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Biotechnology research for the developing world
TIBTECH
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NOVEMBER 1989 [Vol. 7]
4 Anon. (1988) The Japan Times, 30 June, pp. 21-28 5 Lepkowski, W. (1989) Chem. Eng., 2 January, pp. 9-156 Swinbanks, D. (1988) Nature 335,582 7 Anon. (1988) The Japan Times,
26 April, p. 7 8 Ueda, H. (1989) The Japan Times, 13 April, p. 12 9 Anon. (1988) The Economist, 3 December, pp. 26-28 10 Swinbanks, D. (1985) Nature 314,308
Biotechnology research for the developing world Joel I. Cohen Support for agricultural development must continue to be provided to developing countries to generate income and sustain food supplies. Development-oriented biotechnology, which spans a research spectrum from basic, goal-oriented science to applied, field-tested technologies, raises new issues with regard to implementation. Biotechnology-based collaborative programs and advanced research networks are having a positive impact upon research in developing countries, demonstrating that it is possible to select appropriate research. Wider application and adaptation of research is needed, as are mechanisms which transfer basic research to industry, for applied agricultural development. Broad-based support for agricultural development (including research, training and infrastructure improvement) helps developing countries generate income and sustain food supplies 1. Support for agricultural applications ofbiotechnology* raises many new development issues: • is biotechnology appropriate for developing countries and, if so, should development agencies be among those supporting it?; • h o w can agencies best respond to developing-country scientists eager to collaborate in new areas of research?; • h o w can these research efforts result in benefits for developing countries? In this article, I discuss applications of biotechnology and adJ. L Cohen is at the Office of Agriculture, Agencv for International Development, Washington, DC 20523, USA. 1989, Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd (UK)
vanced research networks in the context of international development, touching on implementation through technology acquisition and integration, donor support, commercial investment, and biosafety. Many of the programs in these areas are collaborative efforts, and demonstrate mutual benefit to the participants and positive impact on research in developing countries. Among the most important work is that conducted through the International Agricultural Research Centers (IARC) within the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), (Table 1).
Research at IARC D e v e l o p m e n t assistance supported biotechnology-based research in agriculture, animal health care and microbiology 2 has, as an overall goal, the development of technologies and products appropriate for the diverse spectrum of farming and livestock systems in the developing world.
0167 - 9430/89/$2.00
11 Ward, S. and Ki-Sung, K. (1988) Sci. Technol. Jap. 7, 30-43 12 Guideline of Scholarships for Foreign Students (1987) The Asian Students
Cultural Association, 2-12-13, Komagome, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113, Japan
Current research at the International Agricultural Research Centers include plant tissue and cell culture (anther culture, somaclonal variation, meristem culture, rapid clonal propagation), in vitro germplasm conservation, pathogen-free plant production, molecular diagnostics (nucleic acid probes, monoclonal antibodies, ELISA), embryo rescue, and genetic engineering 3. These technologies are being used to increase the efficiency of conventional plant breeding and germplasm distribution, and to provide animal health care products 4. Biotechnology at the CGIAR centers is often performed in conjunction with conventional crop improvement activities such as germplasm-related activities (conservation, evaluation, prebreeding), breeding, testing and distribution of plant and seed material 5. Extensive collaboration is usually required (Table 2). Biotechnology is used almost as much in germplasm-based research as in breeding-based activities, This emphasizes the direct relationship between genetic resources, biotechnology and the genetic improvement of crops 6. In response, the IARCs are already stressing the provision of more efficient means of evaluation, conservation and distribution of germplasm. Such efforts will be essential if breeders and biotechnologists increase their reliance upon germplasm accessions for the isolation and cloning of desired genes 7. Production of transgenic plants, following gene isolation and insertion, often occurs first or exclusively in industrialized nations. There is
*Biotechnology, as defined here, focuses on cellular and molecular biology and new techniques coming from these disciplines for improving genetic makeup and management of crops and animals.
TIBTECH - NOVEMBER1989 [Vol. 7] ~Table I
Global location of the thirteen CGIAR-supported centers
only a limited number of examples of genetic engineering applied to the needs of agriculture in developing countries (see Donor agency support and collaborative partners). If the germplasm activities at the IARCs, which underpin agricultural biotechnology in both developed and developing countries is to continue, then additional support is needed from both public and private sectors so that the new technologies can be applied specifically to those crops essential to the developing world.
Implementation of technology The use of research developed at the CGIAR centres, or acquired elsewhere, will require the technology to be successfully implemented. Transfer of cellular and molecular technologies in developing countries highlights particular requirements. These include: • identifying the means of both technology acquisition and support for indigenous development; • integration of the technology with conventional agricultural research; • identifying donor agency support and collaborative partners; • securing indigenous commercial investment; • coordinating with biosafety requirements. These are the areas that developing countries and the IARCs must consider as they seek to adapt biotechnologies to local objectives 8.
Technology acquisition and developm en t support Resident expertise would provide an internal capability to observe, choose and use new technologies. Governments of developing countries are being encouraged to develop autonomy in pursuing research in biotechnology: self-reliance is cited as a major goal 9. Yet the implications of such policies are often not fully appreciated. Developing national expertise will mean that scientists will have to be hired, scientists who can keep up with and understand scientific advances, judge whether such advances meet needs in priority
Center
Location
IFPRI (International Food Policy Research Institute)
USA
CIMMYT (International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center) CIAT (Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical CIP (International Potato Center) ISNAR (International Service for National Agricultural Research) IBPGR (International Board for Plant Genetic Resources) ICARDA (International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas) ILCA (International Livestock Center for Africa) WARDA (West African Rice Development Association) IITA (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture) ILRAD (International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases) ICRISAT (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics) IRRI (International Rice Research Institute)
Mexico
areas, and conduct research programs to incorporate new technologies. Human resources will also need to be developed through collaborative research, scientific interchange and local training. Developing countries also need better access to new technologies. They can acquire new technologies either making, buying or acquiring them through non-compliance with legal controls. National programs, IARCs and indigenous private sector interests will each negotiate for technologies independently, thereby multiplying the potential for acquisition. Acquisition should certainly not be an activity limited to the public domain. The private sector, with its interest in and ability to work with IARCs and within national programs, is becoming more technologically advanced and should provide an important alternative 1°.
Technology integration Integrating acquired technologies with conventional research programs is essential if objectives and applications are to be achieved in a timely manner. Often, integration can be best accomplished by establishing interdisciplinary research teams, incorporating conventional, cellular and molecular biologists. Although many of the IARCs already have such teams, it is recommended that integration becomes part of program development rather than trusting that it will occur naturally 11.
Colombia Peru Netherlands Italy Syria
Ethiopia Liberia Nigeria Kenya India Philippines
The basic components of an integrated research program in crop improvement include: • negotiating access to appropriate germplasm; • strengthening conventional plant breeding capabilities; • developing expertise in appropriate biotechnology; • determining product performance by field testing; and • determining ability to distribute and market product. Access to a complete range of germplasm, including exotic, elite and proprietary, is essential to ensure timely crop improvement. Institutions in developing countries should be encouraged to form agreements with laboratories in developed countries to apply new technologies to germplasm of localized importance. Access to germplasm could be a stimulus for developed-country institutions to provide specific applications of technology. Productive crop improvement programs are another fundamental prerequisite for the application of biotechnology 12. In vitro-derived plant material will often require special field experiments to evaluate expression of traits acquired through cellular or molecular manipulations and these will have to be integrated with conventional programs. Individual plant breeding programs will have to balance resources (financial,
TIBTECH - NOVEMBER
1989 [Vol. 7]
--Table 2
Crops receiving support for biotechnology, international research centers and their collaborating partners Crop
CGIAR Center Collaborators
Wheat Potato, sweet potato
CIMMYT CIP, IITA
Legumes
ICARDA, ICRISAT IRRI CIAT
Rice Cassava
Common beans CIAT Cowpea IITA Plantain
IITA
Tissue Culture for Crops Project (TCCP) USDA, North Carolina State University, Univ. of Braunscheig, Cornell Univ., Weizmann Institute, Swiss Federal Agricultural Research Station None at present
an estimated two million cattle annually. The Plowright vaccine is currently used to control rinderpest, but it requires a chain of refrigeration for its dissemination, and sophisticated methods of production, both of which for many African nations are difficult to provide 16. The recombinant vaccine, on the other hand, is thermostable and, therefore, easier to disseminate, and should be easier to produce. Tests in containment conditions indicate similar immunization efficiency to Plowright vaccine. It has been developed by scientists at the University of California, USDA/ARS, and California Biotechnology 17.
Rockefeller Foundation Louisiana State Univ., Univ. of Manitoba, Washington Univ. Univ. of California, Univ. of Florida, TCCP Univ. of Napoli, Purdue Univ., Canada Ag ricu Itu re None at present
staff, field) allocated for evaluation and advancement. This reinforces the need to strengthen effective breeding programs which offer a wide range of environments and locations for selection.
Donor agency support and collaborative partners At present, only two international donor agencies could be identified as supporting biotechnology research efforts for the developing world13: the Rockefeller Foundation and the Agency for International Development (AID). Their projects demonstrate how donors can support networks and technology acquisition, thereby determining research priorities and human resource development. However, donors must be assured that biotechnology projects are clearly consistent with national objectives for economic development. Six development-oriented biotechnology projects supported by AID through cooperative research will be described briefly. These, and the advanced research networks discussed later (see Advanced Research Networks), illustrate attempts to translate new technologies into applications relevant for the developing world. • Tissue Culture for Crops Project (TCCP). This project seeks to develop and transfer validated tissue culture and cell methodologies to developing countries through a four-fold process. First, technologies are developed to select, in vitro, cell lines tolerant of salinity, drought or acid/ aluminum-rich soil conditions.
Participant trainees and TCCP staff develop protocols for embryogenic callus production, selection and regeneration of crops important to developing countries, including legumes (tepary bean, mock bean, pigeon pea), sorghum, wheat, and rice 14. Second, somaclones of agronomic value are obtained from the cereals 15. Field tests are then designed to confirm tolerance to appropriate stresses at the whole plant level. At present, field tests are being conducted on regenerates of sorghum, wheat and rice. Finally, tissue culture methods and germplasm are transferred to collaborating labs in developing countries and to selected CGIAR centers.
NifTAL. The improvement of tropical rhizobium through conventional and molecular manipulations is being undertaken by the Nitrogen Fixation by Tropical Agricultural Legumes (NifTAL) project. The research approaches include genetic engineering of new strains of rhizobium that harbor multiple copies of Nil structural genes and infection genes, introducing host-range and symbiotic plasmids into rhizobia from germplasm collections for strain improvement, and identifying and transferring genes which make certain strains supercompetitors for tropical legumes. Rinderpest vaccine. The vaccine program includes the development of a recombinant vaccinia vaccine for rinderpest, an acute, highly contagious viral disease of cattle responsible for killing up to
•
Vaccines for other hemoparasitic diseases. A more recent project involves the development of recombinant vaccines to control two other hemoparasitic diseases, anaplasrnosis and babesiosis. Surface proteins which elicit a protective immune response are being identified, and their genes cloned. Recombinant vaccinia constructs will be tested as protective immunogens. Nucleic acid probes to detect subclinically infected animals, or carriers, are also under development TM.These will be used for economic-impact studies and to differentiate vaccinated from infected animals. In addition, diagnostic tests of high sensitivity and high specificity are being developed so that epidemiological surveys in developing countries, including Thailand, Kenya and Mexico, can be conducted before the testing of new vaccines. Links with the USA. AID's 'Program in Science and Technology Cooperation' awards research grants to scientists in developing countries or IARCs who often seek to work with scientists in the USA. One such grant has supported work on the transformation of potato (Table 3). Transgenic plants have been generated which produce high levels of essential amino acids following the expression of an inserted synthetic gene TM. This research has involved Louisiana State University (LSU), CIP and CIAT. Transformation has been
TIBTECH- NOVEMBER1989 [Vol. 7]
- - T a b l e 3, Current applications o f biotechnology for c o m m o d i t y crops of the CGIAR centers Commodity Biotechnology activity crop Wheat
Sweet potato
Rice
Electrophoresis Provide biochemical markers for alien germplasm in wide crosses Monoclonal antibodies Detection of barley yellow dwarf virus Somaclonal variation Somaclone selection from spring wheat for tolerance to salinity Regeneration and somaclone selection in durum and bread wheats Tissue culture for alien gene introgression Use of Aegilops as source of karnal bunt resistance Use of Agropyron for tolerance to Helminthosporium Wheat x disomic addition lines containing rye chromosomes Embryo rescue Sweet potato cultivars by wild Ipomea species for introgression In vitro conservation Clonal depository for over 1500 clones at present Monoclonal antibodies Index sweet potato viruses disease Nucleic acid diagnostic probes Detection and characterization of sweet potato viruses
Conventional component
Commodity Biotechnology activity crop
Germplasm
Rice continued
Embryo rescue Germplasm Resistance to brown planthopper Monoclonal antibodies Diagnostics for rice tungro Testing and rice grassy stunt viruses Nucleic acid diagnostic probes Rice blast and bacterial Testing blight Protoplast fusion Hybrid production Germplasm between species with incompatibilitv barriers RFLP mapping Nuclear and cytoplasmic Breeding variation determined in breeding material Somaclonal variation Selection for tolerance to Breeding salt and aluminum
Legumes
Electrophoresis Characterization of storage proteins in wild relatives of chickpea, lentils ELISA Detection of peanut viruses, aflatoxin B Embryo rescue Wide hybridization in groundnut, chickpea, pigeonpea Cowpea by wild Vigna species Phaseolus bywild species
Testing Breeding Breeding
Germplasm Germplasm Germplasm
Germplasm
Germplasm Distribution
Testing Cassava
Anther culture Selection of stress-tolerant Breeding lines Rapid achievement of Breeding homozygous lines from F1 sexual crosses Homozygous diploids for Testing testing in southern cone of S. America
reported in improved cultivars from CIP, a local Peruvian cultivar (Mariva), and Russet Burbank. Transgenic plants remain in greenhouses at LSU and CIP pending regulatory approval for field testing. Overcoming technological obstacles. Through its project, 'Col-
Anther/microspore culture Achieving homozygosity to express recessive traits Electrophoresis Germplasm characterization in situ and ex situ In vitro conservation Clonal depository Pilot in vitro gene bank
laborative Research on Special Constraints for International Agricultural Research Centers', AID sponsors research to overcome specific technological obstacles. Grants are provided to research institutions for collaborative research with scientists at particular centers. For instance, scientists at North Carolina State University
Conventional component
Germplasm
Testing
Germplasm Germplasm Germplasm Breeding
Germplasm
Germplasm Germplasm
have been sponsored to work with virologists at CIP in applying biotechnology-based diagnostics for the detection of sweet-potato viruses. Ir~digen o u s c o m mercia] in v o l v e m en t
AID recently assessed the commercial potential of a selected group of its research projects using biotech-
TIBTECH- NOVEMBER1989[Vol. 7]
Commodity Biotechnology activity crop
Conventional component
Cassava
Breeding
continued
Common beans
Somatic cell culture Regeneration through embryogenesis from leaf cell culture Shoot-tip culture/ thermotherapy Elimination of viral and bacterial diseases Transformation Insertion of synthetic genes to increase selected amino acid production Insertion of viral coat protein to confer virus resistance Electrophoresis Germplasm characterization using phaseolin and isozymes Gene pool relations and evolution Screening resistance to bruchyds Embryo rescue
Potato
Anther culture Haploid plantlets from pollen, producing homozygous tetraploids Electrophoresis Phanerograms to verify duplicate accessions in potato genebank In vitro plantlets Induction of in vitro plantlets Meristem culture/ thermotherapy Virus/viroid elimination
nology 2O . Following an initial screening of 193 discrete projects, a select group of principal investigators was interviewed to assess potential commercial impact. AID development officers also analysed commercial and development relevance. Eventually, eight projects were successfully matched with potential indigenous commercial partners
Conventional component
Potato
Distribution
continued
Distribution Breeding
Breeding
Germplasm
Germplasm Breeding
P. vulgaris x P. acutifolius
crosses RFLP mapping Resistance to bacterial blight Somatic cell culture Plant regeneration from cell suspensions Plant regeneration from callus culture
Commodity Biotechnology activity crop
Germplasm Breeding Breeding Breeding Cowpea Distribution
Germplasm
Distribution Plantain/ cooking bananas Distribution
In vitro use of chemotherapy and thermotherapy Monoclonal antibodies Detection of viruses Y, A, and leafroll Nucleic acid diagnostic probes Potato spindle tuber viroid cDNA probes for virus detection Protoplast fusion Transfer mitochondrialcoded male sterility traits RFLP mapping Construction of molecular map for use in backcrossing Somaclonal Variation In vitro selection for salt and drought tolerance in wide crosses Transformation Insertion of synthetic genes to increase tuber amino acid production Resistance to leaf roll virus and PSTV through antisense constructs Resistance to fungal and bacterial diseases through transformation
Embryo rescue Resistance to insects Monoclonal antibodies Virus strain detection Somaclonal variation In vitro screening for stress tolerance to aluminum and cold Transformation Insertion of genes for resistance breeding Embryo rescue In vitro conservation Micropropagation Somaclonal variation
(Table 4). These projects include potential applications for the biocontrol of mosquitos, bioconversion, genetic manipulation of crop plants and of tropical rhizobium. The projects demonstrate that extensive support provided by donor agencies does enhance the research sector in developing countries. Only a few projects have commercial relevance
Testing
Testing Testing Breeding
Breeding
Germplasm
Breeding
Breeding Breeding
Breeding Testing Breeding
Breeding Breeding Germplasm Distribution Breeding
(especially in the near future). Identifying commercially viable research projects and identifying relevant and willing private firms is important. However, further support is needed to make such joint ventures operational. Effective links between the public and private sectors are needed to advance projects from basic research to technology application 21.
TIBTECH- NOVEMBER1989 [VoI. 7]
~Table 4 Selected life-science technologies with commercial potential receiving support from the US Agency for International Development Technology category
Recipient
Supportive entry
Projects receiving s u p p o r t
Potential commercial partner
Biocontrol
Ma h idol University, Michigan State Univ.
AID/PSTC a and World Health Organization
Isolation of btigene and expression in model cyanobacteria for mosquito vector control.
Plant Genetic Systems (Belgium)
Mosquito control
Bioconversion Agar from Seaweed Srinakarinwiroj USAID/Bangkok: Production of various grades of agar Saha Patanskij, Ltd. STDB Project from the marine algae, Cracilaria. Univ. BIOTECH/UPLB b USAID/Manila Biogas production Anaerobic digestion to produce Malting Group of biogas from cassava starch plant Companies and wastewater to be used as alternative Fabcon energy source Feed yeast production
BIOTECH/UPLB
USAID/Manila
Specialty chemicals Monghut's AID/PSTC Institute of Tech. (Thailand)
Production of feed yeast through culture in sugar-rich wastewater to be used as an aquaculture feed
First Farmers Milling
Cultured algae Spirulina as a source of gamma-linolenic acid and other chemicals and aquaculture feed
Aquastar, Ltd. and Ban Pong Tapioca Flour Co.
Development of improved planting material, including asparagus, passion fruit, and strawberries Production of virus-free potato microtubers
P. T. Tata Wisata
Development and production of bacterial and mycorrhizal inoculants for corn and tropical legumes
Fabcon Philippines; PABCO
Genetic manipulation of crop plants Tissue culture
AARD and CRIHc USAID/Jakarta
Potato microtuber production
Kasetsart University
USAID/Bangkok (STDB) d
United Foods Corporation
Genetic manipulation of rhizobia Rhizobial inoculants
BIOTECH
USAID/Manila
aProgram for Science and Technology Cooperation, Office of the ScienceAdvisor. Agency for International Development. bNational Institutes of Biotechnology and Applied Microbiology, and University of the Philippines, Los Banos. CAgencyfor Agricultural Researchand Development, and, Central Research Institute for Horticulture. dScience and Technology for Development Project, USAID/Bangkok
Generating such applications from development-sponsored research justifies the investment both in infrastructure and personnel and in strengthening the sector responsible for technology generation.
Biosafety considerations Universal biological safety standards are not available, nor are they likely to be so soon. Biosafety regulations reflect policy or politica] concerns as well as technical considerations, and while adherence to national regulations is mandatory, such compliance is often seen as a
burden, inefficient, or as a means to control research. Establishing Institutional Biosafety Committees, IBC, (as has been recommended in the Philippines, Kenya and Thailand 22, for bilateral or multilateral donor agencies, IARCs, and national programs may be an effective way of addressing regulatory and safety concerns. Biological safety depends on the type of product being developed and the environment in which it will be tested and ultimately used 23. However, the type of technology being used in developing the product will continue to warrant
special attention. Products derived from recombinant DNA research will often come under greater scrutiny than those derived from conventional genetic manipulations by selective breeding 24. An IBC could ensure that smallscale or contained experiments for a given product are first conducted in industrialized countries, or in those developing countries with established biosafety mechanisms, and that they are in full compliance with national regulatory standards. After certain preliminary tests have been performed, further field testing could
TIBTECH - NOVEMBER 1989 [Vol. 7] --Fig.
1
INTERNATIONAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH CENTERS
NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SYSTEMS
Center of expertise established
National program needs assessed
Information Technology acquisition • Public • Private
Inf°rmati°nh.~ I
Institutional biosafety committee
,v
Technology verification • Small scale, contained testing
ca,eouseor wider
t Approval
Approval
Technology development • For IARC alone • For NARs alone • For both
Technology development • Public and private sector breeders
Approval
"i
titutional osafety mmittee
1-
Outreach
National breeding system Large-scale application
j,,.
Public
Private
Potential mechanisms of interaction between research programs and institutional biosafety committees (IBCs).
take place at an IARC or national facility (Fig. 1). Advanced research networks Biotechnology networks (Table 5) have been formed in response to scientists of developing countries who are eager to participate in research in laboratories providing advanced research experience. These networks sponsor international meetings, focus biotechnology applications on priority needs of developing countries, provide advanced degrees in molecular and cellular biology and epidemiology using molecular techniques, disseminate technical information, transfer appropriate technologies and provide assistance to scientists in presentation of data and in grant preparation. Many of the networks' achievements are notable. The International Plant Biotechnology Network (IPBNet) sponsored by the TCCP n o w includes over 500 plant scientists from 74 countries. Its directory, listing crops of interest, research focus directions and technologies used has been published 25. IPBNet provides cell and tissue culture methodologies by supporting participants on six month tissue culture training courses, on short courses of four to eight weeks in length, or
through collaborative research with visiting scientists from developing countries. IPBNet has also helped establish two regional training programs with E1 Centro Agronomico Tropical de Investigacion y Ensenanza, Costa Rica, and the Institut Agronomique et Veterinaire Hassan II in Morocco. These courses vary in length from five weeks to three months, and involve instruction in native languages, and the use of tissue culture technologies and plant materials of regional importance. Through its international conferences held in developing countries, IPBNet helps highlight the abilities of host-country scientists in cellular and molecular technologies. Such recognition builds national awareness of research abilities and has recently led to the formation of an African Plant Biotechnology Network which will document achievements in biotechnology by African scientists. The Anaplasmosis Babesiosis Network (ABN) has over 125 member institutions from 63 countries. The ABN gathers and transfers information on recombinant vaccine development, antigen isolation and epidemiological data in developing countries. A survey has been conducted to determine severity of
infection and identify projects involved in disease control. The ABN has just compiled, edited and distributed the first comprehensive bibliography, spanning eleven years of research, on these two diseases 26. Advanced training responsibilities include students from Kenya, Mexico and Thailand. The Advanced Cassava Research Network, based at CIAT, seeks to apply n e w technologies to current research constraints on the use and production of cassava. Criteria were established to determine where research efforts should be placed: problems should be those where emerging technologies show promise, traditional research efforts have been less than fully successful, and, solutions should have promise for widespread application. Areas identified so far include cyanogenesis, resistance to viral disease and seed production. A cassava transformation network has been developed with support from ORSTOM, University of Wash~ ington at St. Louis, Rockefeller Foundation and AID. The International Cassava Transformation Program focuses on two viral diseases of cassava, common mosaic and African cassava mosaic, and transforming the coat protein genes of these viruses into plants, to achieve resistance to disease 27. The University of Hawaii and NifTAL sponsor a network developing experiments to predict the fate and performance of introduced rhizobia into tropical agricultural systems. This network involves 20 institutions in developed and develo oping countries. Members are begins ning a standardized set of experL ments, using legumes of their own choosing, which will be used to construct the predictive model for rhizobial introduction. Two networks have been established to examine the genetic basis of quantitative traits in maize via restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis. The CIMMYT-North/Latin American RFLP Network will determine h o w genetically heterogeneous these traits are and develop strategies to implement molecular markers in maize breeding programs. Traits
TIBTECH - N O V E M B E R 1989 [Vol, 7]
--Table 5
Biotechnology networks in developing-country agriculture Title of network
Sponsors
Major activities
International Plant Biotechnology Network (IPBNet)
Tissue Culture for Crops Project (TCCP); Colorado State University; AID Office of Agriculture
Sponsor international plant biotech conferences Publish directory of tissue culture scientists in developing and developed countries Provide short and long term training in plant cell culture Publish newsletter
Anaplasmosis Babesiosis Network (ABN)
Improved Animal Vaccines thru Biotech: Phase II; Washington State University; AID Office of Agriculture
Compile and distribute first research bibliography on anaplasmosis and babesiosis Quarterly ABN newsletter Sponsor international meetings Information dissemination for technical reports
International Cassava ORSTOM; Transformation Washington Univ. Program (ICTP) (St. Louis); Rockefeller Foundation
Transformation and regeneration of cassava Insertion of genes for virus resistance
Advanced Cassava Research Network (ACRN)
CIAT
Apply new technologies to research constraints of cassava Link IARCs with biotechnology labs in US and Europe Determine research priorities for application of biotechnology to cassava
Genetic engineering of rice
Rockefeller Foundation
Assure biotechnology-based techniques are applied for the improvement of rice Create capacity to conduct such research in ricedependent developing countries Understand consequences of technology advances in agriculture and determine priorities in biotechnology applications
Worldwide Rhizobial University of Hawaii; Design and conduct experiments to predict fate Ecology Network Nitrogen Fixation by Tropical Agricultural and performance of (WREN) Legumes (NifTAL); introduced rhizobium in National Science tropical farming systems Foundation; AID Office of Agriculture CIMMYT-North/Latin University of American RFLP Minnesota; CIMMYT Network
To determine the genetic basis of quantitative traits in maize through collaborative research network Develop strategies to use molecular markers in corn breeding programs for developing and developed countries
being considered include yield, stalk-borer resistance, maturity, root and stalk strength, virus resistance and mineral acquisition. CIMMYT has also established a similar network with several European partners and funding has been received from European donor agencies. Mutuality of international research These projects and networks demonstrate the mutual benefits of collaborative research. For example, nucleic acid probes being developed for anaplasmosis will be just as valuable in the USA as in the developing world. Transformation technologies for potato will benefit both South American and US growers. Technologies first developed for tomato plants are being applied to crops such as cassava. Tissue culture technologies are leading to greater exchange of clonal germplasm. Projects supported by donor agencies facilitate participation of scientists from industrialized countries in international agricultural research. Such participation keeps their experience and knowledge up to date by providing links with global agricultural research28. Conclusions Collaborative efforts, supported by donor agencies, foundations, IARCs, university and national programs help to demonstrate the appropriate use of biotechnology research for the developing world. However, strategies are needed to assure the most rational use of finite resources. Collaborative projects indicate a commitment by industrialized countries to address the needs of many developing countries seeking to apply new technologies towards pressing national needs. However, for many of these to reach fruition, greater attention must be paid to developing an indigenous industrial sector using technologies resulting from collaborative research, supporting scientists adapting technologies upon returning to host-country instb tutions, applying technologies to germplasm and products essential for food production and income generation in developing countries, and implementing mechanisms to review biosafety considerations.
TIBTECH- NOVEMBER 1989 [Vol. 7]
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27
28
cialize life science applications in less developed countries: a strategic plan. Resources Development Foundation, Arlington, VA, USA Zilinskas, R. A. (1986) In Capability Building in Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering in Developing Countries Document UNIDO/IS 608, UNIDO Umminger, B. (1989) In Strengthening collaboration in biotechnology: international agricultural research and the private sector (Cohen, J. I., ed.), pp. 437442, AID, Washington, DC National Academy of Sciences (1987) Introduction of recombinant DNAengineered organisms into the environment: key issues National Academy Press, Washington DC, USA Tiedje, J. M., Colwell, R. I., Grossman, Y. L. (1989) Ecology 70, 298-315 Wright, K. L. (ed.) (1989) IPBNet Directory 1989, Tissue Culture for Crops Project Colorado State University Fisher, R. (ed.) (1989) Anaplasmosis/ Babesiosis Bibliography: 1977-87 Anaplasmosis Babesiosis Network, Washington State University Beachy, R. N. (1989) In Strengthening collaboration in biotechnology: international agricultural research and the private sector (Cohen, J. I., ed.), pp. 157-164, AID, Washington, DC Furtick, W. R. (1988) Agron Abs. 1988, 54-55
Trends in Biotechnology for colleagues abroad Sc entists n many countr es are unab e to benefit from Trends in Biotechnology because the currency necessary to pay for a personal subscription (US dollars or pounds sterling) is not available. If you wish to help a colleague abroad who has this difficulty, Trends in Biotechnology will help by accepting your cheque or credit card payment for another person's subscription. Simply complete the subscription form below and inform the recipient of your action, Renewal notices will be sent to your address and copies of the journal will be sent regularly to the nominated recipient. Please start a subscription to Trends in Biotechnotogy, from the next available issue, for: Recipient's name: Address:
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-
NOVEMBER 1989 [Vol. 7]
4 Anon. (1988) The Japan Times, 30 June, pp. 21-28 5 Lepkowski, W. (1989) Chem. Eng., 2 January, pp. 9-156 Swinbanks, D. (1988) Nature 335,582 7 Anon. (1988) The Japan Times,
26 April, p. 7 8 Ueda, H. (1989) The Japan Times, 13 April, p. 12 9 Anon. (1988) The Economist, 3 December, pp. 26-28 10 Swinbanks, D. (1985) Nature 314,308
Biotechnology research for the developing world Joel I. Cohen Support for agricultural development must continue to be provided to developing countries to generate income and sustain food supplies. Development-oriented biotechnology, which spans a research spectrum from basic, goal-oriented science to applied, field-tested technologies, raises new issues with regard to implementation. Biotechnology-based collaborative programs and advanced research networks are having a positive impact upon research in developing countries, demonstrating that it is possible to select appropriate research. Wider application and adaptation of research is needed, as are mechanisms which transfer basic research to industry, for applied agricultural development. Broad-based support for agricultural development (including research, training and infrastructure improvement) helps developing countries generate income and sustain food supplies 1. Support for agricultural applications ofbiotechnology* raises many new development issues: • is biotechnology appropriate for developing countries and, if so, should development agencies be among those supporting it?; • h o w can agencies best respond to developing-country scientists eager to collaborate in new areas of research?; • h o w can these research efforts result in benefits for developing countries? In this article, I discuss applications of biotechnology and adJ. L Cohen is at the Office of Agriculture, Agencv for International Development, Washington, DC 20523, USA. 1989, Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd (UK)
vanced research networks in the context of international development, touching on implementation through technology acquisition and integration, donor support, commercial investment, and biosafety. Many of the programs in these areas are collaborative efforts, and demonstrate mutual benefit to the participants and positive impact on research in developing countries. Among the most important work is that conducted through the International Agricultural Research Centers (IARC) within the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), (Table 1).
Research at IARC D e v e l o p m e n t assistance supported biotechnology-based research in agriculture, animal health care and microbiology 2 has, as an overall goal, the development of technologies and products appropriate for the diverse spectrum of farming and livestock systems in the developing world.
0167 - 9430/89/$2.00
11 Ward, S. and Ki-Sung, K. (1988) Sci. Technol. Jap. 7, 30-43 12 Guideline of Scholarships for Foreign Students (1987) The Asian Students
Cultural Association, 2-12-13, Komagome, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113, Japan
Current research at the International Agricultural Research Centers include plant tissue and cell culture (anther culture, somaclonal variation, meristem culture, rapid clonal propagation), in vitro germplasm conservation, pathogen-free plant production, molecular diagnostics (nucleic acid probes, monoclonal antibodies, ELISA), embryo rescue, and genetic engineering 3. These technologies are being used to increase the efficiency of conventional plant breeding and germplasm distribution, and to provide animal health care products 4. Biotechnology at the CGIAR centers is often performed in conjunction with conventional crop improvement activities such as germplasm-related activities (conservation, evaluation, prebreeding), breeding, testing and distribution of plant and seed material 5. Extensive collaboration is usually required (Table 2). Biotechnology is used almost as much in germplasm-based research as in breeding-based activities, This emphasizes the direct relationship between genetic resources, biotechnology and the genetic improvement of crops 6. In response, the IARCs are already stressing the provision of more efficient means of evaluation, conservation and distribution of germplasm. Such efforts will be essential if breeders and biotechnologists increase their reliance upon germplasm accessions for the isolation and cloning of desired genes 7. Production of transgenic plants, following gene isolation and insertion, often occurs first or exclusively in industrialized nations. There is
*Biotechnology, as defined here, focuses on cellular and molecular biology and new techniques coming from these disciplines for improving genetic makeup and management of crops and animals.
TIBTECH - NOVEMBER1989 [Vol. 7] ~Table I
Global location of the thirteen CGIAR-supported centers
only a limited number of examples of genetic engineering applied to the needs of agriculture in developing countries (see Donor agency support and collaborative partners). If the germplasm activities at the IARCs, which underpin agricultural biotechnology in both developed and developing countries is to continue, then additional support is needed from both public and private sectors so that the new technologies can be applied specifically to those crops essential to the developing world.
Implementation of technology The use of research developed at the CGIAR centres, or acquired elsewhere, will require the technology to be successfully implemented. Transfer of cellular and molecular technologies in developing countries highlights particular requirements. These include: • identifying the means of both technology acquisition and support for indigenous development; • integration of the technology with conventional agricultural research; • identifying donor agency support and collaborative partners; • securing indigenous commercial investment; • coordinating with biosafety requirements. These are the areas that developing countries and the IARCs must consider as they seek to adapt biotechnologies to local objectives 8.
Technology acquisition and developm en t support Resident expertise would provide an internal capability to observe, choose and use new technologies. Governments of developing countries are being encouraged to develop autonomy in pursuing research in biotechnology: self-reliance is cited as a major goal 9. Yet the implications of such policies are often not fully appreciated. Developing national expertise will mean that scientists will have to be hired, scientists who can keep up with and understand scientific advances, judge whether such advances meet needs in priority
Center
Location
IFPRI (International Food Policy Research Institute)
USA
CIMMYT (International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center) CIAT (Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical CIP (International Potato Center) ISNAR (International Service for National Agricultural Research) IBPGR (International Board for Plant Genetic Resources) ICARDA (International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas) ILCA (International Livestock Center for Africa) WARDA (West African Rice Development Association) IITA (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture) ILRAD (International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases) ICRISAT (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics) IRRI (International Rice Research Institute)
Mexico
areas, and conduct research programs to incorporate new technologies. Human resources will also need to be developed through collaborative research, scientific interchange and local training. Developing countries also need better access to new technologies. They can acquire new technologies either making, buying or acquiring them through non-compliance with legal controls. National programs, IARCs and indigenous private sector interests will each negotiate for technologies independently, thereby multiplying the potential for acquisition. Acquisition should certainly not be an activity limited to the public domain. The private sector, with its interest in and ability to work with IARCs and within national programs, is becoming more technologically advanced and should provide an important alternative 1°.
Technology integration Integrating acquired technologies with conventional research programs is essential if objectives and applications are to be achieved in a timely manner. Often, integration can be best accomplished by establishing interdisciplinary research teams, incorporating conventional, cellular and molecular biologists. Although many of the IARCs already have such teams, it is recommended that integration becomes part of program development rather than trusting that it will occur naturally 11.
Colombia Peru Netherlands Italy Syria
Ethiopia Liberia Nigeria Kenya India Philippines
The basic components of an integrated research program in crop improvement include: • negotiating access to appropriate germplasm; • strengthening conventional plant breeding capabilities; • developing expertise in appropriate biotechnology; • determining product performance by field testing; and • determining ability to distribute and market product. Access to a complete range of germplasm, including exotic, elite and proprietary, is essential to ensure timely crop improvement. Institutions in developing countries should be encouraged to form agreements with laboratories in developed countries to apply new technologies to germplasm of localized importance. Access to germplasm could be a stimulus for developed-country institutions to provide specific applications of technology. Productive crop improvement programs are another fundamental prerequisite for the application of biotechnology 12. In vitro-derived plant material will often require special field experiments to evaluate expression of traits acquired through cellular or molecular manipulations and these will have to be integrated with conventional programs. Individual plant breeding programs will have to balance resources (financial,
TIBTECH - NOVEMBER
1989 [Vol. 7]
--Table 2
Crops receiving support for biotechnology, international research centers and their collaborating partners Crop
CGIAR Center Collaborators
Wheat Potato, sweet potato
CIMMYT CIP, IITA
Legumes
ICARDA, ICRISAT IRRI CIAT
Rice Cassava
Common beans CIAT Cowpea IITA Plantain
IITA
Tissue Culture for Crops Project (TCCP) USDA, North Carolina State University, Univ. of Braunscheig, Cornell Univ., Weizmann Institute, Swiss Federal Agricultural Research Station None at present
an estimated two million cattle annually. The Plowright vaccine is currently used to control rinderpest, but it requires a chain of refrigeration for its dissemination, and sophisticated methods of production, both of which for many African nations are difficult to provide 16. The recombinant vaccine, on the other hand, is thermostable and, therefore, easier to disseminate, and should be easier to produce. Tests in containment conditions indicate similar immunization efficiency to Plowright vaccine. It has been developed by scientists at the University of California, USDA/ARS, and California Biotechnology 17.
Rockefeller Foundation Louisiana State Univ., Univ. of Manitoba, Washington Univ. Univ. of California, Univ. of Florida, TCCP Univ. of Napoli, Purdue Univ., Canada Ag ricu Itu re None at present
staff, field) allocated for evaluation and advancement. This reinforces the need to strengthen effective breeding programs which offer a wide range of environments and locations for selection.
Donor agency support and collaborative partners At present, only two international donor agencies could be identified as supporting biotechnology research efforts for the developing world13: the Rockefeller Foundation and the Agency for International Development (AID). Their projects demonstrate how donors can support networks and technology acquisition, thereby determining research priorities and human resource development. However, donors must be assured that biotechnology projects are clearly consistent with national objectives for economic development. Six development-oriented biotechnology projects supported by AID through cooperative research will be described briefly. These, and the advanced research networks discussed later (see Advanced Research Networks), illustrate attempts to translate new technologies into applications relevant for the developing world. • Tissue Culture for Crops Project (TCCP). This project seeks to develop and transfer validated tissue culture and cell methodologies to developing countries through a four-fold process. First, technologies are developed to select, in vitro, cell lines tolerant of salinity, drought or acid/ aluminum-rich soil conditions.
Participant trainees and TCCP staff develop protocols for embryogenic callus production, selection and regeneration of crops important to developing countries, including legumes (tepary bean, mock bean, pigeon pea), sorghum, wheat, and rice 14. Second, somaclones of agronomic value are obtained from the cereals 15. Field tests are then designed to confirm tolerance to appropriate stresses at the whole plant level. At present, field tests are being conducted on regenerates of sorghum, wheat and rice. Finally, tissue culture methods and germplasm are transferred to collaborating labs in developing countries and to selected CGIAR centers.
NifTAL. The improvement of tropical rhizobium through conventional and molecular manipulations is being undertaken by the Nitrogen Fixation by Tropical Agricultural Legumes (NifTAL) project. The research approaches include genetic engineering of new strains of rhizobium that harbor multiple copies of Nil structural genes and infection genes, introducing host-range and symbiotic plasmids into rhizobia from germplasm collections for strain improvement, and identifying and transferring genes which make certain strains supercompetitors for tropical legumes. Rinderpest vaccine. The vaccine program includes the development of a recombinant vaccinia vaccine for rinderpest, an acute, highly contagious viral disease of cattle responsible for killing up to
•
Vaccines for other hemoparasitic diseases. A more recent project involves the development of recombinant vaccines to control two other hemoparasitic diseases, anaplasrnosis and babesiosis. Surface proteins which elicit a protective immune response are being identified, and their genes cloned. Recombinant vaccinia constructs will be tested as protective immunogens. Nucleic acid probes to detect subclinically infected animals, or carriers, are also under development TM.These will be used for economic-impact studies and to differentiate vaccinated from infected animals. In addition, diagnostic tests of high sensitivity and high specificity are being developed so that epidemiological surveys in developing countries, including Thailand, Kenya and Mexico, can be conducted before the testing of new vaccines. Links with the USA. AID's 'Program in Science and Technology Cooperation' awards research grants to scientists in developing countries or IARCs who often seek to work with scientists in the USA. One such grant has supported work on the transformation of potato (Table 3). Transgenic plants have been generated which produce high levels of essential amino acids following the expression of an inserted synthetic gene TM. This research has involved Louisiana State University (LSU), CIP and CIAT. Transformation has been
TIBTECH- NOVEMBER1989 [Vol. 7]
- - T a b l e 3, Current applications o f biotechnology for c o m m o d i t y crops of the CGIAR centers Commodity Biotechnology activity crop Wheat
Sweet potato
Rice
Electrophoresis Provide biochemical markers for alien germplasm in wide crosses Monoclonal antibodies Detection of barley yellow dwarf virus Somaclonal variation Somaclone selection from spring wheat for tolerance to salinity Regeneration and somaclone selection in durum and bread wheats Tissue culture for alien gene introgression Use of Aegilops as source of karnal bunt resistance Use of Agropyron for tolerance to Helminthosporium Wheat x disomic addition lines containing rye chromosomes Embryo rescue Sweet potato cultivars by wild Ipomea species for introgression In vitro conservation Clonal depository for over 1500 clones at present Monoclonal antibodies Index sweet potato viruses disease Nucleic acid diagnostic probes Detection and characterization of sweet potato viruses
Conventional component
Commodity Biotechnology activity crop
Germplasm
Rice continued
Embryo rescue Germplasm Resistance to brown planthopper Monoclonal antibodies Diagnostics for rice tungro Testing and rice grassy stunt viruses Nucleic acid diagnostic probes Rice blast and bacterial Testing blight Protoplast fusion Hybrid production Germplasm between species with incompatibilitv barriers RFLP mapping Nuclear and cytoplasmic Breeding variation determined in breeding material Somaclonal variation Selection for tolerance to Breeding salt and aluminum
Legumes
Electrophoresis Characterization of storage proteins in wild relatives of chickpea, lentils ELISA Detection of peanut viruses, aflatoxin B Embryo rescue Wide hybridization in groundnut, chickpea, pigeonpea Cowpea by wild Vigna species Phaseolus bywild species
Testing Breeding Breeding
Germplasm Germplasm Germplasm
Germplasm
Germplasm Distribution
Testing Cassava
Anther culture Selection of stress-tolerant Breeding lines Rapid achievement of Breeding homozygous lines from F1 sexual crosses Homozygous diploids for Testing testing in southern cone of S. America
reported in improved cultivars from CIP, a local Peruvian cultivar (Mariva), and Russet Burbank. Transgenic plants remain in greenhouses at LSU and CIP pending regulatory approval for field testing. Overcoming technological obstacles. Through its project, 'Col-
Anther/microspore culture Achieving homozygosity to express recessive traits Electrophoresis Germplasm characterization in situ and ex situ In vitro conservation Clonal depository Pilot in vitro gene bank
laborative Research on Special Constraints for International Agricultural Research Centers', AID sponsors research to overcome specific technological obstacles. Grants are provided to research institutions for collaborative research with scientists at particular centers. For instance, scientists at North Carolina State University
Conventional component
Germplasm
Testing
Germplasm Germplasm Germplasm Breeding
Germplasm
Germplasm Germplasm
have been sponsored to work with virologists at CIP in applying biotechnology-based diagnostics for the detection of sweet-potato viruses. Ir~digen o u s c o m mercia] in v o l v e m en t
AID recently assessed the commercial potential of a selected group of its research projects using biotech-
TIBTECH- NOVEMBER1989[Vol. 7]
Commodity Biotechnology activity crop
Conventional component
Cassava
Breeding
continued
Common beans
Somatic cell culture Regeneration through embryogenesis from leaf cell culture Shoot-tip culture/ thermotherapy Elimination of viral and bacterial diseases Transformation Insertion of synthetic genes to increase selected amino acid production Insertion of viral coat protein to confer virus resistance Electrophoresis Germplasm characterization using phaseolin and isozymes Gene pool relations and evolution Screening resistance to bruchyds Embryo rescue
Potato
Anther culture Haploid plantlets from pollen, producing homozygous tetraploids Electrophoresis Phanerograms to verify duplicate accessions in potato genebank In vitro plantlets Induction of in vitro plantlets Meristem culture/ thermotherapy Virus/viroid elimination
nology 2O . Following an initial screening of 193 discrete projects, a select group of principal investigators was interviewed to assess potential commercial impact. AID development officers also analysed commercial and development relevance. Eventually, eight projects were successfully matched with potential indigenous commercial partners
Conventional component
Potato
Distribution
continued
Distribution Breeding
Breeding
Germplasm
Germplasm Breeding
P. vulgaris x P. acutifolius
crosses RFLP mapping Resistance to bacterial blight Somatic cell culture Plant regeneration from cell suspensions Plant regeneration from callus culture
Commodity Biotechnology activity crop
Germplasm Breeding Breeding Breeding Cowpea Distribution
Germplasm
Distribution Plantain/ cooking bananas Distribution
In vitro use of chemotherapy and thermotherapy Monoclonal antibodies Detection of viruses Y, A, and leafroll Nucleic acid diagnostic probes Potato spindle tuber viroid cDNA probes for virus detection Protoplast fusion Transfer mitochondrialcoded male sterility traits RFLP mapping Construction of molecular map for use in backcrossing Somaclonal Variation In vitro selection for salt and drought tolerance in wide crosses Transformation Insertion of synthetic genes to increase tuber amino acid production Resistance to leaf roll virus and PSTV through antisense constructs Resistance to fungal and bacterial diseases through transformation
Embryo rescue Resistance to insects Monoclonal antibodies Virus strain detection Somaclonal variation In vitro screening for stress tolerance to aluminum and cold Transformation Insertion of genes for resistance breeding Embryo rescue In vitro conservation Micropropagation Somaclonal variation
(Table 4). These projects include potential applications for the biocontrol of mosquitos, bioconversion, genetic manipulation of crop plants and of tropical rhizobium. The projects demonstrate that extensive support provided by donor agencies does enhance the research sector in developing countries. Only a few projects have commercial relevance
Testing
Testing Testing Breeding
Breeding
Germplasm
Breeding
Breeding Breeding
Breeding Testing Breeding
Breeding Breeding Germplasm Distribution Breeding
(especially in the near future). Identifying commercially viable research projects and identifying relevant and willing private firms is important. However, further support is needed to make such joint ventures operational. Effective links between the public and private sectors are needed to advance projects from basic research to technology application 21.
TIBTECH- NOVEMBER1989 [VoI. 7]
~Table 4 Selected life-science technologies with commercial potential receiving support from the US Agency for International Development Technology category
Recipient
Supportive entry
Projects receiving s u p p o r t
Potential commercial partner
Biocontrol
Ma h idol University, Michigan State Univ.
AID/PSTC a and World Health Organization
Isolation of btigene and expression in model cyanobacteria for mosquito vector control.
Plant Genetic Systems (Belgium)
Mosquito control
Bioconversion Agar from Seaweed Srinakarinwiroj USAID/Bangkok: Production of various grades of agar Saha Patanskij, Ltd. STDB Project from the marine algae, Cracilaria. Univ. BIOTECH/UPLB b USAID/Manila Biogas production Anaerobic digestion to produce Malting Group of biogas from cassava starch plant Companies and wastewater to be used as alternative Fabcon energy source Feed yeast production
BIOTECH/UPLB
USAID/Manila
Specialty chemicals Monghut's AID/PSTC Institute of Tech. (Thailand)
Production of feed yeast through culture in sugar-rich wastewater to be used as an aquaculture feed
First Farmers Milling
Cultured algae Spirulina as a source of gamma-linolenic acid and other chemicals and aquaculture feed
Aquastar, Ltd. and Ban Pong Tapioca Flour Co.
Development of improved planting material, including asparagus, passion fruit, and strawberries Production of virus-free potato microtubers
P. T. Tata Wisata
Development and production of bacterial and mycorrhizal inoculants for corn and tropical legumes
Fabcon Philippines; PABCO
Genetic manipulation of crop plants Tissue culture
AARD and CRIHc USAID/Jakarta
Potato microtuber production
Kasetsart University
USAID/Bangkok (STDB) d
United Foods Corporation
Genetic manipulation of rhizobia Rhizobial inoculants
BIOTECH
USAID/Manila
aProgram for Science and Technology Cooperation, Office of the ScienceAdvisor. Agency for International Development. bNational Institutes of Biotechnology and Applied Microbiology, and University of the Philippines, Los Banos. CAgencyfor Agricultural Researchand Development, and, Central Research Institute for Horticulture. dScience and Technology for Development Project, USAID/Bangkok
Generating such applications from development-sponsored research justifies the investment both in infrastructure and personnel and in strengthening the sector responsible for technology generation.
Biosafety considerations Universal biological safety standards are not available, nor are they likely to be so soon. Biosafety regulations reflect policy or politica] concerns as well as technical considerations, and while adherence to national regulations is mandatory, such compliance is often seen as a
burden, inefficient, or as a means to control research. Establishing Institutional Biosafety Committees, IBC, (as has been recommended in the Philippines, Kenya and Thailand 22, for bilateral or multilateral donor agencies, IARCs, and national programs may be an effective way of addressing regulatory and safety concerns. Biological safety depends on the type of product being developed and the environment in which it will be tested and ultimately used 23. However, the type of technology being used in developing the product will continue to warrant
special attention. Products derived from recombinant DNA research will often come under greater scrutiny than those derived from conventional genetic manipulations by selective breeding 24. An IBC could ensure that smallscale or contained experiments for a given product are first conducted in industrialized countries, or in those developing countries with established biosafety mechanisms, and that they are in full compliance with national regulatory standards. After certain preliminary tests have been performed, further field testing could
TIBTECH - NOVEMBER 1989 [Vol. 7] --Fig.
1
INTERNATIONAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH CENTERS
NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SYSTEMS
Center of expertise established
National program needs assessed
Information Technology acquisition • Public • Private
Inf°rmati°nh.~ I
Institutional biosafety committee
,v
Technology verification • Small scale, contained testing
ca,eouseor wider
t Approval
Approval
Technology development • For IARC alone • For NARs alone • For both
Technology development • Public and private sector breeders
Approval
"i
titutional osafety mmittee
1-
Outreach
National breeding system Large-scale application
j,,.
Public
Private
Potential mechanisms of interaction between research programs and institutional biosafety committees (IBCs).
take place at an IARC or national facility (Fig. 1). Advanced research networks Biotechnology networks (Table 5) have been formed in response to scientists of developing countries who are eager to participate in research in laboratories providing advanced research experience. These networks sponsor international meetings, focus biotechnology applications on priority needs of developing countries, provide advanced degrees in molecular and cellular biology and epidemiology using molecular techniques, disseminate technical information, transfer appropriate technologies and provide assistance to scientists in presentation of data and in grant preparation. Many of the networks' achievements are notable. The International Plant Biotechnology Network (IPBNet) sponsored by the TCCP n o w includes over 500 plant scientists from 74 countries. Its directory, listing crops of interest, research focus directions and technologies used has been published 25. IPBNet provides cell and tissue culture methodologies by supporting participants on six month tissue culture training courses, on short courses of four to eight weeks in length, or
through collaborative research with visiting scientists from developing countries. IPBNet has also helped establish two regional training programs with E1 Centro Agronomico Tropical de Investigacion y Ensenanza, Costa Rica, and the Institut Agronomique et Veterinaire Hassan II in Morocco. These courses vary in length from five weeks to three months, and involve instruction in native languages, and the use of tissue culture technologies and plant materials of regional importance. Through its international conferences held in developing countries, IPBNet helps highlight the abilities of host-country scientists in cellular and molecular technologies. Such recognition builds national awareness of research abilities and has recently led to the formation of an African Plant Biotechnology Network which will document achievements in biotechnology by African scientists. The Anaplasmosis Babesiosis Network (ABN) has over 125 member institutions from 63 countries. The ABN gathers and transfers information on recombinant vaccine development, antigen isolation and epidemiological data in developing countries. A survey has been conducted to determine severity of
infection and identify projects involved in disease control. The ABN has just compiled, edited and distributed the first comprehensive bibliography, spanning eleven years of research, on these two diseases 26. Advanced training responsibilities include students from Kenya, Mexico and Thailand. The Advanced Cassava Research Network, based at CIAT, seeks to apply n e w technologies to current research constraints on the use and production of cassava. Criteria were established to determine where research efforts should be placed: problems should be those where emerging technologies show promise, traditional research efforts have been less than fully successful, and, solutions should have promise for widespread application. Areas identified so far include cyanogenesis, resistance to viral disease and seed production. A cassava transformation network has been developed with support from ORSTOM, University of Wash~ ington at St. Louis, Rockefeller Foundation and AID. The International Cassava Transformation Program focuses on two viral diseases of cassava, common mosaic and African cassava mosaic, and transforming the coat protein genes of these viruses into plants, to achieve resistance to disease 27. The University of Hawaii and NifTAL sponsor a network developing experiments to predict the fate and performance of introduced rhizobia into tropical agricultural systems. This network involves 20 institutions in developed and develo oping countries. Members are begins ning a standardized set of experL ments, using legumes of their own choosing, which will be used to construct the predictive model for rhizobial introduction. Two networks have been established to examine the genetic basis of quantitative traits in maize via restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis. The CIMMYT-North/Latin American RFLP Network will determine h o w genetically heterogeneous these traits are and develop strategies to implement molecular markers in maize breeding programs. Traits
TIBTECH - N O V E M B E R 1989 [Vol, 7]
--Table 5
Biotechnology networks in developing-country agriculture Title of network
Sponsors
Major activities
International Plant Biotechnology Network (IPBNet)
Tissue Culture for Crops Project (TCCP); Colorado State University; AID Office of Agriculture
Sponsor international plant biotech conferences Publish directory of tissue culture scientists in developing and developed countries Provide short and long term training in plant cell culture Publish newsletter
Anaplasmosis Babesiosis Network (ABN)
Improved Animal Vaccines thru Biotech: Phase II; Washington State University; AID Office of Agriculture
Compile and distribute first research bibliography on anaplasmosis and babesiosis Quarterly ABN newsletter Sponsor international meetings Information dissemination for technical reports
International Cassava ORSTOM; Transformation Washington Univ. Program (ICTP) (St. Louis); Rockefeller Foundation
Transformation and regeneration of cassava Insertion of genes for virus resistance
Advanced Cassava Research Network (ACRN)
CIAT
Apply new technologies to research constraints of cassava Link IARCs with biotechnology labs in US and Europe Determine research priorities for application of biotechnology to cassava
Genetic engineering of rice
Rockefeller Foundation
Assure biotechnology-based techniques are applied for the improvement of rice Create capacity to conduct such research in ricedependent developing countries Understand consequences of technology advances in agriculture and determine priorities in biotechnology applications
Worldwide Rhizobial University of Hawaii; Design and conduct experiments to predict fate Ecology Network Nitrogen Fixation by Tropical Agricultural and performance of (WREN) Legumes (NifTAL); introduced rhizobium in National Science tropical farming systems Foundation; AID Office of Agriculture CIMMYT-North/Latin University of American RFLP Minnesota; CIMMYT Network
To determine the genetic basis of quantitative traits in maize through collaborative research network Develop strategies to use molecular markers in corn breeding programs for developing and developed countries
being considered include yield, stalk-borer resistance, maturity, root and stalk strength, virus resistance and mineral acquisition. CIMMYT has also established a similar network with several European partners and funding has been received from European donor agencies. Mutuality of international research These projects and networks demonstrate the mutual benefits of collaborative research. For example, nucleic acid probes being developed for anaplasmosis will be just as valuable in the USA as in the developing world. Transformation technologies for potato will benefit both South American and US growers. Technologies first developed for tomato plants are being applied to crops such as cassava. Tissue culture technologies are leading to greater exchange of clonal germplasm. Projects supported by donor agencies facilitate participation of scientists from industrialized countries in international agricultural research. Such participation keeps their experience and knowledge up to date by providing links with global agricultural research28. Conclusions Collaborative efforts, supported by donor agencies, foundations, IARCs, university and national programs help to demonstrate the appropriate use of biotechnology research for the developing world. However, strategies are needed to assure the most rational use of finite resources. Collaborative projects indicate a commitment by industrialized countries to address the needs of many developing countries seeking to apply new technologies towards pressing national needs. However, for many of these to reach fruition, greater attention must be paid to developing an indigenous industrial sector using technologies resulting from collaborative research, supporting scientists adapting technologies upon returning to host-country instb tutions, applying technologies to germplasm and products essential for food production and income generation in developing countries, and implementing mechanisms to review biosafety considerations.
TIBTECH- NOVEMBER 1989 [Vol. 7]
References 1 Smuckler, R. H., Berg, R. J. and Gordon, D. F. (1988) New Challenges, New Opportunities: US Cooperation for International Growth and Development in the 1990s. Michigan State University Press 2 Sasson, A. (1988) Biotechnologies and development. Unesco/CTA, Paris, France 3 Plucknett, D. (1989) the CGIAR/ Japanese forum on biotechnology in Tokyo, Japan. CGIAR Secretariat, World Bank, Washington, DC 4 IRRI (1985) Biotechnology and International Agricultural Research, IRRI, Manila, Philippines 5 Cohen, J. I. (1989) in Strengthening Collaboration in Biotechnology: International Agricultural Research and the Private Sector (Cohen, J. I., ed.) AID, Washington, DC 6 Cohen, J. I. and Bertram R. in Biotic Diversity and Germplasm Preservation: Global Imperatives (Stoner, P. and Knutson, L., eds) USDA, Beltsville, MD, USA (in press) 7 Peacock, W. J. (1989) In The use of plant genetic resources (Brown, A. H. D., Frankel, O. H., Marshall, D. R. and Williams, J. T., eds), pp. 363-376, Cambridge University Press 8 Plucknett, D. P., Cohen, J. I. and Horne, M. Future role of the IARCs in the application of biotechnology in developing countries CAB (in press) 9 Dembo, D., Dias, C. and Morehouse W. (1988) in Biotechnology Revolution and The Third World (Kumar, N.,
ed.), pp. 153-192, Research and Information System for the NonAligned and Other Developing Countries, New Delhi, India. 10 Duvick, D. (1989) in Strengthening
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