Body size and perceptions of coaching behaviors by adolescent female athletes

Psychology of Sport and Exercise 6 (2005) 693–705 www.elsevier.com/locate/psychsport

Body size and perceptions of coaching behaviors by adolescent female athletes Sean P. Cumminga,*, Joey C. Eisenmannb, Frank L. Smolla, Ronald E. Smitha, Robert M. Malinac a

Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Box 351525, Seattle, WA 98195-1525, USA Department of Health and Human Performance, 255 Forker Building, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011 c Tarleton State University, Box T-0010, Stephenville, TX 76402, USA

b

Received 6 May 2004; accepted 6 January 2005 Available online 25 March 2005

Abstract Objectives: To investigate relations among body size, perceptions of coaching behaviors, and attitudes toward the coach and sport in adolescent female athletes in three sports. Design: Field correlational design. Method: Female athletes, 14–18 years, participating in high school basketball, gymnastics, and soccer (NZ227) completed questionnaires dealing with the perceived frequency of coaching behaviors, evaluative reactions to the coach, and liking for the sport. Coaches rated the ability and performance of each athlete during the season. Results: Partial correlations between indicators of body size and athlete perceptions of coaching behaviors, controlling for age and ratings of ability and performance, varied by sport. Among gymnasts, measures of body size were associated with less positive and supportive interactions with coaches and less liking for the coach. Contrary to expectations, the stature of the basketball players was unrelated to their perceptions of coaching behaviors or their liking for the coach and sport. Body size was unrelated to athlete perceptions of coaching behaviors and evaluative responses in soccer. Conclusions: In support of [Petersen, A. C., & Taylor, B. (1980). The biological approach to adolescence: Biological change and psychological adaptation. In J. Adelson (Ed.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (pp. 117–155). New York: Wiley–Interscience.] Mediated Effects Model of Psychological Adaptation to Puberty, the results suggest that body size, even with age, ability and performance held constant, may engage sport specific

* Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (S.P. Cumming). 1469-0292/$ - see front matter q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2005.01.002

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stereotypes that influence coaches’ positive and negative behaviors, particularly in sports where body size is related to athletic potential. q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Body size; Coaching behaviors; Gender stereotypes; Gymnastics; Female athletes

The processes of growth and maturation are instrumental in the socialization of young athletes. Biological factors, such as physique, body size and maturity status, have been identified as predictors of performance and selection in a number of sports (Malina, Bouchard, & Bar-Or, 2004). The impact of biological growth and maturation on the psychological and social development of young athletes has, however, received little attention (Kontos & Malina, 2003). The processes of growth and maturation may influence young athletes’ self-perceptions, motives, beliefs, and, ultimately, their behaviors. Moreover, coaches, parents, and administrators may react differently to children who vary in body size, physique, and/or maturity status. With this in mind, the purpose of this study was to investigate relations among body size, perceptions of coaching behaviors, and attitudes toward the coach and sport in adolescent female athletes in three sports. How do coaches respond to the physical characteristics of female athletes? Body size acts as a selection factor for females in a number of sports (Beunen & Claessens, 2003). Sports that emphasize stature, strength or explosive power tend to favor girls who are taller and heavier. From the age of 10 years, female swimmers, rowers, volleyball and basketball players present statures that, on average, approximate or exceed the 50th percentiles of the reference population (Beunen & Claessens, 2003; Malina, 1994, 1998; Malina et al., 2004). On the other hand, several other sports and performance activities select girls who are short in stature and/or low in body mass. For example, female artistic gymnasts and figure skaters present profiles of short stature and low body mass with mean values typically well below reference medians; whereas ballet dancers and distance runners present low massfor-stature (Malina, 1998; Malina et al., 2004). Although evidence suggests that body size plays an important role in the inclusion and exclusion of female athletes, it is not clear if size, as a selection factor, operates directly as a predictor of performance and/or indirectly through the reactions of significant others (e.g. coaches, peers, parents, sport administrators). The Mediated Effects Model of Psychological Adaptation to Puberty (Petersen & Taylor, 1980) provides an appropriate theoretical framework in which to examine role of body size in the socialization of young athletes (Fig. 1). This model assumes that the psychological and behavioral effects of growth and maturation are mediated by the individual’s “ideation about his or her biological changes and the subjective meaning or affective significance attributed to them” (p. 137). That is, the individual’s perception and evaluation of their physical self are instrumental in determining how they adjust, socially and psychologically, to the changes associated with growth and maturation. Further, the evaluations, reactions, and impressions conveyed by significant others (e.g. peers, educators, parents) are also deemed to play an important role in helping youth adjust socially and psychologically to the physical changes associated with growth and maturation. Given the role that body size plays in the socialization and selection of young athletes, athletes may be particularly sensitive to the physical changes associated with growth and maturation. The physical characteristics of female athletes may hold significant social stimulus value for coaches, particularly in sports where body size is associated with performance—aesthetic sports (gymnastics and figure skating), sports that emphasize leanness (distance running), or sports where greater size may

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Exogenous Factors (i.e., Sociocultural ideals and agents)

Changes in the Biological System (i.e., Growth and maturation)

Mediating Variables (e.g., Beliefs, thoughts, and feelings about the body)

Psychological & Behavioral Effects (e.g., Moods, selfconcept, bodyimage, and motivation)

Fig. 1. Mediated effects model of psychological adaptation to puberty (adapted from Petersen & Taylor, 1980).

provide a performance advantage (basketball, volleyball, swimming). Coaches may perceive body size as indicative of ability or potential in a sport. Given the increased emphasis upon excellence in athletics, it seems reasonable to assume that coaches might act more favorably toward athletes who posses the appropriate body size for a specific sport. For example, a gymnastics coach may give more attention to or behave more positively toward an athlete who is short in stature with a relatively low body mass. A basketball coach, in contrast, may act more favorably toward athletes who are taller than peers and who have relatively long upper extremities. Preferential treatment based upon coaches’ perceptions of athlete body size may explain how size acts as an inclusionary or exclusionary factor in youth sports. The behavior of coaches plays an important role in the socialization of young athletes. Coaching behaviors, directly or indirectly, help shape the selfconcept, beliefs, and behaviors of young athletes as well as their enjoyment of the activity. Positive coaching behaviors increase the likelihood that the athlete will have a favorable experience. Athletes who receive more encouragement and reinforcement typically report higher levels of enjoyment, selfesteem, liking for the sport and their teammates, and are less likely to drop out of sports. Negative coaching behaviors, such as punishment, result in lower perceptions of competence, greater anxiety, and less enjoyment of sport (Cote´, 2002; Ewing, Seefeldt, & Brown, 1997; Smoll & Smith, 2002). This study examines the associations between indicators of body size—stature (standing height), weight (body mass), and mass-for-stature (body mass index, BMI) and perceptions of coaching behaviors in female adolescent athletes in basketball, soccer, and gymnastics. In children and adolescents, body mass index is often used to assess underweight, overweight, and risk for overweight. Children’s mass-for-stature ratios changes over the years as they grow. As previously indicated, massfor-stature has been identified as an athlete selection factor in a number of sports. The three sports included in this study were selected because each has preferences for athletes with certain size characteristics. Gymnastics has extremely selective criteria, favoring females who are short in stature and have low body mass (Malina, 2001). Basketball, commonly selects for taller athlete; whereas soccer does not appear to favor females of any specific body size (Siegel, Katzmaryzk, & Malina, 1996). Reasoning that coaches act more favorably toward athletes who are better suited physically for success in their respective sports, we predicted that body size would be associated with coaches’ reactions to athletes, as indexed by athlete perceptions of positive and negative coaching behaviors.

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Among gymnasts, it was predicted that stature, mass and BMI would be negatively correlated with the perceived frequency of positive coaching behaviors (Positive Reinforcement, Reinforcement Plus Instruction, General Encouragement, Mistake-Contingent Encouragement, Mistake-Contingent Technical Instruction, and General Technical Instruction) and positively correlated with the perceived frequency of negative coaching behaviors (Nonreinforcement, Punishment, Punitive Technical Instruction, Ignoring Mistakes). Among basketball players, it was expected that stature, but not body mass or BMI would be positively correlated with the perceived frequency of positive coaching behaviors and negatively associated with the perceived frequency of negative coaching behaviors. Because presently available data indicate no apparent preference for body size among female soccer players, it was predicted that stature, body mass and BMI would not be related to perceived frequencies of positive or negative coaching behaviors. Assuming that coaches act more favorably toward athletes who they believe to be physically better suited for success in their respective sports, it was also predicted that body size would be associated with liking for the coach and the sport. It was predicted (1) that stature, body mass and an elevated BMI would be negatively associated with liking for the coach and the sport among gymnasts; (2) that stature, but not mass or BMI, would be positively associated with liking for a coach and the sport among basketball players; and (3) that indicators of body size would be unrelated to liking for a coach and the sport among soccer players.

Method Participants The participants were 227 female varsity athletes 14–18 years of age (MZ15.8, SDZ1.1) at 13 Seattle-area high schools (109 basketball players, 46 gymnasts, and 72 soccer players). The majority of the participants were Caucasian (nZ203, 89%), with small numbers of African-Americans (nZ9), Asians (nZ14), and Pacific Islanders (nZ1). Procedures and measures Parental consent and child assent were obtained prior to the onset of the study. At each school, the athletes completed questionnaires in a group setting at the end of the sport season. The inventories included measures of the athletes’ perceptions of coaching behaviors, as well as their evaluative reactions to their coach and sport experience. Body size Height (feet and inches) and weight (pounds) were self-reported by each athlete. The units were converted to centimeters and kilograms, respectively. Self-reported heights and weights are generally accepted as valid, reliable, cost-effective, and logistically attractive alternatives to direct measurement in epidemiological studies and other surveys (Himes & Faricy, 2001). The authors recommend that self-report data should be restricted to youth 14 years of age and older and should be adjusted for over- and under-estimation. Individuals generally overestimate height and underestimate weight

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(Epstein, Valoski, Kalarchian, & McCurley, 1995). Hence, the self-reported stature and body mass of each athlete were adjusted using age–sex–race-specific equations generated from a sample of teens in a comprehensive study of nutrition and obesity in adolescents in Minneapolis and St Paul schools (Neumark-Sztainer, Story, Hannan, Perry, & Irving, 2002). The BMI (kg/m2) was calculated from the adjusted stature and body mass of each athlete. Coaches’ evaluations of athlete ability and performance The 26 coaches (13 basketball, 5 gymnastics, 8 soccer) provided post-season ratings of each athlete’s level of physical ability/skill and the actual performance in comparison with other athletes in their respective sport. Coaches responded to the two following statements “Please rate this athlete’s level of physical ability and skills in comparison with other high school athletes in his/her sport,” and “How well did this athlete perform this season in comparison with other high school athletes in this sport.” Two single item 6-point scales were used to rate ability and performance, ranging from 1 (far below average) to 6 (superior). The ability and performance scales have 2 week test-retest reliabilities of 0.77 and 0.82, respectively (Smith, Ptacek, & Smoll, 1992). Athletes’ perceptions of coaching behaviors The Athlete Perceived Coaching Behaviors scale (APCB; Smoll et al., 1993) was employed as a postseason measure of coach’s behaviors. The 13 item scale is based on the Coaching Behavior Assessment System, was developed by Smith, Smoll, and Hunt (1977), and incorporates one additional behavior (Reinforcement Plus Instruction) introduced by Horn (1984). Completion of the scale required the athletes to report how frequently their coaches engaged in 13 distinct behaviors on a scale ranging from 1 (never) to 7 (almost always). A full description of each behavior accompanied each item. For example, for the item pertaining to Mistake-Contingent Encouragement the item read “Sometimes players goof and make mistakes. Some coaches give their players support and encouragement after they make a mistake. For example they may say, ‘That’s OK, don’t worry about it; you’ll get ‘em next time.’ Other coaches don’t give much encouragement after mistakes. Circle how often your coach encouraged you after you made mistakes.” The behavioral dimensions of the APCB are described in Table 1. Athletes’ evaluative reactions The Sport Enjoyment Questionnaire (Smoll et al., 1993) was used to assess the evaluative reactions of the athletes to their coach and sport experience. The athletes responded to three items related to their liking for their coach (e.g. How much did you like playing for your coach?) and another three items related to their liking for the sport (e.g. How much do you like playing this sport, in general), on a scale ranging from 1 (dislike a lot) to 7 (like a lot). Cronbach’s alphas for each dimension demonstrated acceptable levels of internal consistency (Liking for the sport, Cronbach’s alphaZ0.66; Liking for the coach, Cronbach’s alphaZ0.84). The moderate level of reliability associated with the measure of ‘Liking for the sport’, though not ideal, is acceptable given the small number of items. When the Spearman-Brown prophecy formula for twice the number of items (i.e. six) is applied to this scale, Cronbach’s alpha is estimated to be 0.80.

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Table 1 Behavioral dimensions included in the players’ perceptions of coaches’ behaviors scale Class I: Reactive behaviors Reinforcement Reinforcement plus instruction Nonreinforcement Mistake-contingent encouragement Mistake-contingent technical instruction Punishment Punitive technical instruction Ignoring mistakes Keeping control Class II: Spontaneous behaviors General technical instruction General encouragement Organization General communication

A positive, rewarding reaction, verbal or non-verbal, to a good play or good effort A positive, rewarding reaction, verbal or non-verbal, to a good play or good effort coupled with instruction Failure to respond to good performance Encouragement given to a player following a mistake Instructing or demonstrating to a player how to correct a mistake A negative reaction, verbal or non-verbal, following a mistake. Technical-instruction given in a punitive or hostile manner following a mistake Failure to respond to a player’s mistake Reactions intended to restore or maintain order among team members Spontaneous instruction in the techniques and strategies of the sport (not following a mistake) Spontaneous encouragement that does not follow a mistake Administrative behavior that sets the stage for play by assigning duties, responsibilities, positions etc. Interactions with players unrelated to the game

Note: adapted from Smith et al. (1977).

Results Descriptive analyses Descriptive statistics for stature, body mass, and BMI by sport and age group are summarized in Table 2. The mean values for stature, body mass, and BMI of basketball players are above US agespecific reference medians (Ogden et al., 2002; http://www.cdc.gov/growthcharts). Mean mass and BMI of soccer players also exceeded age-specific reference medians, but mean height approximated the reference median. Mean statures of gymnasts are slightly below the reference medians, while mean mass and BMI approach the age-specific reference medians. Preliminary analyses Age, ability, and performance of the athletes were treated as control variables in the present study. Pearson product moment correlations (two-tailed) were conducted to examine the relations between indicators of body size (stature, body mass, BMI), perceived coaching behaviors, evaluative reactions, and the control variables. Separate analyses were conducted for each sport. Coach perceptions of athlete ability were unrelated to stature, body mass, BMI, and to perceptions of coaching behaviors in the three sports. Coach perceptions of athlete ability were also unrelated to liking for the coach and the sport among soccer players and gymnasts. In contrast, coach perceptions of athlete ability were positively correlated with athletes’ liking for the sport (rZ0.27, p!0.01) among basketball players, but not with liking for the coach. Coach perceptions of athlete performance were unrelated to athlete-perceived coaching behaviors in basketball and gymnastics. In soccer, however, coach perceptions of performance were positively

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Table 2 Means and standard deviations for stature, body mass, and BMI in female athletes, by sport and age group Stature (cm)

Basketball 14 years 15 Years 16 Years 17 Years 18 Years Gymnastics 14 Years 15 Years 16 Years 17 Years Soccer 14 Years 15 Years 16 Years 17 Years

BMI (kg/M2)

Body mass (kg)

n

M

SD

M

SD

M

SD

4 21 45 32 7

167.4 167.3 165.7 166.4 165.1

3.5 2.9 4.8 3.6 3.9

61.6 61.1 60.6 61.5 60.4

5.6 4.6 7.2 6.3 5.2

21.9 21.8 22.0 22.2 22.1

1.3 1.3 2.1 2.0 1.3

11 22 8 5

160.3 159.4 161.3 160.3

3.6 4.3 3.4 3.7

50.6 49.8 54.0 54.7

3.6 4.8 5.1 5.9

19.7 19.6 20.7 21.2

1.4 1.6 1.6 1.8

9 21 26 16

163.4 161.9 162.2 164.5

3.6 3.8 3.5 4.1

56.6 56.1 57.4 59.9

4.4 6.1 5.8 8.0

21.2 21.4 21.8 22.1

1.8 2.0 2.0 2.5

correlated with the perceived frequency of Reinforcement (rZ0.25, p!0.05). Coach perceptions of athlete performance were positively correlated with liking for the sport among basketball players (rZ0.36, p!0.01), but not among gymnasts or soccer players. Finally, coach perceptions of performance were unrelated to liking for the coach among athletes in all three sports. Age of the athlete was unrelated to liking for the coach or the sport in all three sports. The only significant association between age and perceived coaching behaviors occurred among gymnasts; age was positively associated with General Communication (rZ0.31, p!0.05). Age was also positively associated with body mass (rZ0.32, p!0.05) and BMI (rZ0.33, p!0.05) in gymnasts. On the other hand, age was unrelated to the three indicators of body size in soccer and basketball players. Body size, perceived coaching behaviors, and evaluative reactions Partial correlations, controlling for age, ability, and performance during the season, were calculated between the three indicators of body size and perceptions of coaching behaviors and evaluative reactions of the coach and the sport. One-tailed significance tests were conducted only when specific hypotheses had been made. Among gymnasts, it was predicted that greater body size would be associated with a more negative pattern of coaching behaviors and to reduced liking for the coach as a result. Consistent with this hypothesis, stature, body mass, and BMI were negatively associated with the perceived frequency of General Technical Instruction and Reinforcement Plus Instruction (Table 3). Stature and body mass were also negatively associated with perceptions of Mistake-Contingent Encouragement, and General Encouragement, and positively associated with perceptions of Ignoring Mistakes. Body mass and BMI were negatively associated with perceptions of General Communication, and body mass was negatively associated with perceptions of Mistake-Contingent Technical Instruction. BMI was positively associated

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Table 3 Partial correlations among body size, perceived frequency of coaching behaviors and evaluative reactions in female gymnasts, controlling for age, and coaches’ ratings of ability, and performance Perceived coaching behaviors and evaluative reactions

Stature

Body mass

BMI

Reinforcement Nonreinforcement Reinforcement plus instruction Mistake-contingent encouragement Mistake-contingent technical instruction Punishment Punitive technical instruction Ignoring mistakes Keeping control General technical instruction General encouragement Organization General communication Liking for the coach Liking for the sport

K0.20 0.23 K0.27* K0.34* K0.20 K0.14 0.17 0.36** K0.12 K0.29* K0.29* 0.01 K0.22 K0.44** K0.07

K0.19 0.21 K0.42** K0.30* K0.26* 0.14 0.22 0.30* K0.15 K0.46** K0.28* K0.15 K0.36* K0.38** K0.11

K0.10 0.11 K0.35* K0.15 K0.20 0.26* 0.16 0.14 K0.11 K0.39* K0.16 K0.20 K0.30* K0.19 K0.08

Note: *p!0.05, **p!0.01.

with perceptions of Punishment. Stature and body mass, but not BMI, were negatively correlated with liking for the coach, while the three indicators of body size were unrelated to liking for the sport of gymnastics. Stature was unrelated to all perceived coaching behaviors and liking for the coach and sport in basketball (Table 4). However, body mass and BMI were negatively and significantly associated with perceptions of Nonreinforcement. Though significant, the correlations were low. The indicators of body size were not related to liking for the coach or the sport of basketball. Among soccer players, the indicators of body size were unrelated to perceptions of coaching behavior, and to liking for the coach or the sport (Table 5).

Discussion To our knowledge, this research is the first to relate body-size to perceived frequency of coaching behaviors and liking for the coach and sport in adolescent female athletes. The heights and weights of athletes in the three sports, although based on adjusted self-reported values, are generally consistent with corresponding data for athletes in the respective sports (Malina, 1994, 1998; Malina et al., 2004). As expected, basketball players presented a profile of above-average stature, body mass and BMI relative to reference values for US adolescents (http://www.cdc.gov/growthcharts). Interestingly, basketball players in the youngest age groups (14 and 15 years) presented the highest mean values for stature. It is possible that their stature was a factor in attracting the athlete to the sport and/or in attracting the attention of coaches which may have facilitated selection for the sport.

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Table 4 Partial correlations among body size, perceived frequency of coaching behaviors and evaluative reactions in female basketball players, controlling for age, and coaches’ ratings of ability, and performance Perceived coaching behaviors and evaluative reactions

Stature

Body mass

BMI

Reinforcement Nonreinforcement Reinforcement plus instruction Mistake-contingent encouragement Mistake-contingent technical instruction Punishment Punitive technical instruction Ignoring mistakes Keeping control General technical instruction General encouragement Organization General communication Liking for the coach Liking for the sport

K0.11 0.10 0.02 K0.13 0.15 0.04 0.09 K0.17 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.07 K0.11 0.07 0.12

K0.15 0.22* K0.06 K0.09 0.07 0.13 0.13 0.06 K0.01 K0.07 0.05 0.14 K0.03 0.04 0.08

K0.12 0.21* K0.10 K0.03 K0.01 0.13 0.10 0.17 K0.04 K0.10 K0.05 0.12 0.03 0.00 0.03

Note: *p!0.05, **p!0.01.

Gymnasts had below average stature (except 14 year olds) and average body mass and mass-forstature. It is possible that taller gymnasts drop out of the sport with advancing age as is evident in studies of elite gymnasts (Malina, 2001). Compared to elite gymnasts, the current sample is taller and heavier, but has a similar mass-for-stature. Mean values for stature and body mass of elite gymnasts generally approximate the 10th percentiles of the reference data (Malina, 1998; Malina et al., 2004). Table 5 Partial correlations among body size, perceived frequency of coaching behaviors and evaluative reactions in female soccer players, controlling for age, and coaches’ ratings of ability, and performance Perceived coaching behaviors and evaluative reactions

Stature

Body mass

BMI

Reinforcement Nonreinforcement Reinforcement and instruction Mistake-contingent encouragement Mistake-contingent technical instruction Punishment Punitive technical instruction Ignoring mistakes Keeping control General technical instruction General encouragement Organization General communication Liking for the coach Liking for the sport

0.05 0.03 0.08 0.07 0.01 K0.13 0.02 0.18 0.12 0.18 0.12 0.12 0.05 K0.01 K0.16

K0.01 K0.08 K0.06 K0.04 0.10 K0.10 0.17 0.07 0.08 0.06 0.00 0.04 K0.06 K0.05 K0.16

K0.04 K0.11 K0.12 K0.08 0.10 K0.05 0.20 K0.01 0.04 K0.02 K0.07 K0.02 K0.10 K0.06 K0.11

Note: *p!0.05, **p!0.01.

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Soccer players presented mean values for stature that approximated age-specific US reference medians. The mean values for body mass and BMI of soccer players were, however, consistently above the US reference medians. The observed relations between indicators of body size and perceived coaching behaviors and liking for the coach are of special interest. It was predicted that such relations would be particularly evident in gymnastics because of the specific requirements of that sport, and only among gymnasts were consistent relations involving body size and the other variables observed. Indicators of body size were significantly correlated with several perceived coaching behaviors. Girls who were taller and heavier, or had an elevated BMI, generally perceived their coaches as being less likely to engage in positive coaching behaviors and more likely to engage in negative coaching behaviors. Stature, body mass, and BMI were negatively associated with General Technical Instruction and Reinforcement Plus Instruction. Stature and body mass were also negatively associated with General Encouragement and Mistake-Contingent Encouragement, and positively associated with Ignoring Mistakes. Body mass was negatively associated with Mistake-Contingent Technical Instruction, and BMI was positively associated with Punishment. Given these perceptions it is not surprising that stature and body mass were negatively correlated with liking for the coach. On the other hand, none of the indicators of physical size were related to liking for the sport. Contrary to expectations, stature was unrelated to the perceived frequency of positive and negative coaching behaviors in basketball, and to liking for the coach and sport. However, body mass and BMI were associated with perceptions of Nonreinforcement from the coach; that is, basketball players who had a greater mass and BMI perceived their coaches as being less likely to reinforce good performances. Although the correlations were low, they do suggest some degree of athlete concern (real or imagined) for body mass and how a coach may perceive it. Finally, as predicted, the indicators of body size were unrelated to all of the perceived coaching behaviors and liking for the coach and sport in soccer. The results for gymnasts are consistent with the Mediated Effects Model of Psychological Adaptation to Puberty and suggest that body size can have significant social stimulus value for gymnastics coaches. There is little doubt that body size is of importance in gymnastics. Gymnasts who are shorter and lighter and have a higher strength-to-weight ratio are better able to handle their own body mass during complex skills, particularly those involving rotation (Ackland, Elliott, & Richards, 2003). Our data appear to contradict this assumption, however, as all three indices of body size, in gymnastics, were unrelated to coaches’ ratings of ability or performance. This inconsistency may be due to the fact that most of the gymnasts in question were viewed by their coaches as being of mediocre ability. This possibility is supported by an overall ability mean rating of 3.58 (SDZ1.33) on a 6-point scale. The body size of gymnasts may be less predictive of ability or performance at lower levels of competition. Although high school varsity gymnastics coaches may not equate body size with current abilities or performances of gymnasts, they may perceive size as a factor limiting future potential. Some gymnastics coaches focus on particular ‘windows of opportunity’ for perfection of talent and success (Malina, 2001). Puberty may be perceived by gymnastics coaches as indicating closure of this window. Coaches may assume that gymnasts who are taller, heavier, or carry greater mass for stature are closer to puberty and, therefore, have less potential for success. Tallness, heaviness, or greater mass-for-stature does not, however, condemn the gymnast to mediocrity, particularly at more amateur levels of competition. Gymnasts with these features are simply placed at a disadvantage in the context of performance and/or the perceptions of the coaches. Comparatively tall gymnasts, such as Svetlana Boginskia and current

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World Champion Svetlana Chorkina, have demonstrated that body size is not the sole determinant of success in women’s gymnastics. Athletes’ self-perceptions and the subjective meaning attributed to the changes associated with growth and maturation may also influence the quality and nature of their interactions with the coaches. Gymnasts who perceive themselves as not having the appropriate body type for their sport may be more reluctant to approach or interact with their coaches. Such gymnasts may also feel less confident in their ability and believe that their coaches perceive and/or react to them more negatively. Variation in maturity status may help explain the observed relations between body size and perceptions of coaching behaviors in gymnastics. Gymnasts who are taller, heavier, and carry greater mass-for-stature are typically more advanced in maturity status, and may be the first to experience the psychological, social, and biomechanical challenges associated with puberty. Gymnasts entering pubescence generally experience initial decrements in the performance of rotational movements due to increases in the body segment moments of inertia and reduced strength-to-mass ratios (Ackland et al., 2003). Failure to adapt to the biomechanical constraints imposed by changes in body size, proportions, and composition may result in poorer performances and a lack of improvement. As a result, coaches may perceive early maturing gymnasts as having less potential than their peers and react accordingly. Studies indicate gymnasts who eventually drop out of the sport are initially taller, heavier, and more advanced in the maturity status than those who persist in the sport (Lindner, Caine, & Johns, 1991; Malina, 2001; Theintz, Howald, Weiss, & Sizonenko, 1993). The present study suggests that one reason for such attrition may be a less favorable interpersonal relationship with the coach. The social implications of body size in women’s gymnastics may extend beyond the relationship of coach and athlete. Some evidence suggests that physique of the performer may influence the decision of judges during competition. Among competitors at the 1987 World Championship of Artistic Gymnastics, a significant percentage of the variance in judged performance scores was accounted for by age (positive) and endomorphy (negative) (Claessens, Lefevre, Beunen, & Malina, 1999). Elite artistic gymnasts are not endomorphic! Awareness of a judging preference for gymnasts with more linear builds may further encourage coaches to act more favorably toward gymnasts with ‘judgefriendly’ physiques. In contrast to the results for gymnasts, body size appeared to have little stimulus value for basketball and soccer coaches. The coaches in these sports may be more inclined to evaluate or react to athletes on the basis of technical merit or knowledge of the game, and not physical size. Although greater stature or body mass may afford an advantage when performing certain skills (e.g. rebounding, lay-ups, heading, challenging for possession), game performance on the whole is more dependent upon technique and strategy. Team sports popular with females tend to place a greater emphasis upon technical proficiency than physical attributes. In a review of the physiological attributes of female soccer players, Brewer and Davis (1994) suggested that “female soccer players are more predisposed to a style of play that entails the patient sequencing of passing, rather than one based on high rates of physical work” (p. 98). Limitations of this study should be noted. Although body size can influence the socialization of female athletes, it is important to recognize that the results are limited to US female athletes in high school gymnastics, basketball, and soccer. The magnitude and direction of the relations between indicators of body size, perceived coaching behaviors and liking for the coach/sport might vary with sport (as in the present study), structure (i.e. individual vs. team sports), sex, age, culture, or level of competition. The gymnasts in the current study were competing at a relatively low level. It is possible that body size may have greater social stimulus value at more elite levels of competition (e.g. college,

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international). The social stimulus value of body size may also increase as the athlete gets closer to their athletic peak. Gymnastics is a sport in which athletes typically peak between 14 and 18 years of age. Basketball and soccer, in contrast, are sports in which the athletic peak occurs much later (e.g. 22–28 years). The athletes in this study, females between from the age of 14–18 years, also present a heterogeneous sample. The majority of athletes, particularly in the sport of basketball, may have reached puberty. Future studies may wish to focus on younger athletes (i.e. 10–14 years) who are less likely to have reached their mature state. Further, much of the variation in body size may be related to individual differences in the timing and tempo of maturation and the growth spurt. However, the age range of the sample is such that girls later in maturity status have probably caught-up to girls who are on-time or advanced (Malina et al., 2004). Future investigations would, therefore, benefit from the inclusion of methods for estimating maturity status. Finally, it should be noted that this study employed objective methods for assessing body size. Objective measures of body size are more sensitive to the changes associated with growth and maturation and are more salient to coaches. Future research would, however, benefit from including subjective measures of body size (i.e. coach and/or athlete’s perceptions of athlete’s body size/type), particularly since the athlete and coach perceptions and evaluations of body size/type are central to the Mediated Effects Model of Psychological Adaptation to Puberty (Petersen & Taylor, 1980). In summary, the results of this study suggest that the body size of female gymnasts, irrespective of age, ability or performance, may have social stimulus value for gymnastics coaches. Further, the value of body size may be associated with the potential of the athlete rather than their immediate ability or performance. This observation is consistent with the Mediated Effects Model of Psychological Adaptation to Puberty (Petersen & Taylor, 1980) and the contention that social and cultural factors play an important in role in helping youth adjust to the biological changes associated with growth and maturation. Body size appears to have little social stimulus value for the coaches of female high school basketball or soccer teams. Those involved in youth sports, and, in particular, gymnastics need be aware how the body size of an athlete might influence their reactions to and/or evaluations of young athletes.

Acknowledgements This research was supported in part by Grants 86-1066-86 and 2297 to Ronald E. Smith and Frank L. Smoll from the William T. Grant Foundation. The authors wish to express their appreciation to John Himes of the University of Minnesota for his help in the formulation of the age–sex–race-specific equations for adjusting self-reported stature and body-mass in youth.

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