the many troubled minds living in them to r e t u r n more frequently to the study of a man whose philosophy was himself, and who discovered how to make himself whole by rejecting no part of the life about him, and sane by keeping it in control. On such a foundation we may b u i l d according to our various temperaments and needs.