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Biological conservation: The present
Biological Conservation: The Present J. B. CRAGG,D.Sc. (Newcastle) Director, Environmental Sciences Centre ( Kananaskis), University o f Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada; Professor and formerly Head o f the Department o f Biology, University o f Calgary; Vice-Chairman o f IUCN's Commission on Ecology
SUMMARY The activities o f IUCN, which co-operates with other international organizations such as UNESCO and FAO and has its main source o f funds in WWF, are described as 'The best starting-point for a review o f the present state o f biological conservation' in its very various aspects. A global approach is necessary in many important activities ranging from the saving o f 'threatened' species and habitats to the setting aside o f wildfowl sanctuaries and the containment o f marine pollution. I U C N also collaborates closely with IBP, and particularly with its section CT; following the termination o f IBP about 1972, I U C N will 'be responsible for ensuring continuity for information on conservation matters, and for implementing common policies and research programmes.' Meanwhile technical meetings are being held in various parts o f the world, to attract the widest possible attention to major conservation and allied problems. The importance o f maintaining an ecological point o f view is stressed, as is the need for constant appraisal o f the relationship between Man and Nature, which have to come to terms and live together. Such examples as that o f the Coast Redwoods in California illustrate, however, the need for basic research before many conservational measures are adopted. There is an analysis o f the conflict between conservation and economics, and o f the difficulty in placing price-tags on many aspects o f the former. Finally there is indicated an increasing public awareness o f the environment and concern for its state, often engendered by sudden catastrophes or new dangers o f pollution. The maintenance o f the quality o f the human environment is the concept around which conservation projects are being increasingly planned.
In attempting to write about the present state of biological conservation I am reminded of T. S. Eliot's lines: 'In order to arrive at what you do not know, You must go by a way which is the way of ignorance.' (East Coker, 1940) Conservation took its origins from what was in essence an aesthetic concern for wilderness. In its early days, it was largely a static, preservation-forever, romantic movement, and scientists were slow to join it. As its scientific connections were gradually established,
and as ecology began to mark out its own hazy boundaries as a science in its own right, biological conservation began to move from its romantic era into something too often described as 'soft science'. An ecological point of view began to colour many of the writings on conservation, and the introduction of the ecosystem concept increased the scientific basis of much of conservation. Now, the quantitative approach to ecosystem studies is being further enhanced by the application of systems analysis. Thus modern ecology, together with many other aspects of environmental biology, can provide the necessary scientific and quantitative framework for conservation. However, as I have indicated elsewhere (Cragg, 1968), a scientific basis is not enough: it must be integrated with social and cultural studies. The unity of this interdisciplinary approach is beginning to emerge, and in this article I shall do no more than expose some of the steps in ' . . . the way of ignorance'.
T H E I N T E R N A T I O N A L ASPECTS OF CONSERVATION
The best starting-point for a review of the present state of biological conservation is to examine the activities of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). This organization, with a membership which includes sovereign states, government departments, and private organizations, came into being in 1948. In brief its main purpose is expressed in the following terms ' . . . to promote or support action which will ensure the perpetuation of wild nature and natural resources on a world-wide basis, not only for their intrinsic cultural or scientific values but also for the long-time economic and social welfare of mankind'. I U C N cooperates with other international organizations such as U N E S C O and FAO, and draws its main financial support from the World Wildlife Fund which was established in 1961. Its role in initiating and integrating conservation projects has expanded consider13
Biological Conservation--Elsevier Publishing Company Ltd., England--Printed in Great Britain
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Biological Conservation
ably since its first General Assembly at Fontainbleau, when it passed only one resolution. That resolution talked about the 'Protection of Nature' and did not use the word 'Conservation'. In fact it was not until its fifth assembly in 1956 that 'Conservation' replaced 'Protection', and emphasis was placed on the wise utilization of natural resources. The nine General Assemblies and ten other meetings, mainly Technical Conferences, have produced over 300 resolutions.* Many of these remain pious hopes - - some, no doubt, bring blushes to their a u t h o r s - but the hard core represent authoritative statements on matters which at the time deserved, or still deserve, attention. Operation of IUCN is largely through exposing problems and by persuasion. If it lacks the funds necessary to establish its own intelligence centre, or to send out its own teams of experts, it has, through its excellent relations with UNESCO and FAO, promoted and assisted with many conservational matters of considerable importance. Its failure to attract adequate financial support is an indication of one of the present attitudes to conservation. Many countries are investing considerable amounts of money in national and regional approaches to conservation but they have not yet accepted, in full, the concept of a global approach. Many of IUCN's present operations are essentially first-aid or rescue operations. The catalogues of animals under the threat of extinction, the Red Books, produced by the appropriately-named Survival Service Commission, list over 200 species of mammals and some 300 birds. The equivalent publications for plants and total ecosystems have yet to be produced. Together with the knowledge that approximately 70 species of mammals or birds have been rendered extinct already in this century, these lists are a sharp reminder of the irreparable damage which is being done to the other organisms which share this planet with mankind. The Survival Service Commission has set up twelve specialist groups to advise on the saving of threatened species and habitats. Organisms covered by such groups include orang-utan, rhinoceros, European bison, whales, and marsupials. There is also a group concerned with the conservation of the very special fauna and flora of Madagascar. The Commission acts as an advisory body for many other operations and it has initiated work on endangered insect species. At the Eighth General Assembly in Nairobi in 1963 much attention was given to the maintenance of various species of primates and their capture and transport, because many animals destined for zoologi-
cal gardens or medical research die on the journeys from the collecting grounds. Through the endeavours of IUCN, international meetings were held in 1965 and 1966 to discuss the availability and long-term supply of primates for medical research. Existing information would seem to indicate that it is cheaper to allow the animals to breed in their natural habitats and export them, than to breed them in medical centres in other parts of the world. Thus the conservation of many primate species is being achieved by changing their status from pest to economic resource. But populations must be watched and numbers not allowed to get too low. IUCN is encouraging the establishment of separate breeding units of threatened species. Their share in saving the Arabian Oryx from extinction by setting up a breeding unit in Phoenix Zoo, Arizona, is well known, and there are now three small groups of Oryx in existence at different centres. It has been said that there are more hunters of Polar Bears than there are Polar Bears, and concern for this species has led to international action. A conference was held in Alaska in 1965, attended by all those countries which contain natural populations of Polar Bears. An extensive, internationally orientated research programme was drawn up, and IUCN accepted the responsibility of acting as the clearinghouse for these research operations.t It is worth adding that a very practical step for the protection of Polar Bears has just been taken by the Province of Ontario, Canada. They have declared a 7,000 sq mile (nearly 18,000 sq km) area on James Bay and Hudson Bay as a Polar Bear conservation park. It contains Ontario's largest population of Polar Bears and, in addition, Bearded Seals, Walrus, and Woodland Caribou. There are to be no commercial developments in the park and it ' . . . will be managed so as to carefully preserve the unique natural resources of the area'. While the rescue of threatened species and habitats will, for some considerable time, be an important part of IUCN's work, a more general approach to the maintenance of habitats and their utilization is seen in a number of projects now receiving their support. Close collaboration exists between IUCN and the International Biological Programme (IBP), and in particular with the section concerned with the conservation of terrestrial communities. This section (CT) is producing a system of habitat classification based on scientific characteristics which will be used for the production of a world list of habitats. When compiled, it will provide information on total areas in existence,
* We hope to have an analysis of these IUCN resolutions, classified according to whether or not they have been (or t Early this year, IUCN held its 'First Working Meeting of might possibly be) successfully implemented, in a future Polar Bear Specialists', see the Conferences section near the end of this issue.--Ed. issue.--Ed.
Cragg: Biological Conservation: The Present
whether adequate acreages are being protected, and their degree of protection. This operation is of fundamental importance to the future role of IUCN. Many biologists regard the work of the CT section of I BP as the most important operation within IBP as far as the future of living systems is concerned. The need for a scientific guide to habitats is highlighted by the considerable support which the United Nations, through its Economic and Social Council, has given to I U C N since 1959 for the production o f a UN List of National Parks and Equivalent Reserves. The United Nations require this document in order to pin-point regions where conservation projects should receive high priority. 1BP is essentially a five-year operation and most of its projects, along with its central organization, will come to an end in 1972 or thereabouts. I U C N will then be responsible for ensuring continuity for information on conservation matters, and for implementing common policies and research programmes. The various technical conferences promoted by IUCN, usually in collaboration with other international organizations, have helped to attract attention to major conservation problems in the countries where they have been held. The 1961 conference in Tanzania, on the theme of Natural Resources in Modern African States, demonstrated the value of wildlife as a resource, and the possibility of utilizing wild species together with domestic livestock on an economic basis. Two major conferences have been held under the auspices of I UCN on matters relating to wetlands. Wetlands invite 'development ~. They provide engineers with a challenge and a ready way of demonstrating technological skill. They are typically areas of high fertility and, once they have been drained, that fertility can be tapped to give high-quality grazings or arable lands. Superficially such developments appear justified, but like many single-purpose operations they ignore important attributes of many wetland areas. The dynamics of wetlands as ecosystems in their own right have barely been investigated. Apart from their obvious uses for fish and game-bird production, they play an important part in water regulation in many parts of the world. As areas of scientific interest, the word 'unique' can be applied to many of t h e m not least to their importance as resting or over-wintering sites for waterfowl on migration. The first conference, held in 1962 under the title 'Project M A R ' , emphasized the need to conserve wetlands, and resulted in the production of a list of wetlands of international importance in Europe and North Africa. The second wetlands conference was held in Turkey in 1967 at the request of the Turkish Government.
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Because of the great importance of wetlands in the Near and Middle East, as wintering and resting areas for vast numbers of waterfowl which cross many international boundaries, the conference was sponsored by I UCN in collaboration with the International Council for Bird Protection and the International Wildfowl Research Bureau.* The meetings brought together administrators, government scientists, and experts from various parts of the world, and this led to the application of the principles of the M A R project to the Near and Middle East. The technical papers dealt with such matters as soil and water problems in Turkey, forest management, studies on conservation areas, wetlands in lran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and lraq, and wetlands as recreation centres. Special attention was paid to the wildlife populations which can be a major food and recreation resource. The detailed papers of Isakov (1968), and lsakov & Shevareva (1968) stressed the role of wetlands beyond the boundaries of USSR for the maintenance of USSR breeding stocks. Of the many millions of wildfowl breeding in USSR, a relatively small percentage overwinter in that country. Thus, the destruction of wetlands in one country can do irreparable harm to the biological variety and productivity of another country.
AN E C O L O G I C A L P O I N T OF VIEW
Ecology is not the total content of conservation but it forms an important part of its scientific basis. McHarg (1966), in discussions on the social and cultural attributes of the environment, differentiates between 'ecology' and 'the ecological point of view'. There is a growing awareness among various disciplines - - ranging from medicine to the social sciences that there are generalized ways of interpreting the relations between Man and his environment. This 'ecological point of view" is a useful concept and one which should be encouraged - - provided its users are aware of the slim factual basis for some ecological generalizations. The uncritical application of Darwin's views on evolution resulted in misleading interpretations when they were first applied to human societies, and it is the ecologist's responsibility to ensure that the 'ecological point of view' can be substantiated. It is one thing to talk about the ecological point of view; it is another to demonstrate it in action. Darling (1955) showed how a multi-purpose land-use system, based on an ecological appraisal of the Scottish Highlands, could do much to rehabilitate an area which had suffered from forest clearance and bad manage-
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* See the account by Sir Hugh Elliott in this issue, under the general heading of Conferences and Meetings.--Ed.
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Biological Conservation
in need of a major overhaul, should be replaced by a higher dam. It is argued that increased storage will allow irrigated areas to be expanded to the extent of 'hundreds of thousands' of acres. The local Indians are opposed to the enlargement of the dam, their Two Types of Tropical Agriculture Geertz compares two types of agricultural practice, main objection being that it will result in the flooding common in the Indonesian Archipeligo, which repre- of some 10,000 acres (4,048 ha) of their reserve. The sent extremes in a land-utilization spectrum. At one threatened territory is of considerable biological end there is swidden agriculture - - a system of shifting interest, and of importance to the Indian economy. cultivation in which areas are cleared, farmed for one It is a region which has supported some form of human or more years, then vacated and allowed to return to occupation for 8,000 to 10,000 years. Cool springs bush. At the other end of the spectrum, where irriga- occur, geese winter there, and both cattle and buffalo the latter introduced in 1967 - - graze it. tion is possible, there is a wet-rice agriculture. AnthroThe Idaho problem highlights the need for relative pologists and archaeologists have differed greatly in their interpretations of the swidden type of farming. assessments of biological and economic values. Both Geertz sees swidden agriculture as a method of the Idaho Water Resources Board and the Bureau of adapting a natural ecosystem for human use, with a Reclamation acknowledge the difficulties of evaluating minimum of alteration. A swidden area is in fact a the different ways of utilizing the area. Nelson (1968) piece of natural forest converted into modified forest quotes from the Bureau's report, which admits that for ease of harvesting. Much of the variety which is the loss to bird life, to fishing, to tribal customs, and to characteristic of the natural ecosystem is retained. archaeology, cannot be assessed in monetary terms. Geertz quotes information for the Philippines of 3-acre The possibility of financial compensation has been plots carrying some 40 different crops which range considered, but the Indians, a very impoverished group, are more than sceptical. As one spokesman from lowly root-crops to full trees. Compared with swidden agriculture, rice produc- said 'we are not interested in talk of exchanging our tion represents a highly specialized technological unreplaceable Bottom Lands for "comparable lands" system which has completely replaced the natural because we know with certainty that there are no ecosystem. Geertz (1963) sums up wet-rice cultivation comparable lands to be had'. The local university has as ' . . . an ingenious device for the agricultural exploita- given strong support to the Indians' objections. Some tion of a habitat . . . . Only here we have not the imi- 1,000 species of plants out of Idaho's 3,000 known tation of a tropical forest, but the fabrication of an species occur there. According to Earl H. Swanson, aquarium'. Its stability depends on human mainte- Director of the Museum at Idaho State University, the nance. The wet-rice system is capable of accommoda- Falls Reservoir area is one of the three or four outting increases in human pressure, because a rise in standing areas in North America for studying population provides more people for carrying out the Pleistocene invertebrates. The outcome of what have been heated discussions cultural operations. Obviously there is a point of maximum production, and when this is reached it has not been settled. There is need here for an 'ecomeans less food for the h u m a n element; but the logical point of view'. But to establish an adequate system itself does not break down. Swidden agricul- quantitative basis will take time and money, and this ture is more sensitive to rises in population, for an is true for many other situations. The intimate relationship between the Indian comincrease in numbers leads to a more rapid return to previously-used plots, and thus to deterioration of the munity and its bottom lands is similar to that which habitat and possibilities of erosion. F r o m this eco- exists between human settlements and many wetland logical analysis, explanations are offered of differences areas. These situations are in fact ecosystems of which in population density, and of various social and Man is an integral part. They require detailed study cultural features of the human communities operating because it is not certain, even on an economic basis, that the short-term gains produced by flooding in one these agricultural systems. case or by drainage in another, will outweigh their many other attributes. A small community in Turkey Dams versus Indians The drylands of Idaho demonstrate the ascendancy draws on its neighbouring wetland in many ways: the of the dam-builders in the management of desert. reed-beds are used for fuel, for house-building, and for Large impoundments bring much-needed water for stock; animals graze in the shallows, and fish and the development of agriculture and the growth of wildfowl are utilized for food. These are all items that settlements. At the present time there is a proposal are capable of economic assessment. In addition, there that the American Falls D a m on the Snake River, now are the intangible values of such areas for the conservament practices. More recently, Geertz (1963) has shown the importance of analysing so-called primitive agricultural systems in ecological terms.
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Cragg: Biological Conservation: The Present tion of very many species of wildlife, and for purposes of recreation as well as scientific study.
A DIFFERENT
K I N D OF N A T U R E
I have commented previously (Cragg, 1968) on the need to make a new appraisal of the relations between Man and the natural world, and I quoted Elton (1958) who defined conservation as a ' . . . wise principle of co-existence between man and nature, even if it has to be a modified kind of man and a modified kind of nature'. This view is of particular relevance now that we are saving species by establishing breeding u n i t s - very often in environments that are markedly different from those where the organisms normally occur. The basic problem was stated in the title of an article by Spurway (1952): 'Can wild animals be kept in captivity?' Different aspects of this subject, with particular relevance to North America, have been commented on by Allen (1966) and Leopold (1966). There is little choice for the conservationist when it comes to saving a species or even keeping a wild species, at present numerous, in being. It is impossible to simulate under most park conditions the natural mortalities which will befall a wild herd of herbivores. In many cases changes in behaviour will result from different selection pressures, and these must be accepted. The organisms which require the greatest attention are those which do not readily adapt even to slight modifications in the ecosystems where they occur. Their preservation must depend on the maintenance of adequate samples of natural h a b i t a t s - another reminder of the importance of IBP for conservation programmes. In our present state of knowledge, whilst many people readily accept the captured population as better than no population, conflicts can arise over the methods which should be adopted to conserve a given habitat or a given species. An example of such a conflict concerns the preservation of the Coast Redwoods of California. The conservation of the Coast Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) in its natural habitat is a project which deserves and, as a favourite child of the very active Sierra Club receives, considerable attention. Stone & Vasey (1968) expose some of the differences of opinion which can arise between a scientist's view of a conservation situation and that of a group of enthusiastic conservationists. In 1955 and 1956, and again in 1964, major floods occurred in the Coast Redwood country. To cite one case, the 1955 flood removed some 26 ha of the 200 ha Rockefeller Redwood Forest. Conservationists have called for flood prevention measures to protect
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the remaining Redwoods. One proposal is to build a series of dams, but Stone & Vasey are of the opinion that flood control would so modify the fluctuating environment in which the Redwoods live, that it might well impose threats as great as, if not greater than, the present dangers from floods. The geochemical cycle would be altered, and opportunities for competing species to establish themselves would be increased. Furthermore, the capacity of the Redwoods to withstand at least some f l o o d s - - a factor which has operated in their favour for at least hundreds of thousands of y e a r s - - w o u l d cease to be of importance. Unless conservation practices simulating fire and flood were introduced, it is the opinion of Stone & Vasey (1968) that ' . . . the visitor who stops to admire and marvel at these giants may, unknowingly, be witnessing their losing struggle with death, not their preservation'. The people whom Stone & Vasey (1968a) call the 'lay conservationists' are not convinced by their arguments, and Robinson (1968) questions, among other things, the conclusions of Stone & Vasey about the capacity of other species to take over in the absence of natural fires or floods. The alternative for the Sequoias of 'dams or no dams' exposes the weakness of many present-day conservation operations. Such operations are usually unique; there is no corpus of knowledge on which action can be based, and the actual procedures must depend too often on inspired guesswork rather than on solid scientific information. There are gaps in our knowledge and, as usual, the reply is 'more research' and this is all too true in the majority of cases. it is to be hoped that there will be a major project on Redwoods in IBP. The mature stands have maintained themselves for thousands of years. The great height of the trees provides a relatively stable microclimate within the stand, ground flora is almost totally absent, and there is a very much reduced microflora and microfauna in the soil. In spite of the awe-inspiring appearance of a Redwood forest, it is basically a simple e c o s y s t e m - - a n d one which can provide ecological information of importance. -
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CONSERVATION
versus
ECONOMICS
Biological conservation as I have defined it (Cragg, 1968) is concerned with the maintenance of natural systems and, where possible, with their u t i l i z a t i o n either directly or by way of information obtained from their s t u d y - - f o r the long-term benefit of mankind. The conflict between economics and conservation hinges on the values that can be placed on particular conservation policies. Boulding (1966)
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exposes this conflict in very simple terms. The ecologist, according to him, regards the possible extinction of the Whooping Crane as a major tragedy. The economist, whilst he might regret the disappearance of the species, would ask 'What will it cost to prevent its disappearance?' In the modern world, this is a real problem and, where possible, price-tags must be attached to conservation programmes. Conservation is one aspect of a wide field of endeavour which is concerned with the maintenance of the natural environment. Price-tags can be placed on damage from air and water pollution, on the effects of radioactive fallout, on the spread of toxic chemicals. As an example of this arithmetic, the damage of air pollution alone on crops in the United States has been estimated at $150,000,000 to $500,000,000 per year. Recreation interests such as wildfowling have yielded price-tags, and even real estate, when it is situated in the vicinity of parks or similar preserves, demonstrates the value of such areas in the money market. Whilst the economic argument must be taken into account whenever possible, it will have to be accepted that there are values in the conservation of natural systems which cannot be translated into a money terminology. There are dangers in a too-ready acceptance of the 'price-tag' philosophy. One of the great achievements in conservation has been the setting aside of very large areas of land for public use. The National Parks of the United States, which inspired this type of development, are faced with decisions of an economic nature. The tendency to measure the success of National Parks and their equivalents by the number of visitors they attract is too simple and destructive a yardstick. As Darling & Eichhorn (1967) point out, the cry of 'Parks are for People', if too vigorously applied, can lead to the destruction of the very things for which the parks offer protection. The confusion which exists at present in determining the values to be attached to conservation projects will have to be resolved, and the arguments produced by Boulding (1966) and Brinser (1966), along with those of Fisher (1966, 1967), should be given every attention. These authors are in sympathy with the need for biological conservation, but they are concerned about the absence of criteria on which to assess the values of many of the resources which form the elements of conservation programmes. Progress is being made, and many matters which concern human welfare can be given values in a social and cultural context. Perks (1968), in discussing pollution control, recognises three major elements in rational planning: ecological, cultural, and economic. He sees a plan as a product of these approaches in the following way: those 'which are possible or not (ecology), adoptable or not (culture), and gainful or not (economy)'. Biological
conservation is a form of environmental planning, and the same three elements must be weighed in deciding conservation programmes. The close relationship between conservation and landscape planning led IUCN to establish a Committee on Landscape Planning within the Commission on Ecology. At the 10th technical meeting in Lucerne, landscape planners, ecologists, and social scientists, discussed the problems of promoting a new relationship between Man and Nature in temperate lands. Benthem (1967) described the objective as 'creative conservation'.* If there is much still to be learned, at least an approach towards measuring social and cultural values, within an ecological setting, has been initiated.
CONCLUSIONS
In this paper I have made no mention so far of those private individuals and non-government organizations who are the real guardians of the conservation ethos. Perhaps one individual should be singled o u t - the late Rachel Carson, whose book Silent Spring marks a dividing line in the growth of public concern for conservation. Our present attitudes towards biological conservation were moulded by the sudden awareness of dangers threatening the whole earth through radioactive fallout, the widespread dispersion of toxic chemicals, and other types of pollution. Many people became aware, for the first time, of the dramatic effects of man's technological achievements on natural systems. It is becoming generally accepted that the earth is a space-ship with only one input - - that of solar energy. The assumption that there are infinite resources on which the short-term plans of economists are based, no longer applies when we are dealing with the quality of man's total environment. It is a sign of present thinking when people from a wide variety of disciplines discuss Natural Resources: Quality and Quantity (Ciriacy-Wantrup & Parsons, 1967). There will always be accidents which may destroy much of what conservationists wish to maintain. The wreck of the Torrey Canyon is a reminder of what can happen. But it is a measure of present attitudes that it was followed by considerable efforts to undo the damage, however misdirected some of these may have been, while a research programme was also initiated. Without minimizing the risks of technological accidents, particularly accidents relating to nuclear power installations, the fact remains that technologists are accepting responsibility for some of these risks. There is talk of organizing international teams to cope with * See his article, so entitled, pp. 11-12--Ed.
Cragg: Biological Conservation: The Present
major disasters. Adequate safety measures and a wholesome respect for the environment are the first essentials; but the growing awareness of the risks that are being taken represent an advanceinpublic thinking. The present concern for environmental quality and acceptance of the view that the earth is a single ecosystem, coincide with a change of attitudes on the part of students now entering universities. Both in the United Kingdom (Dainton, 1968) and the United States, there is evidence of students forsaking the natural sciences for the social sciences. This switch is being deplored in some government and university circles. Yet those of us who are interested in biological conservation should see this change as one which can bring a fresh, interdisciplinary approach to the broad problems facing 'Ecosystem Earth'. The maintenance of the quality of the human environment is the concept around which many conservational projects have nowadays to be planned, and it seems inevitable that this tendency will increase with time. For its full appreciation there must be an interlinking of cultural, sociological, and scientific attitudes. We must not minimize the present shortage of environmental scientists to study problems of environmental pollution and the threats which exist to major biological systems. But the outlook for the future will be brighter if the switch in interest now occurring in the universities is accompanied by a new emphasis on environmental biology within the biological sciences. Then future generations of Man may still be able to find something of wild nature between the patches of twentieth-century concrete.
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ROBINSON, B. (1968). Alluvial Flats Redwoods. Science, 160, 833-6.
STONE, E. C. & VASEY, R. B. (1968a). Alluvial Flats Redwoods. Science, 160, 836-7. SPURWAY, H. (1952). Can wild animals be kept in captivity? New Biol., 13, 11-30.
SUMMARY The activities o f IUCN, which co-operates with other international organizations such as UNESCO and FAO and has its main source o f funds in WWF, are described as 'The best starting-point for a review o f the present state o f biological conservation' in its very various aspects. A global approach is necessary in many important activities ranging from the saving o f 'threatened' species and habitats to the setting aside o f wildfowl sanctuaries and the containment o f marine pollution. I U C N also collaborates closely with IBP, and particularly with its section CT; following the termination o f IBP about 1972, I U C N will 'be responsible for ensuring continuity for information on conservation matters, and for implementing common policies and research programmes.' Meanwhile technical meetings are being held in various parts o f the world, to attract the widest possible attention to major conservation and allied problems. The importance o f maintaining an ecological point o f view is stressed, as is the need for constant appraisal o f the relationship between Man and Nature, which have to come to terms and live together. Such examples as that o f the Coast Redwoods in California illustrate, however, the need for basic research before many conservational measures are adopted. There is an analysis o f the conflict between conservation and economics, and o f the difficulty in placing price-tags on many aspects o f the former. Finally there is indicated an increasing public awareness o f the environment and concern for its state, often engendered by sudden catastrophes or new dangers o f pollution. The maintenance o f the quality o f the human environment is the concept around which conservation projects are being increasingly planned.
In attempting to write about the present state of biological conservation I am reminded of T. S. Eliot's lines: 'In order to arrive at what you do not know, You must go by a way which is the way of ignorance.' (East Coker, 1940) Conservation took its origins from what was in essence an aesthetic concern for wilderness. In its early days, it was largely a static, preservation-forever, romantic movement, and scientists were slow to join it. As its scientific connections were gradually established,
and as ecology began to mark out its own hazy boundaries as a science in its own right, biological conservation began to move from its romantic era into something too often described as 'soft science'. An ecological point of view began to colour many of the writings on conservation, and the introduction of the ecosystem concept increased the scientific basis of much of conservation. Now, the quantitative approach to ecosystem studies is being further enhanced by the application of systems analysis. Thus modern ecology, together with many other aspects of environmental biology, can provide the necessary scientific and quantitative framework for conservation. However, as I have indicated elsewhere (Cragg, 1968), a scientific basis is not enough: it must be integrated with social and cultural studies. The unity of this interdisciplinary approach is beginning to emerge, and in this article I shall do no more than expose some of the steps in ' . . . the way of ignorance'.
T H E I N T E R N A T I O N A L ASPECTS OF CONSERVATION
The best starting-point for a review of the present state of biological conservation is to examine the activities of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). This organization, with a membership which includes sovereign states, government departments, and private organizations, came into being in 1948. In brief its main purpose is expressed in the following terms ' . . . to promote or support action which will ensure the perpetuation of wild nature and natural resources on a world-wide basis, not only for their intrinsic cultural or scientific values but also for the long-time economic and social welfare of mankind'. I U C N cooperates with other international organizations such as U N E S C O and FAO, and draws its main financial support from the World Wildlife Fund which was established in 1961. Its role in initiating and integrating conservation projects has expanded consider13
Biological Conservation--Elsevier Publishing Company Ltd., England--Printed in Great Britain
14
Biological Conservation
ably since its first General Assembly at Fontainbleau, when it passed only one resolution. That resolution talked about the 'Protection of Nature' and did not use the word 'Conservation'. In fact it was not until its fifth assembly in 1956 that 'Conservation' replaced 'Protection', and emphasis was placed on the wise utilization of natural resources. The nine General Assemblies and ten other meetings, mainly Technical Conferences, have produced over 300 resolutions.* Many of these remain pious hopes - - some, no doubt, bring blushes to their a u t h o r s - but the hard core represent authoritative statements on matters which at the time deserved, or still deserve, attention. Operation of IUCN is largely through exposing problems and by persuasion. If it lacks the funds necessary to establish its own intelligence centre, or to send out its own teams of experts, it has, through its excellent relations with UNESCO and FAO, promoted and assisted with many conservational matters of considerable importance. Its failure to attract adequate financial support is an indication of one of the present attitudes to conservation. Many countries are investing considerable amounts of money in national and regional approaches to conservation but they have not yet accepted, in full, the concept of a global approach. Many of IUCN's present operations are essentially first-aid or rescue operations. The catalogues of animals under the threat of extinction, the Red Books, produced by the appropriately-named Survival Service Commission, list over 200 species of mammals and some 300 birds. The equivalent publications for plants and total ecosystems have yet to be produced. Together with the knowledge that approximately 70 species of mammals or birds have been rendered extinct already in this century, these lists are a sharp reminder of the irreparable damage which is being done to the other organisms which share this planet with mankind. The Survival Service Commission has set up twelve specialist groups to advise on the saving of threatened species and habitats. Organisms covered by such groups include orang-utan, rhinoceros, European bison, whales, and marsupials. There is also a group concerned with the conservation of the very special fauna and flora of Madagascar. The Commission acts as an advisory body for many other operations and it has initiated work on endangered insect species. At the Eighth General Assembly in Nairobi in 1963 much attention was given to the maintenance of various species of primates and their capture and transport, because many animals destined for zoologi-
cal gardens or medical research die on the journeys from the collecting grounds. Through the endeavours of IUCN, international meetings were held in 1965 and 1966 to discuss the availability and long-term supply of primates for medical research. Existing information would seem to indicate that it is cheaper to allow the animals to breed in their natural habitats and export them, than to breed them in medical centres in other parts of the world. Thus the conservation of many primate species is being achieved by changing their status from pest to economic resource. But populations must be watched and numbers not allowed to get too low. IUCN is encouraging the establishment of separate breeding units of threatened species. Their share in saving the Arabian Oryx from extinction by setting up a breeding unit in Phoenix Zoo, Arizona, is well known, and there are now three small groups of Oryx in existence at different centres. It has been said that there are more hunters of Polar Bears than there are Polar Bears, and concern for this species has led to international action. A conference was held in Alaska in 1965, attended by all those countries which contain natural populations of Polar Bears. An extensive, internationally orientated research programme was drawn up, and IUCN accepted the responsibility of acting as the clearinghouse for these research operations.t It is worth adding that a very practical step for the protection of Polar Bears has just been taken by the Province of Ontario, Canada. They have declared a 7,000 sq mile (nearly 18,000 sq km) area on James Bay and Hudson Bay as a Polar Bear conservation park. It contains Ontario's largest population of Polar Bears and, in addition, Bearded Seals, Walrus, and Woodland Caribou. There are to be no commercial developments in the park and it ' . . . will be managed so as to carefully preserve the unique natural resources of the area'. While the rescue of threatened species and habitats will, for some considerable time, be an important part of IUCN's work, a more general approach to the maintenance of habitats and their utilization is seen in a number of projects now receiving their support. Close collaboration exists between IUCN and the International Biological Programme (IBP), and in particular with the section concerned with the conservation of terrestrial communities. This section (CT) is producing a system of habitat classification based on scientific characteristics which will be used for the production of a world list of habitats. When compiled, it will provide information on total areas in existence,
* We hope to have an analysis of these IUCN resolutions, classified according to whether or not they have been (or t Early this year, IUCN held its 'First Working Meeting of might possibly be) successfully implemented, in a future Polar Bear Specialists', see the Conferences section near the end of this issue.--Ed. issue.--Ed.
Cragg: Biological Conservation: The Present
whether adequate acreages are being protected, and their degree of protection. This operation is of fundamental importance to the future role of IUCN. Many biologists regard the work of the CT section of I BP as the most important operation within IBP as far as the future of living systems is concerned. The need for a scientific guide to habitats is highlighted by the considerable support which the United Nations, through its Economic and Social Council, has given to I U C N since 1959 for the production o f a UN List of National Parks and Equivalent Reserves. The United Nations require this document in order to pin-point regions where conservation projects should receive high priority. 1BP is essentially a five-year operation and most of its projects, along with its central organization, will come to an end in 1972 or thereabouts. I U C N will then be responsible for ensuring continuity for information on conservation matters, and for implementing common policies and research programmes. The various technical conferences promoted by IUCN, usually in collaboration with other international organizations, have helped to attract attention to major conservation problems in the countries where they have been held. The 1961 conference in Tanzania, on the theme of Natural Resources in Modern African States, demonstrated the value of wildlife as a resource, and the possibility of utilizing wild species together with domestic livestock on an economic basis. Two major conferences have been held under the auspices of I UCN on matters relating to wetlands. Wetlands invite 'development ~. They provide engineers with a challenge and a ready way of demonstrating technological skill. They are typically areas of high fertility and, once they have been drained, that fertility can be tapped to give high-quality grazings or arable lands. Superficially such developments appear justified, but like many single-purpose operations they ignore important attributes of many wetland areas. The dynamics of wetlands as ecosystems in their own right have barely been investigated. Apart from their obvious uses for fish and game-bird production, they play an important part in water regulation in many parts of the world. As areas of scientific interest, the word 'unique' can be applied to many of t h e m not least to their importance as resting or over-wintering sites for waterfowl on migration. The first conference, held in 1962 under the title 'Project M A R ' , emphasized the need to conserve wetlands, and resulted in the production of a list of wetlands of international importance in Europe and North Africa. The second wetlands conference was held in Turkey in 1967 at the request of the Turkish Government.
15
Because of the great importance of wetlands in the Near and Middle East, as wintering and resting areas for vast numbers of waterfowl which cross many international boundaries, the conference was sponsored by I UCN in collaboration with the International Council for Bird Protection and the International Wildfowl Research Bureau.* The meetings brought together administrators, government scientists, and experts from various parts of the world, and this led to the application of the principles of the M A R project to the Near and Middle East. The technical papers dealt with such matters as soil and water problems in Turkey, forest management, studies on conservation areas, wetlands in lran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and lraq, and wetlands as recreation centres. Special attention was paid to the wildlife populations which can be a major food and recreation resource. The detailed papers of Isakov (1968), and lsakov & Shevareva (1968) stressed the role of wetlands beyond the boundaries of USSR for the maintenance of USSR breeding stocks. Of the many millions of wildfowl breeding in USSR, a relatively small percentage overwinter in that country. Thus, the destruction of wetlands in one country can do irreparable harm to the biological variety and productivity of another country.
AN E C O L O G I C A L P O I N T OF VIEW
Ecology is not the total content of conservation but it forms an important part of its scientific basis. McHarg (1966), in discussions on the social and cultural attributes of the environment, differentiates between 'ecology' and 'the ecological point of view'. There is a growing awareness among various disciplines - - ranging from medicine to the social sciences that there are generalized ways of interpreting the relations between Man and his environment. This 'ecological point of view" is a useful concept and one which should be encouraged - - provided its users are aware of the slim factual basis for some ecological generalizations. The uncritical application of Darwin's views on evolution resulted in misleading interpretations when they were first applied to human societies, and it is the ecologist's responsibility to ensure that the 'ecological point of view' can be substantiated. It is one thing to talk about the ecological point of view; it is another to demonstrate it in action. Darling (1955) showed how a multi-purpose land-use system, based on an ecological appraisal of the Scottish Highlands, could do much to rehabilitate an area which had suffered from forest clearance and bad manage-
-
* See the account by Sir Hugh Elliott in this issue, under the general heading of Conferences and Meetings.--Ed.
16
Biological Conservation
in need of a major overhaul, should be replaced by a higher dam. It is argued that increased storage will allow irrigated areas to be expanded to the extent of 'hundreds of thousands' of acres. The local Indians are opposed to the enlargement of the dam, their Two Types of Tropical Agriculture Geertz compares two types of agricultural practice, main objection being that it will result in the flooding common in the Indonesian Archipeligo, which repre- of some 10,000 acres (4,048 ha) of their reserve. The sent extremes in a land-utilization spectrum. At one threatened territory is of considerable biological end there is swidden agriculture - - a system of shifting interest, and of importance to the Indian economy. cultivation in which areas are cleared, farmed for one It is a region which has supported some form of human or more years, then vacated and allowed to return to occupation for 8,000 to 10,000 years. Cool springs bush. At the other end of the spectrum, where irriga- occur, geese winter there, and both cattle and buffalo the latter introduced in 1967 - - graze it. tion is possible, there is a wet-rice agriculture. AnthroThe Idaho problem highlights the need for relative pologists and archaeologists have differed greatly in their interpretations of the swidden type of farming. assessments of biological and economic values. Both Geertz sees swidden agriculture as a method of the Idaho Water Resources Board and the Bureau of adapting a natural ecosystem for human use, with a Reclamation acknowledge the difficulties of evaluating minimum of alteration. A swidden area is in fact a the different ways of utilizing the area. Nelson (1968) piece of natural forest converted into modified forest quotes from the Bureau's report, which admits that for ease of harvesting. Much of the variety which is the loss to bird life, to fishing, to tribal customs, and to characteristic of the natural ecosystem is retained. archaeology, cannot be assessed in monetary terms. Geertz quotes information for the Philippines of 3-acre The possibility of financial compensation has been plots carrying some 40 different crops which range considered, but the Indians, a very impoverished group, are more than sceptical. As one spokesman from lowly root-crops to full trees. Compared with swidden agriculture, rice produc- said 'we are not interested in talk of exchanging our tion represents a highly specialized technological unreplaceable Bottom Lands for "comparable lands" system which has completely replaced the natural because we know with certainty that there are no ecosystem. Geertz (1963) sums up wet-rice cultivation comparable lands to be had'. The local university has as ' . . . an ingenious device for the agricultural exploita- given strong support to the Indians' objections. Some tion of a habitat . . . . Only here we have not the imi- 1,000 species of plants out of Idaho's 3,000 known tation of a tropical forest, but the fabrication of an species occur there. According to Earl H. Swanson, aquarium'. Its stability depends on human mainte- Director of the Museum at Idaho State University, the nance. The wet-rice system is capable of accommoda- Falls Reservoir area is one of the three or four outting increases in human pressure, because a rise in standing areas in North America for studying population provides more people for carrying out the Pleistocene invertebrates. The outcome of what have been heated discussions cultural operations. Obviously there is a point of maximum production, and when this is reached it has not been settled. There is need here for an 'ecomeans less food for the h u m a n element; but the logical point of view'. But to establish an adequate system itself does not break down. Swidden agricul- quantitative basis will take time and money, and this ture is more sensitive to rises in population, for an is true for many other situations. The intimate relationship between the Indian comincrease in numbers leads to a more rapid return to previously-used plots, and thus to deterioration of the munity and its bottom lands is similar to that which habitat and possibilities of erosion. F r o m this eco- exists between human settlements and many wetland logical analysis, explanations are offered of differences areas. These situations are in fact ecosystems of which in population density, and of various social and Man is an integral part. They require detailed study cultural features of the human communities operating because it is not certain, even on an economic basis, that the short-term gains produced by flooding in one these agricultural systems. case or by drainage in another, will outweigh their many other attributes. A small community in Turkey Dams versus Indians The drylands of Idaho demonstrate the ascendancy draws on its neighbouring wetland in many ways: the of the dam-builders in the management of desert. reed-beds are used for fuel, for house-building, and for Large impoundments bring much-needed water for stock; animals graze in the shallows, and fish and the development of agriculture and the growth of wildfowl are utilized for food. These are all items that settlements. At the present time there is a proposal are capable of economic assessment. In addition, there that the American Falls D a m on the Snake River, now are the intangible values of such areas for the conservament practices. More recently, Geertz (1963) has shown the importance of analysing so-called primitive agricultural systems in ecological terms.
-
-
Cragg: Biological Conservation: The Present tion of very many species of wildlife, and for purposes of recreation as well as scientific study.
A DIFFERENT
K I N D OF N A T U R E
I have commented previously (Cragg, 1968) on the need to make a new appraisal of the relations between Man and the natural world, and I quoted Elton (1958) who defined conservation as a ' . . . wise principle of co-existence between man and nature, even if it has to be a modified kind of man and a modified kind of nature'. This view is of particular relevance now that we are saving species by establishing breeding u n i t s - very often in environments that are markedly different from those where the organisms normally occur. The basic problem was stated in the title of an article by Spurway (1952): 'Can wild animals be kept in captivity?' Different aspects of this subject, with particular relevance to North America, have been commented on by Allen (1966) and Leopold (1966). There is little choice for the conservationist when it comes to saving a species or even keeping a wild species, at present numerous, in being. It is impossible to simulate under most park conditions the natural mortalities which will befall a wild herd of herbivores. In many cases changes in behaviour will result from different selection pressures, and these must be accepted. The organisms which require the greatest attention are those which do not readily adapt even to slight modifications in the ecosystems where they occur. Their preservation must depend on the maintenance of adequate samples of natural h a b i t a t s - another reminder of the importance of IBP for conservation programmes. In our present state of knowledge, whilst many people readily accept the captured population as better than no population, conflicts can arise over the methods which should be adopted to conserve a given habitat or a given species. An example of such a conflict concerns the preservation of the Coast Redwoods of California. The conservation of the Coast Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) in its natural habitat is a project which deserves and, as a favourite child of the very active Sierra Club receives, considerable attention. Stone & Vasey (1968) expose some of the differences of opinion which can arise between a scientist's view of a conservation situation and that of a group of enthusiastic conservationists. In 1955 and 1956, and again in 1964, major floods occurred in the Coast Redwood country. To cite one case, the 1955 flood removed some 26 ha of the 200 ha Rockefeller Redwood Forest. Conservationists have called for flood prevention measures to protect
17
the remaining Redwoods. One proposal is to build a series of dams, but Stone & Vasey are of the opinion that flood control would so modify the fluctuating environment in which the Redwoods live, that it might well impose threats as great as, if not greater than, the present dangers from floods. The geochemical cycle would be altered, and opportunities for competing species to establish themselves would be increased. Furthermore, the capacity of the Redwoods to withstand at least some f l o o d s - - a factor which has operated in their favour for at least hundreds of thousands of y e a r s - - w o u l d cease to be of importance. Unless conservation practices simulating fire and flood were introduced, it is the opinion of Stone & Vasey (1968) that ' . . . the visitor who stops to admire and marvel at these giants may, unknowingly, be witnessing their losing struggle with death, not their preservation'. The people whom Stone & Vasey (1968a) call the 'lay conservationists' are not convinced by their arguments, and Robinson (1968) questions, among other things, the conclusions of Stone & Vasey about the capacity of other species to take over in the absence of natural fires or floods. The alternative for the Sequoias of 'dams or no dams' exposes the weakness of many present-day conservation operations. Such operations are usually unique; there is no corpus of knowledge on which action can be based, and the actual procedures must depend too often on inspired guesswork rather than on solid scientific information. There are gaps in our knowledge and, as usual, the reply is 'more research' and this is all too true in the majority of cases. it is to be hoped that there will be a major project on Redwoods in IBP. The mature stands have maintained themselves for thousands of years. The great height of the trees provides a relatively stable microclimate within the stand, ground flora is almost totally absent, and there is a very much reduced microflora and microfauna in the soil. In spite of the awe-inspiring appearance of a Redwood forest, it is basically a simple e c o s y s t e m - - a n d one which can provide ecological information of importance. -
-
CONSERVATION
versus
ECONOMICS
Biological conservation as I have defined it (Cragg, 1968) is concerned with the maintenance of natural systems and, where possible, with their u t i l i z a t i o n either directly or by way of information obtained from their s t u d y - - f o r the long-term benefit of mankind. The conflict between economics and conservation hinges on the values that can be placed on particular conservation policies. Boulding (1966)
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Biological Conservation
exposes this conflict in very simple terms. The ecologist, according to him, regards the possible extinction of the Whooping Crane as a major tragedy. The economist, whilst he might regret the disappearance of the species, would ask 'What will it cost to prevent its disappearance?' In the modern world, this is a real problem and, where possible, price-tags must be attached to conservation programmes. Conservation is one aspect of a wide field of endeavour which is concerned with the maintenance of the natural environment. Price-tags can be placed on damage from air and water pollution, on the effects of radioactive fallout, on the spread of toxic chemicals. As an example of this arithmetic, the damage of air pollution alone on crops in the United States has been estimated at $150,000,000 to $500,000,000 per year. Recreation interests such as wildfowling have yielded price-tags, and even real estate, when it is situated in the vicinity of parks or similar preserves, demonstrates the value of such areas in the money market. Whilst the economic argument must be taken into account whenever possible, it will have to be accepted that there are values in the conservation of natural systems which cannot be translated into a money terminology. There are dangers in a too-ready acceptance of the 'price-tag' philosophy. One of the great achievements in conservation has been the setting aside of very large areas of land for public use. The National Parks of the United States, which inspired this type of development, are faced with decisions of an economic nature. The tendency to measure the success of National Parks and their equivalents by the number of visitors they attract is too simple and destructive a yardstick. As Darling & Eichhorn (1967) point out, the cry of 'Parks are for People', if too vigorously applied, can lead to the destruction of the very things for which the parks offer protection. The confusion which exists at present in determining the values to be attached to conservation projects will have to be resolved, and the arguments produced by Boulding (1966) and Brinser (1966), along with those of Fisher (1966, 1967), should be given every attention. These authors are in sympathy with the need for biological conservation, but they are concerned about the absence of criteria on which to assess the values of many of the resources which form the elements of conservation programmes. Progress is being made, and many matters which concern human welfare can be given values in a social and cultural context. Perks (1968), in discussing pollution control, recognises three major elements in rational planning: ecological, cultural, and economic. He sees a plan as a product of these approaches in the following way: those 'which are possible or not (ecology), adoptable or not (culture), and gainful or not (economy)'. Biological
conservation is a form of environmental planning, and the same three elements must be weighed in deciding conservation programmes. The close relationship between conservation and landscape planning led IUCN to establish a Committee on Landscape Planning within the Commission on Ecology. At the 10th technical meeting in Lucerne, landscape planners, ecologists, and social scientists, discussed the problems of promoting a new relationship between Man and Nature in temperate lands. Benthem (1967) described the objective as 'creative conservation'.* If there is much still to be learned, at least an approach towards measuring social and cultural values, within an ecological setting, has been initiated.
CONCLUSIONS
In this paper I have made no mention so far of those private individuals and non-government organizations who are the real guardians of the conservation ethos. Perhaps one individual should be singled o u t - the late Rachel Carson, whose book Silent Spring marks a dividing line in the growth of public concern for conservation. Our present attitudes towards biological conservation were moulded by the sudden awareness of dangers threatening the whole earth through radioactive fallout, the widespread dispersion of toxic chemicals, and other types of pollution. Many people became aware, for the first time, of the dramatic effects of man's technological achievements on natural systems. It is becoming generally accepted that the earth is a space-ship with only one input - - that of solar energy. The assumption that there are infinite resources on which the short-term plans of economists are based, no longer applies when we are dealing with the quality of man's total environment. It is a sign of present thinking when people from a wide variety of disciplines discuss Natural Resources: Quality and Quantity (Ciriacy-Wantrup & Parsons, 1967). There will always be accidents which may destroy much of what conservationists wish to maintain. The wreck of the Torrey Canyon is a reminder of what can happen. But it is a measure of present attitudes that it was followed by considerable efforts to undo the damage, however misdirected some of these may have been, while a research programme was also initiated. Without minimizing the risks of technological accidents, particularly accidents relating to nuclear power installations, the fact remains that technologists are accepting responsibility for some of these risks. There is talk of organizing international teams to cope with * See his article, so entitled, pp. 11-12--Ed.
Cragg: Biological Conservation: The Present
major disasters. Adequate safety measures and a wholesome respect for the environment are the first essentials; but the growing awareness of the risks that are being taken represent an advanceinpublic thinking. The present concern for environmental quality and acceptance of the view that the earth is a single ecosystem, coincide with a change of attitudes on the part of students now entering universities. Both in the United Kingdom (Dainton, 1968) and the United States, there is evidence of students forsaking the natural sciences for the social sciences. This switch is being deplored in some government and university circles. Yet those of us who are interested in biological conservation should see this change as one which can bring a fresh, interdisciplinary approach to the broad problems facing 'Ecosystem Earth'. The maintenance of the quality of the human environment is the concept around which many conservational projects have nowadays to be planned, and it seems inevitable that this tendency will increase with time. For its full appreciation there must be an interlinking of cultural, sociological, and scientific attitudes. We must not minimize the present shortage of environmental scientists to study problems of environmental pollution and the threats which exist to major biological systems. But the outlook for the future will be brighter if the switch in interest now occurring in the universities is accompanied by a new emphasis on environmental biology within the biological sciences. Then future generations of Man may still be able to find something of wild nature between the patches of twentieth-century concrete.
References
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NELSON,B. (1968). Expansion of Idaho Reservoir: Indians, scientists on warpath. Science, 159, 173-6.
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McHARG, [. L. (1966). Ecological determinism. In Future Environments o f North America. (F. F. Darling & J. P. Milton, Eds.) Natural ttistory Press, New York, xv i 767 pp.
PERKS, W. T. (1968). Pollution control and abatement within the planning process. Proc. Can. Assoc. Eng. (in press).
ROBINSON, B. (1968). Alluvial Flats Redwoods. Science, 160, 833-6.
STONE, E. C. & VASEY, R. B. (1968a). Alluvial Flats Redwoods. Science, 160, 836-7. SPURWAY, H. (1952). Can wild animals be kept in captivity? New Biol., 13, 11-30.