Bike-traveling as a growing phenomenon: Role of attributes, value, satisfaction, desire, and gender in developing loyalty

Tourism Management 59 (2017) 91e103

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Tourism Management journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tourman

Bike-traveling as a growing phenomenon: Role of attributes, value, satisfaction, desire, and gender in developing loyalty Heesup Han a, Bo Meng b, Wansoo Kim c, * a

College of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Sejong University, 98 Gunja-Dong, Gwanjin-Gu, Seoul 143-747, South Korea Department of Tourism Management, Shanxi University, No. 92 Wucheng Road, Taiyuan, Shanxi Province, 030006, PR China c Department of International Tourism, Dong-A University, 1 Bumin-dong (2 Ga), Seo-gu, Busan 602-760, South Korea b

h i g h l i g h t s
This study developed a loyalty model in a bike-traveling context.
Moderating impact of gender was identified.
Value, satisfaction, and desire played a mediating role.

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 1 February 2016 Received in revised form 21 July 2016 Accepted 22 July 2016

This research was designed to investigate the role of bike-tourism attributes, perceived value, satisfaction, desire, and gender in bicyclers' loyalty generation process. We employed a survey methodology. Using the data collected from members of bicycle clubs in China, we conducted a structural analysis and test for metric invariance. Results showed that our theoretical model explained a sufficient amount of the variance in loyalty; the hypothesized relationships in our research framework were generally supported; and cognitive, evaluative, and motivational processes were significant mediators. Moreover, the proposed moderating impact of gender was partially supported. Overall, our empirical findings make a significant contribution to advancing our knowledge of how product attributes, value, satisfaction, and desire are related and how these relationships are affected by gender in the formation of bicycle travelers' loyalty. © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Bicycle travelers Loyalty Satisfaction Gender

1. Introduction Bicycle tourism refers to cycling that is undertaken during leisure time for periods of time under 24 h, or one night from the home destination. Usually, it is often a half-day or a day of touring, primarily from home with family members or social groups (Ritchie, 1998). Lumsdon (1996), Simonsen and Jorgenson (1996), and Ritchie (1998) generalized six features of bicycle tourism: 1) away from home; 2) the duration of a single day to multi days; 3) non-competitive; 4) cycling should be the main purpose; 5) occurs in an active context; and 6) a recreation/leisure form. Bicycling for the purpose of transportation had dropped

* Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (H. Han), [email protected] (B. Meng), [email protected] (W. Kim). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2016.07.013 0261-5177/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

immensely in the past several decades due to the use of motorized vehicles (Ritchie, 1998). However, the bicycle has regained its popularity as a form of tourism providing healthy and natural experiences (Hjalager, 2015; Lamont, 2009). The rapid growth of bicycle tourism has made bicycle-tourism destination marketers, related-industry practitioners, and local government agencies see the importance of bicycle tourism industry, and various strategies have been made to attract more bicycle tourists (Karki & Tao, 2016; Lee, 2014; Lee, Chen, & Huang, 2014). Among these strategies, continuously maintaining loyal customers is considered one of the most effective marketing strategies since customers with higher loyalty are more likely to spend more money and perform positive WOM behaviors (Ladhari, Brun, & Morales, 2008; Yang & Peterson, 2004). More specifically, destination marketers can use loyal customers as useful information sources once high loyalty has been maintained. Due to the inherent characteristics that those loyal customers usually have (e.g., schedule, eating habits, favorite

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bicycle activities, etc.), understanding of these them would enable tailored services to be prepared in advance. As such, regular loyal customers would also make the launching of long-term policies possible (Han & Ryu, 2009). Researchers in many existing studies regarding tourism, hospitality, consumer behavior, and marketing have widely examined the antecedents of customer loyalty and the direct/indirect roles of such antecedents in the loyalty generation process (Getty & Thompson, 1994; Han & Ryu, 2009; Hwang & Hyun, 2014; Luarn & Lin, 2003; Oliver, 1999; Prebensen, Woo, & Uysal, 2014). Important drivers of customer loyalty documented in the extant literature generally involve product/service attributes (Han, 2013; Turel, Serenko, & Bontis, 2010), perceived value (Heskett, Jones, Loveman, Sasser, & Schlesinger, 1994; Lee, Hsu, Han, & Kim, 2010; € nroos, 1996), satisfaction (Anto n, Camarero, & Ravald & Gro Laguna-García, 2014; Chiou & Droge, 2006; Luarn & Lin, 2003), and desire (Carrus, Passafaro, & Bonnes, 2008; Han, Baek, Lee, & Huh, 2014). These variables are believed to provide an excellent explanation of loyalty formation. Nonetheless, researchers in diverse fields have also asserted to consider gender as a moderator influencing customers' loyalty generation process and postpurchase behavior (e.g., Chen, 2000; Han, Hsu, & Lee, 2009; Jackson & Inbakaran, 2006; Nunkoo & Ramkissoon, 2010). Indeed, gender differences on individuals' loyalty formation have been extensively examined and identified in hospitality and tourism (Han et al., 2009, 2011). Considering the role of gender thus seems to be necessary to explicitly uncover travelers' loyalty generation process. While the important role of the attributes of a product/service is quite apparent in explaining in individuals' post-purchase behaviors, key questions still remain unaddressed. In particular, its relationships with value, satisfaction, and desire and the impact of such relationships on traveler loyalty have rarely been researched. Few studies have clearly identified the independent role of each dimension of bike-traveling attributes in the formation of bicyclers' loyalty. Moreover, no empirical research has yet developed a robust model of loyalty comprising such vital concepts as product/service attributes, value, satisfaction, and desire. Further, despite the criticality of gender, little is known about the impact of gender on bicyclers' loyalty generation process. To minimize these gaps, the present research was designed to achieve the following research objectives: 1) The first objective was to develop a model explaining travelers' loyalty for bike-traveling by involving the attributes of bicycle tourism, perceived value, satisfaction, and desire. 2) The second objective was to identify if gender differences on the intricate associations among study constructs exists. 3) The third objective was to test the mediating impact of perceived value, satisfaction, and desire in the proposed theoretical framework. 4) The fourth objective was to identify the comparative importance of bicycle tourism attributes in determining perceived value. 5) The last objective was to assess the relative criticality of research constructs in generating travelers' loyalty for bicycle tourism. The following section contains a discussion of the theoretical/ conceptual background about the present study and hypotheses development. Next, the research design is described. Findings from the data analysis and hypotheses testing results are then presented. The last section provides a discussion of theoretical and practical implications, study limitations, and suggestions for future studies.

2. Literature review 2.1. Bicycle tourism in China Bicycle ownership in China drooped sharply in the mid-1990's with the rise of automobiles and growth of road networks (Zhang, Shaheen, & Chen, 2014). However, there is a rapid growth of bicycles as a tool for tourism purposes. The number of bicycle clubs in China has now reached over 10 thousand, and bicycle tour participants have grown to 6 million. Regarding to bicycle events, there are 3000 events held in China in 2015, which is a 30% growth compared to 2014. Therefore, China's bicycle market is expected to be grown from 16.2 billion RMB in 2014 to 420 billion RMB in 2025 (Xia, 2016). China's bicycle market is predicted to have a huge potential due to the Chinese traditional culture in bicycles, the rich source for bicycle traveling, the needs for green tourism products, as well as governments' policies for supporting bicycle use. Specifically, China has a long history of bicycle riding (Zhang et al., 2014). Once upon a time, China was named “kingdom of the bicycle” because of its large population of bicycle riders (Zhao, 2014). Because most Chinese are familiar with bicycles and are used to using bicycles as a way of commuting, it is easy for people to accept bicycles as a tourism form. Meanwhile, China has appropriate resources (e.g., large territory, topological diversity, colorful culture and numerous heritage sites) for developing bicycle tourism activities (Lee et al., 2014). Compared to countries/regions, China has unique bicycle routes such as the Great Wall in Beijing, city bicycle tours in Shanghai and Suzhou, and adventure tours in Lhasa, Tibet and Sichuan province (Bikechina, 2016; Chinacycletours, 2016). The market potential of bicycle tourism in China also lies in people's growing needs for green products. Recently, many Chinese people have suffered from the negative consequences of their environment (e.g., lung cancer), and therefore, they desire to stay healthy and go more environmentally friendly ((Li, Liu, Lü, Liang, & Harmer, 2015). As such, growing concerns in the environment and awareness of physically active lifestyles raise the bicycle tourism as a green way of traveling (Lu, 2010). At the same time, Chinese governments have been attempting to stimulate the development of a bicycle-related infrastructure in order to build a well-designed bicycle network (Karki & Tao, 2016). At present, many cities in China have bicycle sharing programs implemented to promote a low-carbon transportation policy (Zhang, Zhang, Duan, & Bryde, 2015). 2.2. Attributes of bicycle tourism Most of the studies consider bicycle tourism a specific situation of general tourism and thus, its attributes could be generalized under the framework of tourist destination research (Chang & Chang, 2005; Lamont, 2009; Laws, 1995; Lee, 2015; Lumsdon & Peeters, 2009). The researchers considered that the four attributes could be distinguished in general tourism destination (i.e., attraction, access, amenities and ancillary services) (Cooper, Fletcher, Gilbert, & Wanhill, 1993). However, when applied to bicycle tourism, the attributes should be considered during the entire period of bike-traveling, rather than the final destination bicycle travelers attempt to reach to (Dickinson & Lumsdon, 2010). Under this consideration, researchers believe that bicycle attractions should include tourism attractions, accessibility, amenities, and complementary services (Cooper et al., 1993; Kotler, Haider, & Rein, 1993; Lew, 1987; Van Raaij, 1986). These attributes together facilitate the activities and experiences in bicycle tourism (Lee, 2014). Empirically, researchers have applied the framework into a context of bicycle tourism by testing the validity of these attributes (Lee, 2015; Lee et al., 2014; Lee & Huang, 2014). Thus, the evidence from these empirical studies supported the appropriateness of

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applying the framework into a bicycle context. In particular, tourism attractions are fundamental elements, referring to natural resources (e.g., comfortable climate, beautiful landscape) and man-made tourism resources (e.g., heritage sites, cultural and historic sites such as temples) (Chang & Chang, 2005; Ritchie, 1998). The tourism attractions form most bicycle tourists' experiences. The local landscape and historic sites unique to tourists could engage them into the environment (Lee, 2015). Besides, tourism attractions also include good weather, providing tourists a good perception of nature. Accessibility dimension means the degree of difficulties and convenience of moving people from one place to another (e.g., connection-oriented transport services (i.e., railway and bus), connection with major roadways, bicycle parking lots, traffic flow and density, bicycle lanes/paths, and road surface and pavement) (Cooper et al., 1993; Lamont, 2009). The availability of connection transport services would generate a bicycle-friendly environment, which can help avoid physical injury and equipment damage (Lee & Huang, 2014). The dimensions of amenities include lodging services (e.g., overnight accommodation, rest areas) and catering services (grocery and convenience stores; restaurants) (Jensen, 2007; Petritsch et al., 2007). Especially in long distance of bicycle traveling, amenities are necessary to support a continuous bicycle trip. The provision of food, drinks and accommodation play a role of “gas station”. Bicycle tourists need to make stops to relax, get refreshed, and sleep (Lamont, 2009). Finally, complementary services refer to the provision of safety and security systems (e.g., first-aid stations, police stations, bicycle hire/repair shops) and information services (e.g., visitor centers, sign of attractions) (Lee, 2014; Lee & Huang, 2014). Bicycling tourism may face various unexpected incidents if the distance is long enough. It is especially important when a bicycle traveler goes through remote and rural areas. Thus, security systems play a role of making them feel safe during their journey. These systems could provide both bicyclists and their bicycles with convenient first-aid kits in case of an emergency. In addition, complementary services may offer free tools so bicyclists can make minor repairs including pumping up their tires. In a situation of information systems, traffic signs are particularly important for bicyclists who have a higher level of way finding anxiety (Chang, 2013). Clearly showing the signs of the attractions not only makes an effective journey but also calms the insecure feelings of travelers. 2.3. Perceived value Social psychological theories comprising pro-environmental/ pro-social (e.g., value-belief-norm model) and self-interest (e.g., rational-choice models) motives consistently indicate the importance of value as a contributor for better predictions of individuals' intentions or post-purchase behavior (e.g., Ajzen, 1985; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975; Stern, 2000; Stern, Dietz, Abel, Guagnano, & Kalof, 1999). It is unarguable that a firm's ability to provide superior value is a prerequisite when establishing and enduring a long-term €nroos, 1996). Zeithaml relationship with its patrons (Ravald & Gro (1988) defined perceived value as “the consumer's overall assessment of the utility of a product based on a perception of what is received and what is given” (p. 14). According to Zeithaml (1988), the value perception is individual and subjective, and thus diversely varies among customers. 2.4. Impact of attributes on value Customers' perceived value is often derived from their experiences/interactions with product/service attributes (Turel et al., 2010). Clearly, performances of product/service attributes are a

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sound trigger of customers' value perception (Luarn & Lin, 2003). In a hospitality context, Han and Hyun (2012) identified that patrons' perceived assessment of restaurant-product attributes comprising cor, reliable benefit programs, menu items, physical environde ments, and interaction/communication skills is crucial in generating favorable value perception. They indicated that this value in turn exerts a significant influence on patrons' affective experiences. Liu and Jang (2009) also recognized that customers' perception/ cognition about a restaurant product are based on the performances of its key attributes such as attentive services, cleanliness, service reliability, and quality. Similarly, in their recent research about traveler behaviors in a healthcare tourism context, Han (2013) identified that the multiple attributes of a healthcare hotel product (e.g., monetary and convenience benefits, personal security, availability of products/services) are vital in travelers' loyaltyintention generation process. His result empirically demonstrated that the performances of such product attributes are significant direct drivers of perceptions/cognitions containing value perception and image. Customers' perception/cognition whose major constituent is perceived value is often built on the evaluation of the performances of product/service attributes in hospitality and tourism (Jani & Han, 2011; Yuksel, Yuksel, & Bilim, 2010). Based on these evidences, it is plausibly assumed that bicycle travelers form their value perception based on simultaneous assessments of what is obtained and what is given up to achieve it; and this formation of value perception is influenced by performances of attributes of a bicycle-tourism product. H1: Tourism attractions positively and significantly affect perceived value. H2: Accessibility positively and significantly affects perceived value. H3: Amenities positively and significantly affect perceived value. H4: Complementary services positively and significantly affect perceived value.

2.5. Satisfaction Satisfaction refers to “a judgment that a product/service feature, or the product or service itself, provided (or is providing) a pleasurable level of consumption-related fulfillment, including levels of under- or over-fulfillment” (Oliver, 1997, p. 13). Customers are highly satisfied if a product/service and its attributes provide additional pleasure, exceeding their expectation (over-fulfillment) (Oliver, 1980, 1999; Yi, 1990). In contrast, they are less likely to be satisfied if the product/service and its features offer a lower level of pleasure than they anticipated (under-fulfillment) (Oliver, 1980, 1999; Yi, 1990). Customers' evaluative fulfillment response is the n et al., 2014; core aspect of this description of satisfaction (Anto Chiou & Droge, 2006; Heskett et al., 1994; Jeon & Hyun, 2013; Oliver, 1999). 2.6. Impact of value on satisfaction Empirical research in tourism, consumer behavior, marketing, has acknowledged that perceived value is a leading determinant of satisfaction evaluation and loyalty intentions (Cronin, Brady, & Hult, 2000; Parasuraman & Grewal, 2000; Prebensen et al., 2014). In particular, in a tourism context, Prebensen et al. (2014) empirically demonstrated that perceived value of trip experiences significantly increases travelers' satisfaction level, which in turn contributes to loyalty enhancement. In their research about consumer behaviors, Cronin et al. (2000) also verified that individuals'

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value perception significantly and positively affects satisfaction; and this value also influences loyalty intentions indirectly thorough satisfaction. In their research, satisfaction was described and employed as an evaluative process about a product/service. In the Halal tourism sector, Eid and El-Gohary (2015) also demonstrated that diverse aspects of Muslim travelers' perceived value positively influence their satisfaction with the purchased tourism package. Overall, these empirical evidences provide a strong support for the positive relationship between value and satisfaction. The present study, therefore, puts forward the hypothesis as follows: H5: Perceived satisfaction.

value

positively and

significantly affects

2.7. Desire Desire refers to “a state of mind whereby an agent has a personal motivation to perform an action or to achieve a goal” (Perugini & Bagozzi, 2004, p. 71). The concept of desire differs from intention in three main perspectives, namely perceived performability, temporal frame, and action-connectedness (Perugini & Bagozzi, 2004). In particular, first, desired actions tend to be less performable than intended actions (performability) (Han et al., 2014; Perugini & Bagozzi, 2004). Second, desire generally has a timeindefinite nature but intention has a comparatively now-oriented nature (Temporal frame) (Perugini & Bagozzi, 2004). Third, regarding action-connectedness, an intention whose concept encompasses at least some degree of commitment (Bagozzi, 1992) and comprises at least partial planning to act (goal achievement) (Bratman, 1987) has a stronger connection to the goal (action) than desire (Perugini & Bagozzi, 2004). Thus, the terms, desire and intention, should not be treated as synonyms and not be used alternatively. 2.8. Impact of satisfaction on desire and loyalty Customers often form desire toward a product/service (Han & n Ryu, 2012; Hunter, 2006) and make a repurchase decision (Anto et al., 2014; Jeon & Hyun, 2013; Prebensen et al., 2014) if their experiences with the product/service are satisfactory. For instance, € cker, and Fujii (2013), customer according to Belgiawan, Schmo satisfaction with one's current car significantly affects his/her desire to purchase a car under the same brand. Han and Ryu (2012) empirically identified the significant interrelationships among patrons' satisfaction, desire, and loyalty in the hospitality setting. In particular, their findings showed that satisfaction significantly increases desire and loyalty and that the satisfaction and loyalty relationship is mediated by desire. These studies discussed above support the critical role of satisfaction in generating desire and loyalty. Therefore, the following hypotheses were proposed: H6: Satisfaction positively and significantly affects desire. H7: Satisfaction positively and significantly affects loyalty.

2.9. Loyalty Loyalty refers to customers' deeply-held commitment to engage in positive behaviors for a particular preferred product/service in the future, thereby causing repetitive same product/service purchasing, despite diverse situational impacts and marketing efforts inducing switching behavior (Oliver, 1999). Loyalty is often believed to be better captured by customers' intentions to repurchase a product/service, spend money for it, and recommend it that are

positive for a firm (Han & Ryu, 2009; Jacoby & Chestnut, 1978; Luarn & Lin, 2003; Oliver, 1997). When customers have these sturdy intentions and are deeply committed, it is likely that they remain loyalty to the firm (Getty & Thompson, 1994; Han & Ryu, 2009; Jacoby & Chestnut, 1978). 2.10. Impact of desire on loyalty Since desire is regarded to be the key antecedent of loyalty, its importance in individuals' decision formation has been well documented in the extant literature (e.g., Bagozzi & Dholakia, 2006; Carrus et al., 2008; Han & Hwang, 2014; Hunter, 2006; hn, 2016; Song, Lee, Kang, & Boo, 2012; Ryu, Decosta, & Ande Taylor, Ishida, & Wallace, 2009). According to Song et al. (2012), desire is one of the most critical driving forces of a traveler's intention. Due to the mediating nature of desire, its antecedents affect intention indirectly through desire. In a leisure choice, Han and Hwang (2014) also demonstrated that motivational dimension exerted a positive and significant influence on customers' loyalty intentions. Previous studies on the integration of motivational process into a model/theory mostly provided a greater accountability for individuals' purchase intention (e.g., Bagozzi & Dholakia, 2006; Carrus et al., 2008; Han & Hwang, 2014; Han et al., 2014; Hunter, 2006). Researchers in these studies unarguably made an assertion that individuals' desire is the most proximal and important direct determinant of behavioral intentions. Overall, based on the discussion above, the following hypothesis was posited: H8: Desire positively and significantly affects loyalty.

2.11. Gender Gender difference is an important variable in the tourism literrez, Morgan, & ature (Figueroa-Domecq, Pritchard, Segovia-Pe -Molinero, 2015; Hwang, Han, & Kim, 2015; King & Wan, Villace 2014). However, the studies on gender differences in the context of bicycle tourism, as well as its influence on formation of loyalty, have rarely been carried out. Thus, examination of the role of gender in loyalty formation contributes to the existing bicycle tourism literature. More importantly, gender could be an easyrecognized variable for destination marketers. Rather than other demographic characteristics (e.g., family income, or level of education), gender is can be quickly judged by tourists' appearance in most situations. Therefore, accurate marketing strategies could be done to provide a better service, which may further increase the level of tourists' revisit behaviors. According to the social role theory, men and women are differently socialized, thus they have dissimilar roles in the society (Archer, 1996; Eagly, 1987). Coherently, evolutionary psychology suggests that the differences across males and females biologically develop as humans become accustomed to the changes in the environment (Archer, 1996; Wood & Eagly, 2002). This evolutionary theory mainly deals with the origin of differences across gender (Wood & Eagly, 2002). In a similar manner, the core aspect of the gender schema theory indicates that “the phenomenon of sex typing drives, in part, from gender-based schematic processing e a generalized readiness to process information on the basis of the sex-linked associations that constitute the gender schema” (Bem, 1981, p. 354). The social role theory, evolutionary theory, and gender schema theory are regarded as the well-developed theories. Therefore, most existing studies of gender differences in decisions, behaviors, dispositions, and patterns are rooted in these theories. In consumer behavior and marketing, scholars and practitioners

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recognized and analyzed the gender inequalities regarding decision/loyalty formation and purchase behaviors (Kolyesnikova, Dodd, & Wilcox, 2009; Riquelme & Rios, 2010). As a social construct, gender is involved with almost all aspects of human decision-making/behavior (Moutinho & Goode, 1995; Riquelme & Rios, 2010). In other words, male and female customers often behave distinguishably, and therefore developing dissimilar strategies for males and females is essential (Sanchez-Franco, Ramos, & Velicia, 2009). The importance of understanding gender difference is also widely recognized in recent hospitality and tourism studies (Hwang et al., 2015; Kara, Uysal, & Magnini, 2012; King & Wan, 2014; Nunkoo & Ramkissoon, 2010). In particular, in their research efforts to comprehend how to engage patrons socially in a restaurant sector, Hwang et al. (2015) identified the significant moderating role of gender. Their empirical demonstration indicated that gender significantly affects the relationships among server disclosure, customer disclosure, and trust in the formation of patrons' loyalty. In developing a community support model of tourism, Nunkoo and Ramkissoon (2010) asserted that the relation between perceived behavioral control and residents' support for tourism is moderated by gender. In the context of mobile banking, Riquelme and Rios (2010) investigated the factors affecting customers' adoption of mobile behaviors and identified the moderating role of gender. Their empirical finding indicated that the relationships between social norm and intention to adopt and between ease of use and perceived usefulness are stronger among females than males; and the association between relative advantage and perceived usefulness is stronger among men than women. It is likely that females are more emotional (Yelkur & Chakrabarty, 2006), more socially oriented (Eagly, 1987), more expressive (Hwang et al., 2015), more interactive (Fournier, 1998), and more perceptive of social interdependence (Kolyesnikova et al., 2009) than males. In addition, it is likely that males are more taskoriented (Eagly, 1987), more easily irritated (Otnes & McGrath, 2001), more supportive (Milman & Pizam, 1988), more utilitarian in their shopping orientation (Diep & Sweeney, 2008), and more achievement-oriented in purchasing/shopping (Otnes & McGrath, 2001) than females. Customer demographics, particularly gender, often influence the association between service elements (e.g., quality of product attributes and satisfaction) and its consequences such as repeat purchase (Mittal & Kamakura, 2001; Seiders, Voss, Grewal, & Godfrey, 2005) and loyalty (Evanschitzky & Wunderlich, 2006; Patterson, 2007). Indeed, in developing a service evaluation model in a retail context, Sharma, Chen & Luk's (2012) empirical research demonstrated the significant moderating impact of gender on the relationships among performances of product attributes, value, satisfaction, and loyalty. These marketing and consumer behavior studies along with the gender schema theory, the social role theory, and evolutionary psychology clearly support the moderating function of gender. Therefore, we have proposed that: H9a: Gender significantly moderates the tourism attractionsevalue relationship. H9b: Gender significantly moderates the accessibilityevalue relationship. H9c: Gender significantly moderates the amenitiesevalue relationship. H9d: Gender significantly moderates the complementary servicesevalue relationship. H9e: Gender significantly moderates the valueesatisfaction relationship. H9f: Gender significantly moderates the satisfactionedesire relationship.

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H9g: Gender significantly moderates the satisfactioneloyalty relationship. H9h: Gender significantly moderates the desireeloyalty relationship.

2.12. Conceptual model and hypotheses Our theoretical model is presented in Fig. 1. The model includes four dimensions of bicycle-tourism attributes (i.e., tourism attractions, accessibility, amenities, and complementary services), perceived value, satisfaction, desire, and loyalty. The model also involves gender as a moderator. Hypotheses 1e8 were related to the theoretical relationships among study constructs; and Hypotheses 9a e 9h were related to the proposed moderating impact of gender. 3. Methodology 3.1. Measurement tools The structured survey questionnaire measured bicycle-tourism attributes, value perception, satisfaction, desire, and loyalty. The instrument for data collection was based on existing validated scales from the previous studies (Han, 2013; Lee & Huang, 2014; Lee et al., 2014; Oliver, 1980, 1997; Parasuraman & Grewal, 2000; Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001). The employed measures were modified to be suitable in the present study setting. Multiple items and a seven-point scale were used for the assessment of all constructs. In particular, a total of 25 items from Lee et al. (2014) and Lee and Huang (2014) were used to measure bicycle-tourism attributes ranging from “Strongly agree” (1) to “Strongly disagree” (7). Perceived value and satisfaction were assessed using two items from Han (2013) and three items from Oliver (1980, 1997), respectively, with “Strongly agree” (1) e “Strongly disagree” (7). Desire was measured with three items from Perugini and Bagozzi (2001) using semantic differential scales (e.g., “False” [1] e “True” [7]). Lastly, loyalty was assessed with four items ranging from “Strongly agree” (1) to “Strongly disagree” (7). These items were from Parasuraman and Grewal (2000) and Han (2013). The initial survey questionnaire containing these measurement items was pre-tested by hospitality and tourism academics and improved accordingly. In addition, the questionnaire was perfected by expert reviews. 3.2. Data collection process and study population A field survey with a non-probability convenience sampling approach was chosen as our data collection method. The convenience sampling method, which is broadly used in diverse consumer behavior, marketing, and tourism studies, is considered to be effective particularly when the total population of interest is excessively large (Han & Hyun, 2012; Song et al., 2012). Since the bicycle tourism population in China is extremely large, the use of an independent random sampling that wholly represents this large population was not possible. Thus, the utilization of the convenience sampling approach was inevitable in this study. The survey was conducted at the annual meetings of eight bicycle clubs in China. These clubs organize a group-led bicycle tour as club main events generally two times per year. Each tour is normally scheduled for one month period; and the destinations include Beijing, Xinjiang, Guangdong Province, Tibet, Sichuan Province, etc. A total of six well-trained research assistants conducted a survey when there were annual club meetings. The data collection was for about

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Tourism Attractions

H1 Desire

Accessibility

H9a

H9b

H6

H2

Satisfaction H5

Loyalty H7 H9g

H3 H9c

H9h

H9e Perceived Value

Amenities

H8

H9f

H9d Hypothesized moderating impact of gender (H9a – h)

Complementary Services

H4

Fig. 1. Proposed model explaining loyalty formation.

two weeks (November 27, 2014eDecember 8, 2014). The survey questionnaires were handed out to bicycle club members and immediately collected upon their completion. To ensure the usable response rate, the completeness of the questionnaire was checked onsite. The participants were given a brief description about the research purposes and the importance of filling out all questions if possible. After the completion, small incentives (i.e., sweets and chocolates) were given to the participants as appreciation of their contribution. Altogether, a total of 394 usable survey questionnaires were obtained from the pool of 500 distributed questionnaires. This revealed a usable returned rate of roughly 78.8%. Among the 394 participants, female respondents amounted to 58.6%, male respondents 41.4%. In addition, according to the results of the descriptive statistics, higher-education experiences prevailed among survey participants, with 4-year college degree and graduate degree holders making up a majority (95.9%). When their marital status was asked, the majority of the respondents indicated that they are singles (97.0%). When their annual income was asked, the largest proportion of the participants (77.7%) reported their incomes under $24,999. The participants were requested to report their most recent bike-traveling experience. All participants' latest experience was within the last one year. Among them, 17.3% reported that their recent experience as having occurred within one month; and 28.0% indicated within the past six months. 3.3. Data analysis method The key objectives of the present study were to evaluate the proposed theoretical model and to comprehend the convoluted interrelationships among study variables in the formation of loyalty by considering the moderating impact of gender. A Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) is deemed to be an adequate solution for the achievement of these objectives, thus used in the present study. Unlike regression analysis, the simultaneous assessment of the entire relationships between multiple independent and dependent variables is possible by using the SEM (Hair, Hult, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2014; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). Therefore, the statistical efficiency can be improved (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1998). A two-step procedure was undertaken by conducting a Confirmatory

Factor Analysis (CFA) prior to the SEM. In addition, a test for metric invariance was used for the assessment of the proposed moderating impact. This test comprised measurement and structural invariance assessments. 4. Results and data analysis 4.1. Measurement quality testing We first ran the CFA with a maximum likelihood estimate approach to evaluate the measurement model. The results of the initial CFA showed an acceptable fit to the data (c2 ¼ 1426.67, df ¼ 596, p < .001, c2/df ¼ 2.39, RMSEA ¼ 0.059, CFI ¼ 0.93, IFI ¼ 0.93, TLI ¼ 0.92). However, one measure for complementary services was found to have low factor loading (.38). This item was excluded. We reran the CFA after removal of this measurement item. The result showed the improved fit to the data (c2 ¼ 1308.75, df ¼ 559, p < .001, c2/df ¼ 2.34, RMSEA ¼ 0.058, CFI ¼ 0.94, IFI ¼ 0.94, TLI ¼ 0.93) compared to the original CFA model (Dc2 (37) ¼ 117.92, p < 0.01). As displayed in Table 1, measures for each construct were internally consistent in that composite reliabilities for study variables ranged from .82 to .95. These values exceeded the recommend threshold of .60 suggested by Bagozzi and Yi (1988). In addition, AVE values ranging from .54 to .87 were all grater than the suggested cut-off of .50 (Hair et al., 1998). This finding indicated that the convergent validity is evident (Hair et al., 1998). The AVE values were also greater than the squared correlations of related variables. Thus, discriminant validity was also evident (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). 4.2. Structural model evaluation and hypotheses testing As a next step, we evaluated the proposed model by running the SEM. A maximum likelihood estimation approach was used. The results of the SEM revealed that the model excellently fit to the data (c2 ¼ 1515.99, df ¼ 575, p < .001, c2/df ¼ 2.64, RMSEA ¼ 0.065, CFI ¼ 0.92, IFI ¼ 0.92, TLI ¼ 0.91). As presented in Table 2, overall, our proposed theoretical model satisfactorily accounted for the variance in travelers' loyalty for bicycle tourism (R2 ¼ 0.31). Four

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Table 1 Results of the confirmatory factor analysis. TA

Access.

Amen.

CS

PV

S

D

L

Tourism Attractions (TA)

1.00

Accessibility (Access.)

.37a (.14)b .42 (.18) .25 (.06) .31 (.10) .21 (.04) .24 (.06) .28 (.08)

1.00 .58 (.34) .38 (.14) .76 (.58) .32 (.10) .40 (.16) .35 (.12)

1.00 .43 (.18) .55 (.30) .34 (.12) .48 (.23) .42 (.18)

.38 (.14) .32 (.10) .26 (.07) .44 (.19)

.32 (.10) .38 (.14) .36 (.13)

.53 (.28) .83 (.69)

1.00 .55 (.30)

1.00

4.22 1.09 .90

4.85 1.23 .90

4.56 1.31 .90

4.97 1.28 .92

4.68 1.25 .91

4.81 1.23 .94

4.74 1.34 .95

4.74 1.13 .82

Amenities (Amen.) Complementary Services (CS) Perceived Value (PV) Satisfaction (S) Desire (D) Loyalty (L) Mean SD Composite Reliability

AVE .69 .54 .69

1.00

.60 1.00

.82 1.00

.84 .87 .56

Note1. Model measurement fit: c2 ¼ 1308.75, df ¼ 559, p < .001, c2/df ¼ 2.34, RMSEA ¼ .058, CFI ¼ .94, IFI ¼ .94, TLI ¼ .93. Note2. Model measurement fit before removing one item with low factor loading (.38): c2 ¼ 1426.67, df ¼ 596, p < .001, c2/df ¼ 2.39, RMSEA ¼ .059, CFI ¼ .93, IFI ¼ .93, TLI ¼ .92. a Correlations between constructs. b Squared correlations.

factors of bike-traveling attributes were found to explain about 25% of the total variance in perceived value. Antecedents of satisfaction were found to account for about 18% of the variance in satisfaction. The model also explained about 8% of the variance in desire. The details about the results of the SEM are displayed in Table 2 and Fig. 2. Hypotheses 1e4 were tested. As expected, tourism attractions (b ¼ 0.24, p < .01), accessibility (b ¼ 0.24, p < .01), and amenities (b ¼ 0.16, p < .05) positively and significantly affected perceived value. Yet, complementary services among bicycletourism attributes were not significantly associated with perceived value (b ¼ 0.01, p > .05). Therefore, while Hypotheses 1, 2, and 3 were supported, Hypothesis 4 was not supported. The proposed association between perceived value and satisfaction was

Table 2 Results of the structural equation modeling. Hypotheses Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis

Paths 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Coefficients

t-values

.24 .24 .16 .01 .43 .28 .36 .34

4.38** 3.46** 2.14* .05 8.17** 5.38** 7.40** 7.22**

TA / PV Access. / PV Amen. / PV CS / PV PV / S S/D S/L D/L

Variance explained

Total effect on loyalty:

Indirect effect:

R2 R2 R2 R2

b D ¼ .34 b S ¼ .45 b PV ¼ .19 b TA ¼ .05 b Access. ¼ .05 b Amen. ¼ .03 b CS ¼ .01

b S / D / L ¼ .10** b PV / S / D ¼ .12** b TA / PV / S ¼ .10** b Access. / PV / S ¼ .10** b Amen. / PV / S ¼ .07* b CS / PV / S ¼ .01

(Loyalty) ¼ .31 (Desire) ¼ .08 (Satisfaction) ¼ .18 (Perceived value) ¼ .25

Note1. TA ¼ Tourism Attractions, Access. ¼ Accessibility, Amen. ¼ Amenities, CS ¼ Complementary Services, PV ¼ Perceived Value, S ¼ Satisfaction, D ¼ Desire, L ¼ Loyalty. Note2. Goodness-of-fit statistics: c2 ¼ 1515.99, df ¼ 575, p < .001, c2/df ¼ 2.64, RMSEA ¼ .065, CFI ¼ .92, IFI ¼ .92, TLI ¼ .91. *p < .05, **p < .01.

tested. Our result indicated that the relationship was positive and significant (b ¼ 0.43, p < .01). Thus, Hypothesis 5 was supported. The hypothesized associations among satisfaction, desire, and loyalty were assessed. As predicted, desire was a positive function of satisfaction (b ¼ 0.28, p < .01); and both satisfaction (b ¼ 0.36, p < .01) and desire (b ¼ 0.34, p < .01) have a positive and significant influence on loyalty. These findings supported Hypotheses 6, 7, and 8. The mediating role of the study variables was examined using bootstrapping, which is a widely accepted method for mediation test. A close investigation of the indirect impact of study constructs revealed that perceived value, satisfaction, and desire played a significant mediating role in the proposed theoretical framework. Specifically, our results showed that tourism attractions (b TAePVeS ¼ 0.10, p < .01), accessibility (b Access.ePVeS ¼ 0.10, p < .01), and amenities (b Amen.ePVeS ¼ 0.07, p < .05) significantly affected satisfaction indirectly through perceived value. In addition, satisfaction significantly mediated the impact of perceived value on desire (b PVeSeD ¼ 0.12, p < .01). Moreover, our findings indicated that the effect of satisfaction on loyalty was significantly mediated by desire (b SeDeL ¼ 0.10, p < .01). 4.3. Estimation of the measurement and structural invariance models To test the proposed moderating impact of gender, we conducted the invariance test for measurement and structural models. A total of 163 participants were males, 231 respondents were females. First, a non-restrict model was generated. The model included a good fit to the data (c2 ¼ 2041.90, df ¼ 1122, p < .001, c2/ df ¼ 1.82, RMSEA ¼ 0.046, CFI ¼ 0.92, IFI ¼ 0.92, TLI ¼ 0.91). This non-restricted model was then compared to the full-metric invariance model whose fit to the data were adequate (c2 ¼ 2085.64, df ¼ 1150, p < .001, c2/df ¼ 1.81, RMSEA ¼ 0.046, CFI ¼ 0.92, IFI ¼ 0.92, TLI ¼ 0.91). Results of the chi-square difference test revealed that there was no significant difference between these two models (Dc2 (28) ¼ 43.74, p > .01). This finding

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H. Han et al. / Tourism Management 59 (2017) 91e103

Tourism Attractions

H1:.24**

H9a

Desire

.25** (M)

H9b Accessibility

.25** (F)

.35** (M)

.51** (M)

H9e

.19* (F)

.44** (M)

.14* (F)

H6:.28**

H8:.34**

.41** (F)

.42** (F)

H2:.24** Perceived Value

Satisfaction

Loyalty

H7:.36** H9g

H5:.43**

.39** (M)

H3:.16*

Amenities

H9h .21* (M)

H9f

.37** (F) -.12 (M)

H9c

H9d

.34** (F)

Hypothesized moderating impact of gender (H9a – h)

.11 (M) -.07 (F)

Complementary Services

M = Male, F = Female

H4:.01

*p < .05, **p < .01 Goodness-of-fit statistics: χ2 = 1515.99, df = 575, p < .001, χ2/df = 2.64, RMSEA = .065, CFI = .92, IFI = .92, TLI = .91

Fig. 2. The structural model and invariance-test results.

Table 3 Results of the invariance tests for the measurement and structural models. Groups Male and Female Groups Paths

TA / PV Access./ PV Amen./ PV CS / PV PV / S S/D S/L D/L

c2

Models Non-restricted model' Full-metric invariance

Male (n ¼ 163)

2041.90 2085.64

df 1122 1150

RMSEA .046 .046

Female (n ¼ 231)

Coefficients

t-values

Coefficients

t-values

.25 .35 .12 .11 .44 .51 .39 .21

2.93** 3.09** .90 1.01 5.55** 6.85** 4.45** 2.44*

.25 .19 .34 .07 .42 .14 .37 .41

3.48** 2.05* 3.57** .74 6.21** 2.00* 6.22** 6.92**

CFI .92 .92

IFI .92 .92

TLI

Dc2

Full-metric invariance

.91 .91

Dc (28) ¼ 43.74, p > 0.01 (insignificant)

Supported

2

Baseline model (Freely estimated)

Nested model (Constrained to be equal)

c2 (1178) ¼ 2235.42 c2 (1178) ¼ 2235.42 c2 (1178) ¼ 2235.42 c2 (1178) ¼ 2235.42 c2 (1178) ¼ 2235.42 c2 (1178) ¼ 2235.42 c2 (1178) ¼ 2235.42 c2 (1178) ¼ 2235.42

c2 (1179) ¼ 2235.43a c2 (1179) ¼ 2236.43b c2 (1179) ¼ 2242.12c c2 (1179) ¼ 2236.98d c2 (1179) ¼ 2236.26e c2 (1179) ¼ 2251.90f c2 (1179) ¼ 2235.61g c2 (1179) ¼ 2239.96h

Note. TA ¼ Tourism Attractions, Access. ¼ Accessibility, Amen. ¼ Amenities, CS ¼ Complementary Services, PV ¼ Perceived Value, S ¼ Satisfaction, D ¼ Desire, L ¼ Loyalty. Other goodness of fit indices of the baseline model for two groups: RMSEA ¼ 0.048, CFI ¼ 0.91, IFI ¼ 0.91, TLI ¼ 0.90. *p < .05, **p < .01. Chi-square difference test. a Dc2 (1) ¼ .01, p > .05 (insignificant; H9a e not supported). b Dc2 (1) ¼ 1.01, p > .05 (insignificant; H9b e not supported). c Dc2 (1) ¼ 6.70, p < .01 (significant; H9c e supported). d Dc2 (1) ¼ 1.56, p > .05 (insignificant; H9d e not supported). e Dc2 (1) ¼ .84, p > .05 (insignificant; H9e e not supported). f Dc2 (1) ¼ 16.48, p < .01 (significant; H9f e supported). g Dc2 (1) ¼ .19, p > .05 (insignificant; H9g e not supported). h Dc2 (1) ¼ 4.54, p < .05 (significant; H9h e supported).

supported the full-metric invariance. This full-metric invariance model remained for further analysis. Table 3 includes the details about the measurement invariance assessment. The baseline model was generated by adding proposed paths on the full-metric invariance model. Results showed that the baseline model acceptably fit to the data (c2 ¼ 2235.42, df ¼ 1178, p < .001,

c2/df ¼ 1.90, RMSEA ¼ 0.048, CFI ¼ 0.91, IFI ¼ 0.91, TLI ¼ 0.90). Next, this model was compared to nested models in which a particular linkage across male and female groups is constrained to be equivalent. Findings from the chi-square difference test revealed that there were significant differences on the amenitiesevalue link (Dc2 (1) ¼ 6.70, p < .01), satisfactionedesire path (Dc2 (1) ¼ 16.48,

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p < .01), and desiree loyalty linkage (Dc2 (1) ¼ 4.54, p < .05). These findings supported Hypotheses 9c, 9f, and 9h. That is, the magnitude of the impact of amenities, satisfaction, and desire on value, desire, and loyalty, respectively, were significantly different across male and female groups. However, the tourism attractionsevalue link (Dc2 (1) ¼ 0.01, p > .05), accessibilityevalue linkage (Dc2 (1) ¼ 1.01, p > .05), complementary servicesevalue path (Dc2 (1) ¼ 1.56, p > .05), valueesatisfaction link (Dc2 (1) ¼ 0.84, p > .05), and satisfactioneloyalty linkage (Dc2 (1) ¼ 0.19, p > .05) were found not to be significantly different between gender groups. Therefore, Hypotheses 9a, 9b, 9d, 9e, and 9g were not supported. In other words, gender did not moderate the tourism attractionsevalue, accessibilityevalue, complementary servicesevalue, valueesatisfaction, and satisfactioneloyalty relationships. The details related to the structural invariance test are summarized in Table 3 and Fig. 2.

5. Discussions The proposed conceptual framework comprised product attributes, cognitive process, evaluative process, and motivational dimension as predictors of loyalty and gender as a moderator. There is relatively little scholarly research on travelers' decision-making process and post-purchase behaviors for bike-traveling. Our theoretical model was an empirical attempt to clearly explain such bicycle travelers' loyalty formation. The proposed model had an acceptable level of explanatory ability in predicting loyalty. The hypothesized links among research variables were found to be generally supported. The contribution of satisfaction to loyalty generation was notable; and the important mediating role of value, satisfaction, and desire were identified. In addition, our theoretical framework was deepened by demonstrating the moderating impact of gender. The specific role of gender on particular paths of interest was clearly uncovered. In sum, the proposed model containing nine research constructs and nine hypotheses was well supported; and our five research objectives were wholly achieved. Our research variables in the proposed theoretical framework adequately accounted for the total variance in bicycle travelers' loyalty. By testing our conceptual model, we confirmed that product attributes, perceived value, satisfaction, and desire play an essential role in building travelers' loyalty for bicycle tourism. In addition, it was evident that the developed model included sufficient capacity to predict bicycle travelers' intentions to continuously engage in bike-traveling and recommend it to other people who seek leisure/tourism activities. This discovery implies that considering the appraisals of product attributes together with cognitive, evaluation, and motivational aspects is imperative to clearly explicate bicyclers' decision formation. Our results shed light on effectual ways to increase travelers' pro-environmental choices and behaviors. This theoretical value of our conceptual framework is noteworthy. According to our results, the magnitude of the influence of satisfaction on traveler loyalty (b ¼ 0.45, p < .01) was greater than that of other study variables. This result is coherent with previous studies on customer behavior that emphasize the comparative importance of satisfaction over other predictors of decision/loyalty (Han et al., 2011; Luarn & Lin, 2003; Westbrook & Oliver, 1991). Our finding implied that the role of satisfaction needs to be viewed discretely in investigating bicycle travelers' loyalty generation process. Accordingly, it seems logical for practitioners to first focus on maximizing the satisfaction level of cyclists who visit a bicycle tourism destination in order to effectively enhance their loyalty level. Based on our finding, dealing with perceived value is an

99

excellent way to increase satisfaction (b PVeS ¼ 0.43, p < .01). Practitioners must understand the sequence of relations that offering good value is most influential in triggering bike-travelers' satisfactory tourism experience, which in turn leads to the achievement of their loyalty. Based on our results from the invariance test, there were significant gender differences on the amenitiesevalue, satisfactionedesire path, and desiree loyalty linkage. In particularly, the amenitiesevalue relationship was stronger for the female group (b ¼ 0.34, p < .01) than the male group (b ¼ 0.12, p > .05); the satisfactionedesire link was stronger for males (b ¼ 0.51, p < .01) than females (b ¼ 0.14, p < .05); and the desiree loyalty relationship was stronger for the female group (b ¼ 0.41, p < .01) than the male group (b ¼ 0.21, p < .05). These findings imply that the magnitude of the impact of amenities on value were stronger for female bicycle travelers than male travelers. Moreover, our results imply that at the similar level of satisfaction, males are more likely to form a desire for bike-traveling. Our findings further imply that when having similar level of desire, female travelers more strongly build loyalty for bicycle tourism than male travelers. The present study is the first to notify practitioners in the bicycle tourism industry that gender difference in bicyclers' decision-making process and behavior should not be neglected. Recognizing this disparity across males and females, practitioners need to develop differential strategies to effectively boost male and female bicycle travelers' loyalty and post-purchase behavior, respectively. From a theoretical perspective, the inclusion of gender on our theoretical framework was found to be imperative for more clear understanding of loyalty generation process. It is theoretically meaningful that our results about the impact of gender can help researchers effectively deepen an existing theoretical framework related to leisure travelers' loyalty/decision formation. Bicycle tourism attributes were identified to be important in bicycle travelers' loyalty formation process. In particular, tourism attractions were found to be the most effective dimension in increasing perceived value that eventually contributes to loyalty generation. This finding implies that excellent sources of nature (beautiful landscape, various topography, etc.), man-made resources (characteristic architecture, historic sites, heritage, etc.), and comfortable weather are important when bicycle travelers appraise the money they spend, evaluate satisfaction, and assess travel experience with bicycle routes. Practitioners should carefully design routes filled with visual attractions. Bicycle travelers intend to appreciate sightseeing along the routes. In China, bicycle routes and activities reflecting Chinese elements should be considered as optimal choices. For instance, bicycle routes in Beijing should include the Forbidden City, the Great Wall, and the Summer Palace. Likewise, bicycle routes in Henan should include Chinese Kongfu, and the route in Sichuan. In addition, areas with frequent extreme weather should be dealt with caution with regard to existing bicycle routes. Along with tourism attractions, the dimension of accessibility was also demonstrated to be a vital driver of perceived value in loyalty formation. This finding highlights that providing smooth connections is an essential prerequisite for bicycle travelers' valuable traveling experiences. Practitioners and policy-makers should develop related methods of improving accessibility. For instance, policy makers should consider bicycle connection programs (bicycle parking lot construction plan, bicycle friendly design in mass transportation, bicycle-sharing program, etc.) into city planning. Since the Chinese government has been investing a great deal on the construction of bicycle support facilities (bicycle lanes, bicycle

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tracks, road shoulders, etc.), bicycle programs should be well linked to these transportation networks. The dimension of amenities (accommodations, dining areas, etc.) was also an influential factor in inducing value in the loyalty generation process. This finding implies that the role of amenities in bicycle tourism is similar to the role of gas stations in automobile tourism. The development of needed amenities during bicycle travelers' journey and the improvement of the quality of the existing facilities are therefore necessary. In China, especially in certain rural regions, bicycle travelers may face the difficulty in finding these necessary services. Therefore, guidebooks with such contexts are expected to be provided. Meanwhile, with the rapid development of information technology in China, smartphone apps should be developed to provide related information. Additionally, in order to reflect distinguished features, amenities could be developed such as local slow food and theme accommodations. Since China is a large country with various cultures, these amenities could become new tourism attractions to bicycle tourists. From a theoretical point of view, the conceptual/theoretical base for understanding the nature of bicycle travelers' perception of product attributes and comprehending the role of these attributes in their loyalty generation process is fairly in developmental stages. Our research took a significant step toward filling this knowledge gap. This research centered on the attributes of bicycle tourism, demonstrated bicyclers' asymmetrical responses on multiple dimensions of attributes, and successfully verified their convoluted interrelationships with subsequent variables. Our research findings would be meaningfully used for further studies about travelers' leisure choice and post-purchase behaviors in the bicycle tourism industry. Perceived value, satisfaction, and desire were significant mediators in the proposed conceptual framework. Our findings support the view of perceived value as a bridge mediating the product attributes e satisfaction relationship completely, satisfaction as a bridge mediating the value e desire association fully, and desire as a bridge mediating the satisfaction e loyalty relationship partially. Researchers in tourism need to understand that the relationship between attributes of product and satisfaction is no longer significant, particularly when travelers' value perception is involved, that the association between value and desire is not significant anymore especially when satisfaction is included, and that the relationship strength between satisfaction and loyalty becomes less strong particularly when desire is involved. Recognizing the intricate mediating nature of these variables, it is also crucial for tourism researchers to know that using perceived value and satisfaction as full mediators and utilizing desire as partial mediator can be efficient in building any theoretical framework of loyalty for tourism/ leisure products. Theoretically, this research is thus meaningful in providing an obvious view about the clear function of these variables in bicycle travelers' loyalty generation process. Finally, complementary services were not a determinant in generating bicycle travelers' loyalty. The possible reasons for this may be that the needs for these services can be satisfied by travelers themselves. For example, a bicycle can be repaired if they are prepared in advance; GPS devices can be used if there is no clear signboard; weather information can be provided by their smartphones. Moreover, some moderate difficulties may even make a more memorable travel experience. Especially for a bicycle team, the hard time being together (e.g., lost their way due to the lack of information; repair the bicycle on the way because there is no repair shop) can enrich their experience (e.g., achievement) and build strong friendships among them. However, it does not mean that complementary services were not important. Bicycle routes with excellent complementary services induce more initial travelers who have high anxiety on the journey.

Like many other studies, this study is subject to some limitations that possibly suggest further research avenues of exploration. First, employing a convenience sampling approach, the data collection was done with members of four bicycle clubs in China. Hence, generalizing the findings to bicyclers' behaviors in other countries/ cultures should be done with caution. For future study, testing the proposed conceptual model utilizing a broader sample range should contribute to higher external validity. In addition, it would be an interesting endeavor to examine the proposed associations among research constructs in other types of leisure activities. Second, in this study, we only tested the impact of gender among various factors related to personal characteristics. Future research should deepen our proposed model by considering whether other personal characteristics (e.g., age, education, income, social status) were determinants of these important background factors. Third, any socio-psychological models are open for extension (Ajzen, 1991; Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001). Identifying more decisive variables in bicycle tourism and further expanding our theoretical framework by incorporating such factors through qualitative and quantitative approaches would be meaningful in future studies. Fourth, in the bicycle tourism context, the actual proportion of male travelers is somewhat greater than females, particularly in China. Considering that bicycle traveling requires physical/muscle strength, this unbalanced gender ratio seems to be expected. Nevertheless, the present study included more female survey participants. To better represent the bicycle tourism population in China, future research should strive to include a greater number of male survey participants. 6. Conclusion Supporting the premise of the proposed framework, our research offered an important theorization that multiple attributes of bicycle tourism are direct antecedents of perceived value; satisfaction regarded as outcome of perceived value is immediate predictor of desire; both satisfaction and desire are determinants of travelers' loyalty for bike-traveling; perceived value, satisfaction, and desire play a mediating role; and gender affects the relationships among these study variables. In conclusion, taking an important step by filling existing research gaps in bicycle tourism, our research findings can be meaningfully viewed in several aspects. First, attributes of a tourism product is critical in travelers' decision-making process and loyalty formation. Nevertheless, the lack of research contribution was made on this concept in the bicycle tourism context. Our research provides a useful foundation pertinent to how it forms perceived value, satisfaction, and desire, which are essential in generating bicyclers' loyalty. Second, there is a dearth of research concerning the examination of the combined role of these variables. To the best of our knowledge, this study was the first to explore the impact of these constructs on bicycle travelers' loyalty formation in a simultaneous manner. Third, despite its importance, a lack of research attention to gender was made in a bicycle tourism sector. Our research that demonstrated the existence of a general difference in bike-traveling behaviors offers valuable insight for subsequent related studies. Acknowledgement This study was supported by the Dong-A University research fund. Appendix A

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Tourism Attractions (Mean, SD) The scenery is beautiful when traveling by bicycle (5.41, 1.23). It is good to feel the natural ecology when traveling by bicycle (5.42, 1.21). The climate is comfortable when traveling by bicycle (5.35, 1.26). It is nice to encounter the cultural and historical sites (e.g., temples) during bike-traveling (5.48, 1.27). Accessibility (Mean, SD) It is easy to access the connection-oriented transport services (e.g., rail, bus) when traveling by bicycle (4.21, 1.24). It is easy to see the connections with major roadways (4.37, 1.18). It is easy to get connected to bicycle routes when traveling by bicycle (4.43, 1.25). Bicycle parking lots can be found during bicycle tourism (4.12, 1.32). Road surface and pavement are suitable during bike tourism (4.48, 1.31). The variety of terrain is suitable during bike tourism (4.35, 1.27). Traffic flow and density are fine during bike tourism (4.43, 1.23). Segregated bicycle facilities (e.g., bicycle lanes, bicycle tracks, road shoulders, bicycle paths) are well arranged (4.23, 1.34). Amenities (Mean, SD) Overnight accommodation is satisfactory (e.g., camping, B&B) when bike-traveling (3.99, 1.32). Rest areas are nice (tables and chairs, gazebos) when bike-traveling (4.06, 1.36). Grocery and convenience stores are fine when bike-traveling (4.25, 1.24). Restaurants (e.g., cafes, food shops) are nice places to stay when bike traveling (4.41, 1.23). Complementary services (Mean, SD) Visitor centers are available during bicycle tourism (4.07, 1.31). Wayfinder and directional signs are well placed when bike-traveling (4.54, 1.28). Signs of attractions are not difficult to find when the bike-traveling (4.59, 1.21). Distance sighboard are well arranged when bike-traveling (4.38, 1.26). Weather report message boards are well-prepared when bike-traveling (4.37, 3.98).a First aid stations are available when bike-traveling (3.89, 1.44). Police stations can be found when bike-traveling (4.09, 1.40). Bicycle hire/repair shops are available when bike-traveling (3.98, 1.46). Lighting systems are well functioned during bike tourism (4.19, 1.36). Perceived Value (Mean, SD) Bicycle tourism offers good value for the money I spend (4.60, 1.30). Bicycle tourism provides a good deal compared to other leisure/tourism activities (4.75, 1.31). Satisfaction (Mean, SD) Overall, I am satisfied with my experience when traveling by bike (4.94, 1.34). Overall, compared to other leisure/tourism activities, I am satisfied with bike-traveling (4.95, 1.35). My decision to go bicycle traveling was a wise one (5.01, 1.36). Desire (Mean, SD) I desire to travel by bike in the near future (“False” [1] e “True” [7]) (4.86, 1.40). My desire for bike-traveling in the future is ~ “Very weak” (1) e “Very strong” (7) (4.69, 1.39). I want to travel by bike in the future (“False” [1] e “True” [7]) (4.86, 1.43). Loyalty (Mean, SD) I will make an effort to travel by bike in the near future (4.60, 1.44). I am willing to travel by bike in the near future (4.72, 1.48). I will encourage other people to travel by bike (4.73, 1.31). If someone searches for leisure/tourism activities, I will suggest that they try bike-traveling (4.89, 1.23). Note. All measurement items were measured from “Strongly disagree” (1) to “Strongly agree” (7) except for the items of desire. a This measure was excluded because of its low standardized factor loading.

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103 Heesup Han is a Professor in the College of Hospitality and Tourism Management at Sejong University, South Korea. His research interests include sustainable tourism, airline, medical tourism, green hotels, and hospitality and tourism marketing. His papers have been selected as the most downloaded and read articles in many top-tier hospitality and tourism journals.

Bo Meng is a lecturer in the Department of Tourism Management at Shanxi University, China. His research interests include bicycle tourism, sustainable tourism, destination marketing, and tourism development. Dr. Meng has published in various professional journals in the field of hospitality and tourism.

Wansoo Kim is an associate professor in the Department of International Tourism, Dong-A University, South Korea. He received his Ph.D. degree in Hospitality Management from Kansas State University. Dr. Kim has published in many top-tier hospitality and tourism journals. He specializes in hospitality and tourism marketing, research methods, and organizational behaviors.