- Email: [email protected]
Bioenergy potential from crop residue biomass in Araucania Region of Chile
Accepted Manuscript Bioenergy potential from crop residue biomass in Araucania Region of Chile
Celián Román-Figueroa, Nicole Montenegro, Manuel Paneque PII:
S0960-1481(16)30877-1
DOI:
10.1016/j.renene.2016.10.013
Reference:
RENE 8201
To appear in:
Renewable Energy
Received Date:
04 January 2016
Revised Date:
16 September 2016
Accepted Date:
05 October 2016
Please cite this article as: Celián Román-Figueroa, Nicole Montenegro, Manuel Paneque, Bioenergy potential from crop residue biomass in Araucania Region of Chile, Renewable Energy (2016), doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2016.10.013
This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
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Highlights 1. The residual biomass quantities were estimated by two method
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2. The Residue-to-Product Ratio method provided more realistic values than Unused Residue Coefficient method
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3. Fluidized bed gasifiers and combusters were assessed in combined cycle and steam turbine mode, respectively
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Bioenergy potential from crop residue biomass in Araucania Region of Chile
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Celián Román-Figueroaa, Nicole Montenegroa, Manuel Panequeb* Celián Román-Figueroa a
Agroenergía Ingeniería Genética S.A. Inc. Almirante Lynch 1179, 8920033-San Miguel,
Santiago, Chile. e-mail: [email protected] Nicole Montenegro
Agroenergía Ingeniería Genética S.A. Inc. Almirante Lynch 1179, 8920033-San Miguel,
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Santiago, Chile.
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e-mail: [email protected] Manuel Paneque b*
Laboratory of Bioenergy and Environmental Biotechnology. Department of Environmental
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Sciences and Natural Resources. Faculty of Agricultural Sciences. University of Chile. Santa Rosa 11.315, 8820808-La Pintana, Santiago, Chile.
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e-mail: [email protected]
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Bioenergy potential from crop residue biomass in Araucania Region of Chile
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Abstract
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The volatility of fossil fuels prices, air pollution and climate change, have led many countries
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turning to renewable resources of energy, especially biomass, for production of heat and electricity.
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Residual biomass fuels used in the production of heat and electricity are wheat, oat and barley
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straw, corn stover and wood chips from forest residuals and the wood industry. The focus of this
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study was to estimate how much sustainably removable residue from wheat straw there was in
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Araucania Region of Chile and how much electrical energy could be produced. The methodology
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used for estimating wheat straw residual was based upon the relationship between unused post-
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harvest biomass, marketable biomass, and volume and potential annually available. Results of this
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study indicate an annual average production of over 0,622 million tons of wheat straw in Araucania
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Region. Quilquén district is the one with the most production, with 0,27 million tons of wheat
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straw. Technical potential of wheat straw, per generation from Quilquén, in a plant of 5 MWth
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generation capacity, is of 3.17 MWel with the technologies of cogeneration through fluidized bed
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combustion and 4.89 MWel with the technologies of turbine power generation, and the fluidized
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bed gasifiers and combined gas and steam.
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Key words: Bioenergy; Gasification; Combustion; Wheat Residue
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1. Introduction
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Petroleum, coal and natural gas supply 81.7% of primary energy consumption in the world [1],
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Chile imports 59.3% of its primary energy matrix, which is composed of 90.2% fossil fuels [2].
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Greenhouse gas emissions, the product of burning fossil fuels, is one of the principal causes of
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global warming [3]. Chile is committed to reducing its emissions by 20% by the year 2020 [4],
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nonetheless, current trends forecast an increase in carbon dioxide emissions of 3.5 times relative to
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2007 [5].
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The Chilean energy sector faces the challenge of supporting and sustaining its economic growth,
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managing its energy costs and guaranteeing reliability, providing universal access to the electrical
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system, and meeting its increasingly ambitious environmental goals [6,7]. These challenges can be
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resolved successfully if Chile can decisively implement a growth strategy based on renewable
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energy [7,8].
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Firewood and biomass represent 28.9% of the primary energy matrix in Chile [2]. Wood has
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primarily been used for residential purposes, as fuel for home heating systems or for cooking [9,10].
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Biomass, in contrast, has been used as a raw material for self-generating electricity, primarily by
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the cellulose and paper industries [9,11].
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Biomass residue has industrial potential as a by-product or as energy that is not yet fully utilized
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[12]. The average calorific value for agricultural residues is 17,500 kJ kg-1 [13]. These correspond
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to post-harvest grain residues, which are generally burned to avoid pests, weeds, and to reduce the
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time between harvests; however, this practice generates negative externalities like reducing soil
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organic matter, contributing to degradation, and loss of the resource’s physical properties [14].
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In Chile, wheat residue equals 1.38 times its yield, being the grain with the highest residue
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production index. Corn is the most important grain at the national level, with a residue production
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index of 1.17 times its yield, which is smaller than that of wheat [15].
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In the Araucanía region during the 2012/2013 agricultural season, 105,500 ha of wheat were sown,
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which is the equivalent of 41.6% of the total area sown in the country. This season’s production
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reached 578,300 t [15]. According to Gatica and Alonso [16] during the 2010/2011 agricultural
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season 1.05 million t of grain residues were produced in the Araucanía region, of which 59.6%
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were wheat residues.
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Among the technological options for utilization agricultural residues as raw materials for electrical
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generation are Fluidized bed combustion and generating turbine (C/ST) and Fluidized bed gasifiers followed
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by a combined cycle of gas and steam (G/CC) [25,30].
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Fluidized bed combustion and generating turbine (C/ST). Consists of burning the biomass with a
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mixture of hot water, inert material and dolomite or silica sand, found in suspension, due to an air
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injection from the lower section. The material suspension permits greater heat transfer, as the
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mixture behaves like a fluid; in this way temperature control is facilitated, increases yield and
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permits the use of less homogeneous biomass [26]. Afterward, steam is produced from the biomass
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combustion. This steam is transferred to another section where it expands, triggering the generating
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turbine [25].
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The combustion technology in fluidized bed has been commercialize for over 25 year [39], and the
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maximum capacity is 58 MWth [39,40]. This technology has some advantages as: 1) it can be used
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different raw materials, without necessity of particle reduce size [41]; 2) it can be burned wastes
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with high moisture, even though it would be necessary pre-treatment or incorporated waste with
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high calorific value [40,41]; 3) the fluidized bed material erode the superficial layer of wastes, so
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diminish barriers for than oxygen increase the velocity and efficiency of combustion; 4)
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combustion is complete, controlled and uniform, generation of residues and emissions are reduces
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(NOx and CO) [41].
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Some disadvantages for fluidized bed combustion are: 1) it is necessary sometimes pre-treatment
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of raw materials, especially for older fluidized beds [41]; 2) alkali metals must removed from
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wastes for preventing corrosion and agglomeration [41-43]; 3) it is necessary a proper mix of
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wastes with very different high calorific value for your incineration; 4) if it is used raw materials
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with high ash content, must design an efficient system for their removal [41,43]; 5) if it is used raw 4
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materials with chlorine content can produced corrosion, agglomeration and emissions of HCl,
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furans and dioxins [41].
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Fluidized bed gasifiers followed by a combined cycle of gas and steam (G/CC). Consists of the
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partial oxidation of the biomass at high temperatures (800 - 1000ºC) in the presence of water vapor
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and air (or oxygen) to form a mixture of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and methane [25]. Afterward
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this gas, which has a low calorific value, is burned to produce heat and steam, which feeds the
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generating turbine [25,26].
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The gasifiers technology in fluidized bed has not been commercially used, because have not
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competitive price yet [44], despite there are some examples for gasification projects an industrial
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scale where the capacity are until 60 MWth [45]. Some advantages of gasification technology are:
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1) the gasification equipment is smaller than combustion equipment, for the same have lower costs;
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2) gas obtained from gasifiers can be used in a combined cycle, thus it is reduced carbon emissions
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[46]; 3) technology with fluidized bed gasifiers can be applied in rural areas, where there is a
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constant supply of agricultural or wood residues [46-48].
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Some disadvantages for fluidized bed gasifiers are: 1) have limited application with no biomass
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fuel, as carbon because the temperature is low for fuel with high carbon content, so that produced
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ash agglomeration [46]; 2) agglomeration and corrosion with alkali metals is a problem with
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gasifiers technology too, like the combustion technology [42,43,45]; 3) it is necessary than raw
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materials are homogeneous and without impurities [49]; 4) the content of moisture of raw materials
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must be small [49], Mirmoshtaghi et al [50] determined than biomass with 9% moisture is optimum
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for gas production.
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The purpose of this study is to determine energy generating potential using residues as raw material
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in the Araucanía region. To this end, biomass production was quantified, the region’s districts with
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the highest quantity of residues were identified, and the highest-yielding plant was selected in
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relation to the quantity of residues generated, for electrical production.
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2. Materials and methods
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2.1
Area of Study
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The area of study is the Araucanía region, located between 37º35' and 39º37' southern latitude and
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from 70º50’ western longitude to the Pacific Ocean, extending along an area of 31,842 km2 (Fig.
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1). The study was realized at a district level according to the census boundaries determined by the
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National Institute of Statistics [17].
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2.2
Determining Biomass Availability
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The residual biomass from wheat cultivation for the 2010/2011 agricultural season in the Araucanía
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region was determined from the information received by the VII Census of Agriculture and
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Forestry in Chile [18]. The estimation considered two methods of harvest indices, 1) the Residue-
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to-Product Ratio (RPR), and that of the Unused Residue Coefficient (CNR).
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2.2.1. Residue-to-Product Ratio (RPR).
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This method uses an average value for residue generation [19]. This indicator relates the unused
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post-harvest biomass and the marketable biomass. The calculation considers the harvest index of
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each species (Eq. 1) [20].
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𝑅𝑃𝑅 = (1 ‒ 𝐼𝐶) 𝐼𝐶
(1)
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Where 𝑅𝑃𝑅 corresponds to the residue-to-product ratio, which relates the generated biomass
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residue to the total produced biomass (dimensionless); 𝐼𝐶 corresponds to the harvest index, which
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relates the marketable biomass to the total biomass (t year-1). The IC of one species is determined
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by distinct factors, e.g. climates, variety used, harvest season, soil quality, among others, and it is
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specific to each species. In the case of wheat, the IC in Chile is 0.42 [15], which is slightly below
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the European IC of 0.5 for the same species [20].
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Once RPR and district-level production of wheat were obtained, the biomass residue produced was
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calculated (Eq. 2).
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(2)
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𝐵𝑟 = 𝑃 ∗ 𝑅𝑃𝑅
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Where Br corresponds to the biomass residue produced (t year-1); P corresponds to the biomass
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produced by each district (t year-1); RPR corresponds to the residue-to-product ratio, which relates
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the generated biomass residue to the total produced biomass (dimensionless).
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2.2.2. Unused Residue Coefficient (CNR).
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This method calculates the biomass residue obtained in the course of a year over a determined
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cultivation area [20]. The coefficient must be multiplied by the production area of the crop (Eq. 3).
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𝐵𝑟 = 𝐴𝑐 ∗ 𝐶𝑁𝑅
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(3)
Where Br corresponds to the biomass residue produced (t year-1); Ac corresponds to the area of
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production of the crop (ha); CNR corresponds to the unused residue coefficient on a dry basis (t
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ha-1 year-1). There are no records for CNR in Chile, so in this case the calculated value for California
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of 2.01 was used [21], which has also been used for the country conditions by Fundación Chile
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[22].
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2.3. Spatial Dispersion and Seasonal Availability of Wheat Residues
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Wheat biomass residues, previously determined via two estimation methods –RPR and CNR-, are
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georeferenced to determine their distribution at a regional level. The spatial dispersion was
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evaluated to determine the districts where an electrical plant installation could be viable. It is
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generally recommended that the biomass electrical plant and the raw material generation point be
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located within a distance of 80 km [23].
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The seasonal availability of agricultural residues is determined by the harvest season of each crop,
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its spatial distribution and the local climate and soil conditions. We determined the phenological
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stages and harvest dates for wheat according to the local administrative policy [24].
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2.4. Estimating Electrical Generation Potential of Residues
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The electrical production was estimated via a transfer function model, between the biomass
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produced (t year-1) and the electrical production (MW), with the purpose of determining which
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generating plant can best be adjusted to the magnitudes of biomass produced depending on the
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production levels of the highest-producing district (Eq. 4) [25]. The function was applied to two
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types of technologies: fluidized bed combustion technology (C/ST) and fluidized bed gasifiers
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followed by a combined cycle of gas and steam (G/CC).
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𝑊𝑁𝐸 = 𝑀 ∗ 𝜂𝑒 ∗ 𝐿𝐻𝑉 (3600 ∗ 𝑂𝐻)
(4)
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Where 𝑊𝑁𝐸 corresponds to net energy output (MW); 𝑀 corresponds to biomass residue (t), in this
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case the estimation of wheat residues generated in the Araucanía region; 𝜂𝑒 corresponds to the
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plant’s efficiency factor, which is different for a C/ST plant and a G/CC plant, and for which
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different plant sizes are considered between 5 and 50 MWth, each with distinct efficiency factors
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(Table 1); 𝐿𝐻𝑉 corresponds to the lowest calorific value of the wheat biomass residue (kJ kg-1), in
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this case 14,060 kJ kg-1 [19]; 𝑂𝐻 corresponds to the plant’s hours of operation during the year (h
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year-1), in this case 8000 h year-1.
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3.
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3.1.
Wheat Biomass Residue Availability
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Results and discussion
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Wheat residue production in the Araucanía region was 622,000 t according to the RPR method.
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The wheat biomass residue was concentrated in 23 districts –of 299– in the region. In these 23
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districts, 50% of the wheat residues for the region was produced, while 10 districts accounted for
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27.8% of production (Table 2). On the other hand, there were 10 districts with no recorded wheat
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residue production.
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According to the CNR method, the regional production of wheat residues was 190,500 t. The wheat
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biomass residue was concentrated in 31 districts –of 299– of the region. In these 31 districts, 50%
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of the wheat residues for the region was produced, while 10 districts accounted for 22.8% of
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production (Table 2). On the other hand, there were 37 districts with no recorded wheat residue
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production.
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The wheat biomass residue estimation according to the RPR method was 3.2 times higher than the
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CNR method estimation. The difference between the two methods is expected because the CNR
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method uses a dry basis value for the biomass residue estimation [20], whereas the RPR method is
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estimated using a wet basis value. In addition, the CNR method uses a standardized yield, as the
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estimation was made relative to the cultivation area, not considering the possibility of varying
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productivities depending on the geographic distribution of plantations [20].
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Jölli and Giljum [20] also detected differences in biomass residue estimations using the RPR and
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CNR methods. They compared diverse species in different countries and in all cases, the residue
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production estimation was higher using the RPR method than when using the CNR method. Similar
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behavior was observed when the biomass residue production of corn in the Araucanía region was
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estimated, as the RPR method showed a biomass production that was 1.36 times higher than with
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the CNR method [27].
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At a country level, the wheat residue production records are much closer to the values obtained by
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the RPR method. Gatica and Alonso [16] determined that wheat residue production reached
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621,800 t in the Araucanía region for the 2011/2012 agricultural season. On the other hand,
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Taladriz and Schwember [28] determined that between the Biobío and Araucanía regions, wheat
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residue production is around 1.3 million t, with the Araucanía region being the largest producer, as
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it is also the primary wheat producer at the country level [15,16].
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The RPR method is the most commonly used to estimate the biomass residue production of
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agricultural crops, in comparison to the CNR method. This is due to the fact that the RPR method
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considers the crop species, harvest season, cultivation methods, among other factors, representing
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the reality of the production area [19,29,30]. In any case, there are few records that would allow us
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to compare both methods, with the works of Jölli and Giljum [20] and Montenegro [27] being the
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only ones that used the CNR method to estimate the agricultural residues. Conversely, there is
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abundant literature using the RPR method [13,19,20,29-32], as it is more widely accepted as a
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useful tool for the calculation of agricultural biomass residue.
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3.2. Spatial Dispersion and Seasonal Availability of Wheat Residues
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The residual biomass of wheat, calculated using the RPR method, is concentrated in the
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intermediate depression of the Araucanía region, primarily in the province of Malleco. The districts
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with residue production above 10,000 t year-1 (Fig. 2a) were located in this province, extending
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over an area of 60,800 ha. The Quilquén district has the highest wheat residue production and is
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located in this province, south of the provincial capital of Angol. The wheat biomass residue
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dispersion, estimated by the CNR method, was similar to that obtained by the RPR method (Fig.
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2b). The difference in this case was determined by the territorial extension where the wheat residues
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are distributed. The primary districts that produce over 2000 t year-1 of residues are extended over
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an area of 277,299 ha when using the CNR method, which is 4.5 times greater than the surface area
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covered by the RPR method. This behavior was different than expected, probably could be
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explained because of the CNR method used an estimation without territorial component, being a
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standard valor for all region [20].
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The seasonal availability of agricultural residue determines the sustainability of electrical
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production during the year. Agricultural residue generation, much like agricultural production, is
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intermittent as it is dependent on climatic factors, on the variety used, on soil conditions, etc. [13].
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Wheat residues are produced during the summer season in the Araucanía region, particularly in
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January [24].
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Eliminating agricultural residue is costly, and it is thus typically used as organic compost, fertilizer,
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animal feed, for energy production, or even in the cellulose industry. Grain residues such as corn
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and wheat are often burned, which generates a loss of raw materials that could be leveraged
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economically or energetically; also, burning agricultural residues emits GEI, and particulate
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material [14,33], which are harmful for the environment and for society [14,34].
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The burning of residues or straw is increasingly common. It is estimated that for around 50% of
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the national wheat-producing surface that is managed with zero ploughing (between the Biobío and
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Araucanía regions), post-harvest residues were burned. They are burned because of the high
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quantity of stubble on the ground, which generates pest and weed control issues, and also helps
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reduce the period between successive or rotated crops. However, this practice generates negative
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externalities such as reducing the organic matter of the soil, contributing to degradation and to the
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loss of the physical properties of the soil [35].
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Biomass supply alternatives must be found for the electricity generating system to be sustainable,
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as it is not feasible to install an energy plant that only functions during the wheat residue production
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season. In the Araucanía region, there are also oat residues (Avena sativa) and rapeseed (Brassica
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napus) which could be used as an alternative for energy production. Lignocellulosic biomass can
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also be used, as over 370,000 t year-1 of forest residues are produced in the Araucanía region [9].
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3.3. Estimation of the Electricity Generating Potential of Residues
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3.3.1. Determination of electrical plant capacity.
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Electricity was generated from wheat biomass residue, considering the biomass residue estimated
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by the RPR method (622,000 t year-1), which were the closest adjusted results to the national reality
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[16]. This method has also been used for estimations of electrical generation potential in other
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studies [30].
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Energy production was evaluated at the district level, for which the optimum plant capacity was
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evaluated. At 27,086 t year-1, the Quilquén district had the highest production of wheat residue and
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was therefore evaluated for electrical production based on plant sizes between 5 and 50 MWth.
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Electrical energy generation in the Quilquén district oscillated between 3.17 and 3.83 MWel for the
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C/ST plant, and between 4.89 and 5.95 MWel for the G/CC plant (Table 3). Despite having
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increased the installation capacity by 10 times, from 5 to 50 MWth, the electricity generated
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increased by only 20.8% and 21.7% for C/ST and G/CC plants, respectively. Conversely, the
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investment costs increased by at least 260% for a C/ST plant (between 10 and 50 MWth) and 210%
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for a G/CC plant (between 10 and 30 MWth), depending on the plant’s capacity [25]. It was
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determined that the 5 MWth plant is the most convenient according to wheat residue availability in
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the Araucanía region.
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Under a scenario of regular supply of raw material, the plant capacity decision can vary, as the
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production cost per unit of electrical energy generated decreases as electrical capacity increases for
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both technologies (C/ST and G/CC), which must be considered for the sustainability of the system
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[25,36].
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3.3.2. Energy production using wheat biomass residue in the Araucanía Region.
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Districts with a generating capacity of at least 1 MWel using wheat residues were considered for
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the estimation. In this way, for a C/ST plant, the minimum amount required of wheat biomass
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residue was 8534.8 t year-1, while that value for a G/CC plant was 5536.1 t year-1. The biomass
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quantity required for G/CC was lower because this type of plant presents higher efficiency in its
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consumption of raw material [25].
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There are 21 of 299 total districts in the Araucanía region that produce wheat residues at a rate of
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at least 8534.8 t year-1 for combustion. Meanwhile, for gasifiers there are 35 districts of 299 that
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produce wheat residues at a rate of at least 5536.1 t year-1, which is the minimum required to
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produce 1 MWel of energy.
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The energy generated by a 5 MWth C/ST plant was over 3 MWel only in the Quilquén district, while
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3 other districts produced between 2 – 3 MWel and 17 districts could produce between 1 – 2 MWel.
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The energy generated by a 5 MWth G/CC plant was over 4 MWel in the Quilquén district, while 3
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other districts could produce between 3 – 4 MWel, 12 districts could generate between 2 – 3 MWel,
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and 19 districts could generate between 1 – 2 MWel (Fig. 3).
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In the Araucanía region’s central valley, specifically, south of the Malleco province and north of
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the Cautín province, there is a concentration of districts with high production of wheat biomass
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residue. Among the Quilquén, Rehuecoyan. Quilquico, Parlamento, Manzanaco, Chufquen, Santa
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Ana and Tricauco districts, 138,842 t were produced, and the distance between the center of that
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whole districts and the farthest limit are 32.36 km. These districts together could supply sufficient
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raw material for energy production, even for a plant with capacity above 5 MWth.
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C/ST and G/CC technologies are both recognized as viable alternatives for electricity production
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at a small scale and in rural sectors [30]. G/CC technology reached the highest levels of energy
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production due to its higher efficiency of raw material use. For the same reason, there are 35
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districts that could produce energy using wheat residues, while that number using C/ST technology
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would be 21. Though both technologies are recognized as feasible, gasifier technology is
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recommended. This is one of the most promising technologies with the highest global adoption rate
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[3,37], as it is one of the best alternatives at a rural scale [30].
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A steady supply of raw material must be secured for an electrical plant to be viable, as one of the
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greatest challenges for this type of technology is residue availability [30]. Araucanía Region
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produced over 1.0 million ton of crop residues [16], and over 1.5 million ton of forest residues,
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mainly from Pinus radiata [38]. Gasifier technology is more sensitive to raw material
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homogeneity, which is an important factor to consider when evaluating and comparing other
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complementary raw materials such as forestry industry residues rather than wheat residues [12].
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4.
Conclusions
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The RPR method was the best-adjusted to the reality of agricultural residue production in the
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Araucanía region, as it considers the individual productivity values of the location as well as of the
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species. By contrast, the CNR method employs an average value of the crop surface for the wheat
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residue estimation and decreases the representativeness and accuracy of the results.
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Around 622,000 t year-1 of wheat residues were produced in the Araucanía region and could be
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used for energy production. Quilquén was the greatest residue producer at district level with 27,086
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t year-1, which was significantly higher than any other district in the region. This district could
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produce 3.17 and 4.89 MWel with a 5 MWth plant using C/ST and G/CC technologies, respectively.
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The 5 MWth generating plant is recommended at a regional level due to the spatial dispersion of
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residues and the amount of energy generated, without necessarily dismissing the possibility of
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using a greater capacity plant. In the Araucanía region’s central valley, where the districts with
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greatest wheat residue yields are found, there is a possibility of creating an energy production center
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that would cover an even greater territory.
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Having produced 54% more energy than a C/ST plant, G/CC technology is the most convenient
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for electricity production. It also allows for energy production in a larger number of districts, 31
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rather than 21 using C/ST technology, due to the fact that G/CC has a more efficient raw material
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consumption rate.
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(SNCR) in a fluidized bed combuster of biomass. Biomass Bioenerg 34 (9) (2010) 1393-409.
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Vandecasteele C. Fluidized bed waste incinerators: Design, operational and environmental
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[42] Mettanant V, Basu P, Butler J. Agglomeration of biomass fired fluidized bed gasifier and combustor. Can J Chem Eng 87 (5) (2009) 656-84. [43] Bartels M, Weigang L, Nijenhuis J, Kapteijn F, Van Ommen JR. Agglomeration in fluidized
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beds at high temperatures: mechanisms, detection and prevention. Prog Energ Combust 34 (5)
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(2008) 633-66.
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[44] Gustavsson G, Hulteberg C. Co-production of gasification based biofuels in existing combined
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heat and power plants - analysis of production capacity and integration potential. 111 (2016)
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830-40.
[45] Basu P, Acharya B, Dutta A. Gasification in a fluidized beds - present status and design, in:
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Yue G, Zhang H, Zhao C, Luo Z (Eds.), Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on
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Fluidized Bed Combustion. Springer and Tsinghua University Press, Berlin, 2010, pp. 97-103.
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[46] Basu P. Fluidized bed gasification, in: Basu P. (Ed.) Combustion and Gasfication in Fluidized
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Beds. CRC Press, 2006, pp. 59-101.
[47] Lim MT, Alimuddin Z. Bubbling fluidized bed biomass gasification - performance, process
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findings and energy analysis. Renew Energ 33 (10) (2008) 2339-43. [48] De Jong W, Andries J, Hein KRG. Coal/Biomass co-gasification in a pressurised fluidized
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bed reactor. Renew Energ 16 (1-4) (1999) 1110-3.[49] Osowski S, Neumann J, Fahlenkamp.
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Gasification of biogenic solid fuels. Chem Eng Technol 28 (5) (2005) 596-604.
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[50] Mirmoshtaghi G, Skvaril J, Campana PE, Li H, Thorin E, Dahlquist E. The influence of
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different parameters on biomass gasification in circulating fluidized bed gasifiers. Energ
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Convers Manage 126 (2016) 110-23.
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Fig. 1. Area of Study. Araucanía Region, Chile on a district and communal scale.
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Table 1. Efficiency factors for generating plants, C/ST and G/CC.
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Table 2. Estimation of the wheat residues generated during the 2010/2011 agricultural season in
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the Araucanía Region, according to the RPR and CNR methods.
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Fig. 2. Spatial dispersion of wheat biomass residue in the Araucanía Region, Chile estimated
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according to the RPR (a) and CNR (b) methods.
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Table 3. Estimation of electricity generation via C/ST and G/CC in the Quilquén district, using
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wheat residues as raw material (MW).
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Fig. 3. Estimated electrical energy production (MW) according to the type of technology used
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(C/ST and G/CC) and the wheat biomass residue generated in the primary districts of the Araucanía
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region.
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Fig. 1. Area of Study. Araucanía Region, Chile on a district and communal scale.
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Fig. 2. Spatial dispersion of wheat biomass residue in the Araucanía Region, Chile estimated
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according to the RPR (a) and CNR (b) methods.
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Fig. 3. Estimated electrical energy production (MW) according to the type of technology used
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(C/ST and G/CC) and the wheat biomass residue generated in the primary districts of the Araucanía
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region.
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Fig. 1. Area of Study. Araucanía Region, Chile on a district and communal scale.
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Fig. 2. Spatial dispersion of wheat biomass residue in the Araucanía Region, Chile estimated
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Fig. 3. Estimated electrical energy production (MWel) according to the type of technology used (C/ST and G/CC) and the wheat biomass residue generated in the primary districts of the Araucanía
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30,000
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Se lv Pa a rla m en to Q ui lq ui lc o Ch uf qu en Sa nt aA na M an za na co Q ui no Co ip ue Tr ic au co D ol lin G en co er al Co Lo lo pe ni aL z au ta ro Q ui nt ril pe
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Residual Biomass of wheat (t year-1)
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Table 1. Efficiency factors for generating plants, C/ST and G/CC.
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Table 2. Estimation of the wheat residues generated during the 2010/2011 agricultural season in
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the Araucanía Region, according to the RPR and CNR methods.
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Table 3. Estimation of electricity generation via C/ST and G/CC in the Quilquén district, using
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wheat residues as raw material (MW).
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Table 1. Efficiency factors for generating plants, C/ST and G/CC [25].
Plant size (MWth) ηe (C/ST) ηe (G/CC) 0.00 0.37 0.39 0.40 0.41 0.43 0.43 0.44 0.44 0.45 0.45
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0.00 0.24 0.25 0.26 0.26 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.28 0.29 0.29
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0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
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Table 2. Estimation of the wheat residues generated during the 2010/2011 agricultural season in the Araucanía Region, according to the RPR and CNR methods. RPRa
CNRb t year-1 7146.8 5050.5 4751.4 4523.3 3880.3 3714.7 3626.4 3616.8 3532.0 3530.8
Unused Residue Coefficient
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District t year-1 District Quilquén 27,086.3 Quilquén Rehuecoyan 19,942.9 Rehuecoyan La Selva 19,838.5 Parlamento Parlamento 19,039.2 La Selva Quilquilco 16,455.8 Quilquilco Chufquen 14,759.8 Dollinco Santa Ana 14,385.4 Quino Manzanaco 14,111.1 La Colmena Quino 14,049.8 Colonia Lautaro Coipue 13,378.8 Santa Ana a Residue-to-Product Ratio
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Table 3. Estimation of electricity generation via C/ST and G/CC in the Quilquén district, using wheat residues as raw material (MWel).
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0.00 3.17 3.31 3.44 3.44 3.57 3.57 3.57 3.70 3.83 3.83
G/CC
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C/ST
0.00 4.89 5.16 5.29 5.42 5.69 5.69 5.82 5.82 5.95 5.95
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Celián Román-Figueroa, Nicole Montenegro, Manuel Paneque PII:
S0960-1481(16)30877-1
DOI:
10.1016/j.renene.2016.10.013
Reference:
RENE 8201
To appear in:
Renewable Energy
Received Date:
04 January 2016
Revised Date:
16 September 2016
Accepted Date:
05 October 2016
Please cite this article as: Celián Román-Figueroa, Nicole Montenegro, Manuel Paneque, Bioenergy potential from crop residue biomass in Araucania Region of Chile, Renewable Energy (2016), doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2016.10.013
This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
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Highlights 1. The residual biomass quantities were estimated by two method
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2. The Residue-to-Product Ratio method provided more realistic values than Unused Residue Coefficient method
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3. Fluidized bed gasifiers and combusters were assessed in combined cycle and steam turbine mode, respectively
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Bioenergy potential from crop residue biomass in Araucania Region of Chile
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Celián Román-Figueroaa, Nicole Montenegroa, Manuel Panequeb* Celián Román-Figueroa a
Agroenergía Ingeniería Genética S.A. Inc. Almirante Lynch 1179, 8920033-San Miguel,
Santiago, Chile. e-mail: [email protected] Nicole Montenegro
Agroenergía Ingeniería Genética S.A. Inc. Almirante Lynch 1179, 8920033-San Miguel,
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Santiago, Chile.
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e-mail: [email protected] Manuel Paneque b*
Laboratory of Bioenergy and Environmental Biotechnology. Department of Environmental
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Sciences and Natural Resources. Faculty of Agricultural Sciences. University of Chile. Santa Rosa 11.315, 8820808-La Pintana, Santiago, Chile.
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e-mail: [email protected]
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Bioenergy potential from crop residue biomass in Araucania Region of Chile
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Abstract
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The volatility of fossil fuels prices, air pollution and climate change, have led many countries
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turning to renewable resources of energy, especially biomass, for production of heat and electricity.
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Residual biomass fuels used in the production of heat and electricity are wheat, oat and barley
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straw, corn stover and wood chips from forest residuals and the wood industry. The focus of this
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study was to estimate how much sustainably removable residue from wheat straw there was in
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Araucania Region of Chile and how much electrical energy could be produced. The methodology
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used for estimating wheat straw residual was based upon the relationship between unused post-
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harvest biomass, marketable biomass, and volume and potential annually available. Results of this
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study indicate an annual average production of over 0,622 million tons of wheat straw in Araucania
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Region. Quilquén district is the one with the most production, with 0,27 million tons of wheat
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straw. Technical potential of wheat straw, per generation from Quilquén, in a plant of 5 MWth
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generation capacity, is of 3.17 MWel with the technologies of cogeneration through fluidized bed
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combustion and 4.89 MWel with the technologies of turbine power generation, and the fluidized
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bed gasifiers and combined gas and steam.
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Key words: Bioenergy; Gasification; Combustion; Wheat Residue
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1. Introduction
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Petroleum, coal and natural gas supply 81.7% of primary energy consumption in the world [1],
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Chile imports 59.3% of its primary energy matrix, which is composed of 90.2% fossil fuels [2].
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Greenhouse gas emissions, the product of burning fossil fuels, is one of the principal causes of
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global warming [3]. Chile is committed to reducing its emissions by 20% by the year 2020 [4],
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nonetheless, current trends forecast an increase in carbon dioxide emissions of 3.5 times relative to
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2007 [5].
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The Chilean energy sector faces the challenge of supporting and sustaining its economic growth,
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managing its energy costs and guaranteeing reliability, providing universal access to the electrical
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system, and meeting its increasingly ambitious environmental goals [6,7]. These challenges can be
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resolved successfully if Chile can decisively implement a growth strategy based on renewable
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energy [7,8].
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Firewood and biomass represent 28.9% of the primary energy matrix in Chile [2]. Wood has
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primarily been used for residential purposes, as fuel for home heating systems or for cooking [9,10].
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Biomass, in contrast, has been used as a raw material for self-generating electricity, primarily by
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the cellulose and paper industries [9,11].
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Biomass residue has industrial potential as a by-product or as energy that is not yet fully utilized
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[12]. The average calorific value for agricultural residues is 17,500 kJ kg-1 [13]. These correspond
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to post-harvest grain residues, which are generally burned to avoid pests, weeds, and to reduce the
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time between harvests; however, this practice generates negative externalities like reducing soil
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organic matter, contributing to degradation, and loss of the resource’s physical properties [14].
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In Chile, wheat residue equals 1.38 times its yield, being the grain with the highest residue
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production index. Corn is the most important grain at the national level, with a residue production
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index of 1.17 times its yield, which is smaller than that of wheat [15].
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In the Araucanía region during the 2012/2013 agricultural season, 105,500 ha of wheat were sown,
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which is the equivalent of 41.6% of the total area sown in the country. This season’s production
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reached 578,300 t [15]. According to Gatica and Alonso [16] during the 2010/2011 agricultural
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season 1.05 million t of grain residues were produced in the Araucanía region, of which 59.6%
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were wheat residues.
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Among the technological options for utilization agricultural residues as raw materials for electrical
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generation are Fluidized bed combustion and generating turbine (C/ST) and Fluidized bed gasifiers followed
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by a combined cycle of gas and steam (G/CC) [25,30].
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Fluidized bed combustion and generating turbine (C/ST). Consists of burning the biomass with a
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mixture of hot water, inert material and dolomite or silica sand, found in suspension, due to an air
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injection from the lower section. The material suspension permits greater heat transfer, as the
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mixture behaves like a fluid; in this way temperature control is facilitated, increases yield and
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permits the use of less homogeneous biomass [26]. Afterward, steam is produced from the biomass
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combustion. This steam is transferred to another section where it expands, triggering the generating
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turbine [25].
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The combustion technology in fluidized bed has been commercialize for over 25 year [39], and the
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maximum capacity is 58 MWth [39,40]. This technology has some advantages as: 1) it can be used
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different raw materials, without necessity of particle reduce size [41]; 2) it can be burned wastes
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with high moisture, even though it would be necessary pre-treatment or incorporated waste with
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high calorific value [40,41]; 3) the fluidized bed material erode the superficial layer of wastes, so
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diminish barriers for than oxygen increase the velocity and efficiency of combustion; 4)
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combustion is complete, controlled and uniform, generation of residues and emissions are reduces
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(NOx and CO) [41].
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Some disadvantages for fluidized bed combustion are: 1) it is necessary sometimes pre-treatment
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of raw materials, especially for older fluidized beds [41]; 2) alkali metals must removed from
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wastes for preventing corrosion and agglomeration [41-43]; 3) it is necessary a proper mix of
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wastes with very different high calorific value for your incineration; 4) if it is used raw materials
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with high ash content, must design an efficient system for their removal [41,43]; 5) if it is used raw 4
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materials with chlorine content can produced corrosion, agglomeration and emissions of HCl,
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furans and dioxins [41].
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Fluidized bed gasifiers followed by a combined cycle of gas and steam (G/CC). Consists of the
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partial oxidation of the biomass at high temperatures (800 - 1000ºC) in the presence of water vapor
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and air (or oxygen) to form a mixture of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and methane [25]. Afterward
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this gas, which has a low calorific value, is burned to produce heat and steam, which feeds the
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generating turbine [25,26].
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The gasifiers technology in fluidized bed has not been commercially used, because have not
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competitive price yet [44], despite there are some examples for gasification projects an industrial
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scale where the capacity are until 60 MWth [45]. Some advantages of gasification technology are:
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1) the gasification equipment is smaller than combustion equipment, for the same have lower costs;
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2) gas obtained from gasifiers can be used in a combined cycle, thus it is reduced carbon emissions
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[46]; 3) technology with fluidized bed gasifiers can be applied in rural areas, where there is a
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constant supply of agricultural or wood residues [46-48].
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Some disadvantages for fluidized bed gasifiers are: 1) have limited application with no biomass
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fuel, as carbon because the temperature is low for fuel with high carbon content, so that produced
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ash agglomeration [46]; 2) agglomeration and corrosion with alkali metals is a problem with
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gasifiers technology too, like the combustion technology [42,43,45]; 3) it is necessary than raw
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materials are homogeneous and without impurities [49]; 4) the content of moisture of raw materials
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must be small [49], Mirmoshtaghi et al [50] determined than biomass with 9% moisture is optimum
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for gas production.
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The purpose of this study is to determine energy generating potential using residues as raw material
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in the Araucanía region. To this end, biomass production was quantified, the region’s districts with
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the highest quantity of residues were identified, and the highest-yielding plant was selected in
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relation to the quantity of residues generated, for electrical production.
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2. Materials and methods
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2.1
Area of Study
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The area of study is the Araucanía region, located between 37º35' and 39º37' southern latitude and
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from 70º50’ western longitude to the Pacific Ocean, extending along an area of 31,842 km2 (Fig.
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1). The study was realized at a district level according to the census boundaries determined by the
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National Institute of Statistics [17].
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2.2
Determining Biomass Availability
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The residual biomass from wheat cultivation for the 2010/2011 agricultural season in the Araucanía
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region was determined from the information received by the VII Census of Agriculture and
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Forestry in Chile [18]. The estimation considered two methods of harvest indices, 1) the Residue-
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to-Product Ratio (RPR), and that of the Unused Residue Coefficient (CNR).
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2.2.1. Residue-to-Product Ratio (RPR).
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This method uses an average value for residue generation [19]. This indicator relates the unused
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post-harvest biomass and the marketable biomass. The calculation considers the harvest index of
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each species (Eq. 1) [20].
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𝑅𝑃𝑅 = (1 ‒ 𝐼𝐶) 𝐼𝐶
(1)
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Where 𝑅𝑃𝑅 corresponds to the residue-to-product ratio, which relates the generated biomass
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residue to the total produced biomass (dimensionless); 𝐼𝐶 corresponds to the harvest index, which
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relates the marketable biomass to the total biomass (t year-1). The IC of one species is determined
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by distinct factors, e.g. climates, variety used, harvest season, soil quality, among others, and it is
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specific to each species. In the case of wheat, the IC in Chile is 0.42 [15], which is slightly below
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the European IC of 0.5 for the same species [20].
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147
Once RPR and district-level production of wheat were obtained, the biomass residue produced was
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calculated (Eq. 2).
149 150
(2)
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𝐵𝑟 = 𝑃 ∗ 𝑅𝑃𝑅
151 152
Where Br corresponds to the biomass residue produced (t year-1); P corresponds to the biomass
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produced by each district (t year-1); RPR corresponds to the residue-to-product ratio, which relates
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the generated biomass residue to the total produced biomass (dimensionless).
155 156
2.2.2. Unused Residue Coefficient (CNR).
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This method calculates the biomass residue obtained in the course of a year over a determined
159
cultivation area [20]. The coefficient must be multiplied by the production area of the crop (Eq. 3).
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𝐵𝑟 = 𝐴𝑐 ∗ 𝐶𝑁𝑅
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(3)
Where Br corresponds to the biomass residue produced (t year-1); Ac corresponds to the area of
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production of the crop (ha); CNR corresponds to the unused residue coefficient on a dry basis (t
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ha-1 year-1). There are no records for CNR in Chile, so in this case the calculated value for California
166
of 2.01 was used [21], which has also been used for the country conditions by Fundación Chile
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[22].
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2.3. Spatial Dispersion and Seasonal Availability of Wheat Residues
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Wheat biomass residues, previously determined via two estimation methods –RPR and CNR-, are
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georeferenced to determine their distribution at a regional level. The spatial dispersion was
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evaluated to determine the districts where an electrical plant installation could be viable. It is
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generally recommended that the biomass electrical plant and the raw material generation point be
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located within a distance of 80 km [23].
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The seasonal availability of agricultural residues is determined by the harvest season of each crop,
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its spatial distribution and the local climate and soil conditions. We determined the phenological
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stages and harvest dates for wheat according to the local administrative policy [24].
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2.4. Estimating Electrical Generation Potential of Residues
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The electrical production was estimated via a transfer function model, between the biomass
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produced (t year-1) and the electrical production (MW), with the purpose of determining which
185
generating plant can best be adjusted to the magnitudes of biomass produced depending on the
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production levels of the highest-producing district (Eq. 4) [25]. The function was applied to two
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types of technologies: fluidized bed combustion technology (C/ST) and fluidized bed gasifiers
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followed by a combined cycle of gas and steam (G/CC).
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𝑊𝑁𝐸 = 𝑀 ∗ 𝜂𝑒 ∗ 𝐿𝐻𝑉 (3600 ∗ 𝑂𝐻)
(4)
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Where 𝑊𝑁𝐸 corresponds to net energy output (MW); 𝑀 corresponds to biomass residue (t), in this
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case the estimation of wheat residues generated in the Araucanía region; 𝜂𝑒 corresponds to the
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plant’s efficiency factor, which is different for a C/ST plant and a G/CC plant, and for which
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different plant sizes are considered between 5 and 50 MWth, each with distinct efficiency factors
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(Table 1); 𝐿𝐻𝑉 corresponds to the lowest calorific value of the wheat biomass residue (kJ kg-1), in
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this case 14,060 kJ kg-1 [19]; 𝑂𝐻 corresponds to the plant’s hours of operation during the year (h
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year-1), in this case 8000 h year-1.
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3.
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3.1.
Wheat Biomass Residue Availability
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Results and discussion
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Wheat residue production in the Araucanía region was 622,000 t according to the RPR method.
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The wheat biomass residue was concentrated in 23 districts –of 299– in the region. In these 23
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districts, 50% of the wheat residues for the region was produced, while 10 districts accounted for
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27.8% of production (Table 2). On the other hand, there were 10 districts with no recorded wheat
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residue production.
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According to the CNR method, the regional production of wheat residues was 190,500 t. The wheat
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biomass residue was concentrated in 31 districts –of 299– of the region. In these 31 districts, 50%
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of the wheat residues for the region was produced, while 10 districts accounted for 22.8% of
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production (Table 2). On the other hand, there were 37 districts with no recorded wheat residue
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production.
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The wheat biomass residue estimation according to the RPR method was 3.2 times higher than the
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CNR method estimation. The difference between the two methods is expected because the CNR
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method uses a dry basis value for the biomass residue estimation [20], whereas the RPR method is
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estimated using a wet basis value. In addition, the CNR method uses a standardized yield, as the
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estimation was made relative to the cultivation area, not considering the possibility of varying
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productivities depending on the geographic distribution of plantations [20].
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Jölli and Giljum [20] also detected differences in biomass residue estimations using the RPR and
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CNR methods. They compared diverse species in different countries and in all cases, the residue
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production estimation was higher using the RPR method than when using the CNR method. Similar
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behavior was observed when the biomass residue production of corn in the Araucanía region was
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estimated, as the RPR method showed a biomass production that was 1.36 times higher than with
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the CNR method [27].
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At a country level, the wheat residue production records are much closer to the values obtained by
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the RPR method. Gatica and Alonso [16] determined that wheat residue production reached
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621,800 t in the Araucanía region for the 2011/2012 agricultural season. On the other hand,
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Taladriz and Schwember [28] determined that between the Biobío and Araucanía regions, wheat
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residue production is around 1.3 million t, with the Araucanía region being the largest producer, as
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it is also the primary wheat producer at the country level [15,16].
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The RPR method is the most commonly used to estimate the biomass residue production of
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agricultural crops, in comparison to the CNR method. This is due to the fact that the RPR method
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considers the crop species, harvest season, cultivation methods, among other factors, representing
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the reality of the production area [19,29,30]. In any case, there are few records that would allow us
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to compare both methods, with the works of Jölli and Giljum [20] and Montenegro [27] being the
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only ones that used the CNR method to estimate the agricultural residues. Conversely, there is
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abundant literature using the RPR method [13,19,20,29-32], as it is more widely accepted as a
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useful tool for the calculation of agricultural biomass residue.
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244 245
3.2. Spatial Dispersion and Seasonal Availability of Wheat Residues
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The residual biomass of wheat, calculated using the RPR method, is concentrated in the
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intermediate depression of the Araucanía region, primarily in the province of Malleco. The districts
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with residue production above 10,000 t year-1 (Fig. 2a) were located in this province, extending
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over an area of 60,800 ha. The Quilquén district has the highest wheat residue production and is
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located in this province, south of the provincial capital of Angol. The wheat biomass residue
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dispersion, estimated by the CNR method, was similar to that obtained by the RPR method (Fig.
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2b). The difference in this case was determined by the territorial extension where the wheat residues
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are distributed. The primary districts that produce over 2000 t year-1 of residues are extended over
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an area of 277,299 ha when using the CNR method, which is 4.5 times greater than the surface area
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covered by the RPR method. This behavior was different than expected, probably could be
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explained because of the CNR method used an estimation without territorial component, being a
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standard valor for all region [20].
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The seasonal availability of agricultural residue determines the sustainability of electrical
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production during the year. Agricultural residue generation, much like agricultural production, is
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intermittent as it is dependent on climatic factors, on the variety used, on soil conditions, etc. [13].
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Wheat residues are produced during the summer season in the Araucanía region, particularly in
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January [24].
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Eliminating agricultural residue is costly, and it is thus typically used as organic compost, fertilizer,
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animal feed, for energy production, or even in the cellulose industry. Grain residues such as corn
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and wheat are often burned, which generates a loss of raw materials that could be leveraged
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economically or energetically; also, burning agricultural residues emits GEI, and particulate
270
material [14,33], which are harmful for the environment and for society [14,34].
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The burning of residues or straw is increasingly common. It is estimated that for around 50% of
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the national wheat-producing surface that is managed with zero ploughing (between the Biobío and
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Araucanía regions), post-harvest residues were burned. They are burned because of the high
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quantity of stubble on the ground, which generates pest and weed control issues, and also helps
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reduce the period between successive or rotated crops. However, this practice generates negative
277
externalities such as reducing the organic matter of the soil, contributing to degradation and to the
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loss of the physical properties of the soil [35].
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Biomass supply alternatives must be found for the electricity generating system to be sustainable,
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as it is not feasible to install an energy plant that only functions during the wheat residue production
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season. In the Araucanía region, there are also oat residues (Avena sativa) and rapeseed (Brassica
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napus) which could be used as an alternative for energy production. Lignocellulosic biomass can
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also be used, as over 370,000 t year-1 of forest residues are produced in the Araucanía region [9].
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3.3. Estimation of the Electricity Generating Potential of Residues
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3.3.1. Determination of electrical plant capacity.
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Electricity was generated from wheat biomass residue, considering the biomass residue estimated
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by the RPR method (622,000 t year-1), which were the closest adjusted results to the national reality
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[16]. This method has also been used for estimations of electrical generation potential in other
293
studies [30].
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Energy production was evaluated at the district level, for which the optimum plant capacity was
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evaluated. At 27,086 t year-1, the Quilquén district had the highest production of wheat residue and
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was therefore evaluated for electrical production based on plant sizes between 5 and 50 MWth.
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Electrical energy generation in the Quilquén district oscillated between 3.17 and 3.83 MWel for the
300
C/ST plant, and between 4.89 and 5.95 MWel for the G/CC plant (Table 3). Despite having
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increased the installation capacity by 10 times, from 5 to 50 MWth, the electricity generated
302
increased by only 20.8% and 21.7% for C/ST and G/CC plants, respectively. Conversely, the
303
investment costs increased by at least 260% for a C/ST plant (between 10 and 50 MWth) and 210%
304
for a G/CC plant (between 10 and 30 MWth), depending on the plant’s capacity [25]. It was
305
determined that the 5 MWth plant is the most convenient according to wheat residue availability in
306
the Araucanía region.
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Under a scenario of regular supply of raw material, the plant capacity decision can vary, as the
309
production cost per unit of electrical energy generated decreases as electrical capacity increases for
310
both technologies (C/ST and G/CC), which must be considered for the sustainability of the system
311
[25,36].
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3.3.2. Energy production using wheat biomass residue in the Araucanía Region.
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Districts with a generating capacity of at least 1 MWel using wheat residues were considered for
316
the estimation. In this way, for a C/ST plant, the minimum amount required of wheat biomass
317
residue was 8534.8 t year-1, while that value for a G/CC plant was 5536.1 t year-1. The biomass
318
quantity required for G/CC was lower because this type of plant presents higher efficiency in its
319
consumption of raw material [25].
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There are 21 of 299 total districts in the Araucanía region that produce wheat residues at a rate of
322
at least 8534.8 t year-1 for combustion. Meanwhile, for gasifiers there are 35 districts of 299 that
323
produce wheat residues at a rate of at least 5536.1 t year-1, which is the minimum required to
324
produce 1 MWel of energy.
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The energy generated by a 5 MWth C/ST plant was over 3 MWel only in the Quilquén district, while
327
3 other districts produced between 2 – 3 MWel and 17 districts could produce between 1 – 2 MWel.
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The energy generated by a 5 MWth G/CC plant was over 4 MWel in the Quilquén district, while 3
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other districts could produce between 3 – 4 MWel, 12 districts could generate between 2 – 3 MWel,
330
and 19 districts could generate between 1 – 2 MWel (Fig. 3).
331
In the Araucanía region’s central valley, specifically, south of the Malleco province and north of
333
the Cautín province, there is a concentration of districts with high production of wheat biomass
334
residue. Among the Quilquén, Rehuecoyan. Quilquico, Parlamento, Manzanaco, Chufquen, Santa
335
Ana and Tricauco districts, 138,842 t were produced, and the distance between the center of that
336
whole districts and the farthest limit are 32.36 km. These districts together could supply sufficient
337
raw material for energy production, even for a plant with capacity above 5 MWth.
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C/ST and G/CC technologies are both recognized as viable alternatives for electricity production
340
at a small scale and in rural sectors [30]. G/CC technology reached the highest levels of energy
341
production due to its higher efficiency of raw material use. For the same reason, there are 35
342
districts that could produce energy using wheat residues, while that number using C/ST technology
343
would be 21. Though both technologies are recognized as feasible, gasifier technology is
344
recommended. This is one of the most promising technologies with the highest global adoption rate
345
[3,37], as it is one of the best alternatives at a rural scale [30].
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A steady supply of raw material must be secured for an electrical plant to be viable, as one of the
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greatest challenges for this type of technology is residue availability [30]. Araucanía Region
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produced over 1.0 million ton of crop residues [16], and over 1.5 million ton of forest residues,
350
mainly from Pinus radiata [38]. Gasifier technology is more sensitive to raw material
351
homogeneity, which is an important factor to consider when evaluating and comparing other
352
complementary raw materials such as forestry industry residues rather than wheat residues [12].
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4.
Conclusions
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The RPR method was the best-adjusted to the reality of agricultural residue production in the
357
Araucanía region, as it considers the individual productivity values of the location as well as of the
358
species. By contrast, the CNR method employs an average value of the crop surface for the wheat
359
residue estimation and decreases the representativeness and accuracy of the results.
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Around 622,000 t year-1 of wheat residues were produced in the Araucanía region and could be
362
used for energy production. Quilquén was the greatest residue producer at district level with 27,086
363
t year-1, which was significantly higher than any other district in the region. This district could
364
produce 3.17 and 4.89 MWel with a 5 MWth plant using C/ST and G/CC technologies, respectively.
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365 366
The 5 MWth generating plant is recommended at a regional level due to the spatial dispersion of
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residues and the amount of energy generated, without necessarily dismissing the possibility of
368
using a greater capacity plant. In the Araucanía region’s central valley, where the districts with
369
greatest wheat residue yields are found, there is a possibility of creating an energy production center
370
that would cover an even greater territory.
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Having produced 54% more energy than a C/ST plant, G/CC technology is the most convenient
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for electricity production. It also allows for energy production in a larger number of districts, 31
374
rather than 21 using C/ST technology, due to the fact that G/CC has a more efficient raw material
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consumption rate.
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findings and energy analysis. Renew Energ 33 (10) (2008) 2339-43. [48] De Jong W, Andries J, Hein KRG. Coal/Biomass co-gasification in a pressurised fluidized
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Fig. 1. Area of Study. Araucanía Region, Chile on a district and communal scale.
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Table 1. Efficiency factors for generating plants, C/ST and G/CC.
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Table 2. Estimation of the wheat residues generated during the 2010/2011 agricultural season in
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Fig. 2. Spatial dispersion of wheat biomass residue in the Araucanía Region, Chile estimated
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Table 3. Estimation of electricity generation via C/ST and G/CC in the Quilquén district, using
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Fig. 3. Estimated electrical energy production (MW) according to the type of technology used
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(C/ST and G/CC) and the wheat biomass residue generated in the primary districts of the Araucanía
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region.
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Fig. 1. Area of Study. Araucanía Region, Chile on a district and communal scale.
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Fig. 2. Spatial dispersion of wheat biomass residue in the Araucanía Region, Chile estimated
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Fig. 3. Estimated electrical energy production (MW) according to the type of technology used
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Fig. 1. Area of Study. Araucanía Region, Chile on a district and communal scale.
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Fig. 2. Spatial dispersion of wheat biomass residue in the Araucanía Region, Chile estimated
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Fig. 3. Estimated electrical energy production (MWel) according to the type of technology used (C/ST and G/CC) and the wheat biomass residue generated in the primary districts of the Araucanía
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Table 1. Efficiency factors for generating plants, C/ST and G/CC.
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Table 3. Estimation of electricity generation via C/ST and G/CC in the Quilquén district, using
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Table 1. Efficiency factors for generating plants, C/ST and G/CC [25].
Plant size (MWth) ηe (C/ST) ηe (G/CC) 0.00 0.37 0.39 0.40 0.41 0.43 0.43 0.44 0.44 0.45 0.45
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0.00 0.24 0.25 0.26 0.26 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.28 0.29 0.29
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Table 2. Estimation of the wheat residues generated during the 2010/2011 agricultural season in the Araucanía Region, according to the RPR and CNR methods. RPRa
CNRb t year-1 7146.8 5050.5 4751.4 4523.3 3880.3 3714.7 3626.4 3616.8 3532.0 3530.8
Unused Residue Coefficient
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District t year-1 District Quilquén 27,086.3 Quilquén Rehuecoyan 19,942.9 Rehuecoyan La Selva 19,838.5 Parlamento Parlamento 19,039.2 La Selva Quilquilco 16,455.8 Quilquilco Chufquen 14,759.8 Dollinco Santa Ana 14,385.4 Quino Manzanaco 14,111.1 La Colmena Quino 14,049.8 Colonia Lautaro Coipue 13,378.8 Santa Ana a Residue-to-Product Ratio
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Table 3. Estimation of electricity generation via C/ST and G/CC in the Quilquén district, using wheat residues as raw material (MWel).
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0.00 3.17 3.31 3.44 3.44 3.57 3.57 3.57 3.70 3.83 3.83
G/CC
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0.00 4.89 5.16 5.29 5.42 5.69 5.69 5.82 5.82 5.95 5.95
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