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Breakfast spreads
Breakfast spreads Janice Johnson Cargill, Inc., Minneapolis, MN, United States
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11.1 Breakfast spreads Breakfast spreads can be considered as food that is spread onto another food and often complement breakfast-type bakery products such as breads, biscuits, pancakes, and waffles. Typical spreads include fruit jams and jellies, chutney, dairy spreads (e.g. cream cheese and spreadable cheese), edible oils (e.g. butter and margarine), nut butters (e.g. peanut, hazelnut, and almond), and yeast extract spreads. Similar to many bakery products, some breakfast spreads don’t necessarily contain a lot of sodium on a per serving basis. Rather, they are consumed frequently throughout the day during meals and snacking, which may make spreads a significant contributor to sodium in the diet. The exception to lower sodium content for spreads are yeast extracts, some edible oils, and some dairy spreads. Fruit jams and jellies rarely contain added sodium ingredients, with the exception of added preservative, and contribute very little or no sodium in the diet. Consumers have options to purchase many unsalted breakfast spreads (e.g. nut butters, butter, margarines) in the market. Unsalted butter is commonly used in baking applications, which can help control the sodium content in bakery goods and other foods prepared in the home. However, a majority of the spreads will contain some level of added salt.
11.1.1 Global production of breakfast spreads In 2016, breakfast spreads food category (defined as margarine and spreads, butter, spreadable processed cheese, nut and seed spreads, and yeast extracts) had grown to total global market volume of 46.6 M tonnes and US$56 B food category (Euromonitor International, 2017). From a total volume perspective, margarine is the largest category (5.2 M tonnes), followed by butter (3.2 M tonnes), spreadable process cheese (2.1 M tonnes), nut and seed spreads (688 M tonnes), and yeast extracts (16.2 K tonnes). However from a financial perspective, the greatest retail value is the butter category (US$17.5 B), followed by processed cheese (US$15.2 B), margarines and spreads (US$14.3 B), nut and seed spreads (US$3.4 B), and yeast extracts (US$0.2 B). Since 2011, there has been a decline of 8.9% and 9.7% across the entire category for both total volume and retail value, respectively. For a total volume perspective, the decline is due to the margarine and spreads (−4.5%) and yeast extract categories (−6.6%). With the exception of nut and seed spreads (4.1%), all categories are on the decline in terms of the retail value. Preference for type of spread can vary significantly by geography (Euromonitor International, 2017). The top 10 countries for largest total volume of margarine, butter, and spreadable processed cheese are shown in Figs. 11.1–11.3, respectively. Reducing Salt in Foods. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100890-4.00011-1 Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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Fig. 11.1 Total volume market size (’000 tonne) and growth rate (%) of margarine and spreads in various countries between 2011 and 2016 (Euromonitor International, 2017).
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Fig. 11.2 Total volume market size (’000 tonne) and growth rate (%) of butter in various countries between 2011 and 2016 (Euromonitor International, 2017).
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Fig. 11.3 Total volume market size (’000 tonne) and growth rate (%) of spreadable processed cheese in various countries between 2011 and 2016 (Euromonitor International, 2017).
Largest total volumes of margarine and spreads are found in United States (USA, 642.9 M tonnes), Brazil (581.6 M tonnes), Germany (364.7 M tonnes), and United Kingdom (UK, 303.3 M tonnes). As shown in Fig. 11.1, many of the countries exhibited a decline in total volume between 2011 and 2016. The United States has experienced the largest decline (−19.6%), followed by United Kingdom (−16.9%), Russia (−10.5%), and the Netherlands (−10.5%). On a per capita basis, Finland (9690 kg/’000 people), the Netherlands (8204 kg/’000 people), and Sweden (7589.7 kg/’000 people) have the highest reported numbers. Of these three countries, only Finland (2.4%) showed a growth between 2011 and 2016, whereas the Netherlands and Sweden decreased by −12.2% and −7.6%, respectively. The greatest per capita growth rate between 2011 and 2016 occurred in India (66%), Indonesia (25.8%), and Vietnam (22.3). As shown in Fig. 11.2, the United States leads in total volume for butter (664.9 M tonnes) followed by Germany (396.8 M tonnes) and Russia (217.3 M tonnes) in 2016 (Euromonitor International, 2017). Compared to margarine and spreads, the predominant category depends on the geography. Exceptions are observed for United States and Germany, where there are total volumes fairly similar for both categories. Unlike the margarine and spreads category, butter has shown an increase in global total volumes between 2011 and 2016. Margarine and spreads, and butter have grown at −4.5% and 8%, respectively. Of the countries within the top 10 largest total volume, only three have shown a decline between 2011 and 2016, namely Italy (−5.4%), Brazil (−2.7%), and France (−0.9%). Greatest total volume growth rates within this timeframe occurred in China (47.9%), Chile (45.4%), and the Netherlands (45%). On a per capita
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basis, Denmark (5822 kg/’000 people), Sweden (4986 kg/’000 people), and Germany (4830 kg/’000 people) lead in the market. Of these leaders, only Sweden had a positive growth rate (11.8%) between 2011 and 2016 (Euromonitor International, 2017). The greatest per capita growth rates between 2011 and 2016 occurred in China (66%), Indonesia (25.8%), and Vietnam (22.3%). Similar to butter, the total volume of spreadable processed cheese spreads is a growing food category for most of the top 10 countries (Fig. 11.3). Brazil, United States, and Russia lead the way in total volume in 2016 with 330.8, 243.3, 190.1 M tonnes, respectively (Euromonitor International, 2017). Greatest growth rates between 2011 and 2016 occurred in China (132.1%), India (84.7%), and Indonesia (74.2%). On a per capita basis, Finland (3161 kg/’000 people), Germany (2992 kg/’000 people), and Canada (2796 kg/’000 people) lead the top 10 countries in 2016; however, only Finland showed a positive growth rate (6%) between 2011 and 2016 (Euromonitor International, 2017). Greatest kg per capita growth rate over 2011 and 2016 occurred in China (118.5%), India (76.3%), and Vietnam (57.0%). In 2016, the total volume of nut and seed spreads was dominated by the US market (435.1 M tonnes), which was more than 2.5 times the combined volumes of the other nine countries in the top 10 highest list of total volumes. The growth rate continues to grow slightly for the United States at a rate of 0.4% between 2011 and 2016, which is significantly less than the highest growth rates of India (275.7%), Peru (190.2%), and Hungary (94.6%). On a per capita basis between 2011 and 2016, the United States was on a decline (−3.5%) compared to South Africa, Ireland, and United Kingdom, which are growing at 55%, 51.1%, and 17.5%, respectively (Euromonitor International, 2017). For yeast extracts in 2016, two countries dominate the yeast extract total volume, namely the United Kingdom and Australia with 6.6 and 6.1 M tonnes, respectively (Euromonitor International, 2017). The next two closest countries are South Africa (2.1 M tonnes) and New Zealand (1.2 M tonnes). Understandably, these four countries also have the highest volume per capita (Euromonitor International, 2017). In 2016, Australia (267 kg/’000 people) leads in volume per capita, followed closely by New Zealand (252 kg/’000 people). United Kingdom (97 kg/’000 people) and Australia (38 kg/’000 people) per capital rate is less than half of Australia and New Zealand. With the exception of South Africa, these countries have declined in total volumes and per capita between 2011 and 2016 (Euromonitor International, 2017).
11.1.2 Breakfast spreads and sodium consumption There are limited data on the sodium contribution of this category to the diet, most likely due to the relatively low contribution compared to other food categories. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2012) observed that 44% of the sodium intake in the American populations comes from 10 food categories of which breakfast spreads, or any of the products within that category, were not on the list. However, breakfast spreads are commonly used with foods stated in the top 10 list, in particular, breads and rolls, and sandwiches. According to the data published by the CDC (2012), the 10th food product on the list, savoury snacks (e.g. chips and pretzels) contributed 3.1% of the sodium consumption by Americans greater than 2 years of age.
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Meneton et al. (2009) reported the sodium contribution of edible oils to the adult and child diet was 0.2 (±0.3) and 0.2 (±0.2) %, respectively, in the French population. Observing purchasing behaviours, Ni Mhurchu et al. (2011) reported that butter and margarine contribute 1.1% and 2.9% of the annual sodium purchases in the UK households. Considering the data, it is difficult to determine the actual contribution breakfast spreads make to sodium consumption in any population, but the limited data suggest that it is low compared to other food categories.
11.2 Sodium content of breakfast spreads The sodium content of breakfast spreads will depend upon the specific product category and can vary significantly within a category and geographical location (Table 11.1). As expected, yeast extract has the highest sodium content (per 100 g) Table 11.1 Sodium content of various breakfast spreads in various geographies
Geography Australiaa
Canadab
United Kingdomc New Zealande
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Breakfast spread
No. of products
Mean (SD) (mg/100 g)
Range (mg/100 g)
Regular butter Margarine Salt-reduced butter Unsalted butter Jams and marmalades Peanut butter Sweet spreads Yeast extracts Margarine, salted Butter, salted Butter
33 57 9
535 427 294
147–976 5–1300 200–350
8 124
40 19
18–19 0–47
43 7 3 49
379 98 3816 653 (±93)
6–720 33–268 3380–4667
19 111
Margarine
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664 (±188) 487 (weighted)d 597 (weighted)d
Butter margarine dairy spreads branded Private label
Webster et al. (2010). Arcand et al. (2016). Ni Mhurchu et al. (2011). d Weighted by purchase volumes. e Monro et al. (2015). b c
Data collection timeframe (year) 2008
2013
0–1200
2008–2009
0–1000 2013
52 6
414 (136) 486 (157)
1–700 339–680
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of the reported spreads, nearly five times the next highest level. Butter and margarine tend to be similar in sodium content within any geography. Comparing between geographies, Canadian butters and margarine are approximately 100 mg sodium higher than others. As expected, the lowest level of sodium was observed for jams and marmalades in Australia, where sodium-containing ingredients are generally not present or at very low levels. The sodium level in unsalted butter from Australia demonstrates the inherent sodium within the raw material (milk) itself. Although food manufacturers have made progress in reducing sodium in many products, there are little data available on the progress made for breakfast spreads, which may be due to the perception that breakfast spreads are not the main contributor of the sodium consumed in a population diet. The lack of information in this category may also be due in part to the fact that many food manufacturers choose stealth reduction versus promoting an actual sodium reduction claim to prevent any backlash from the consumers. The data in Table 11.2 demonstrate the wide range of sodium content in butters and margarines in the market and the sodium content is dependent on the food manufacturer of any specific branded product. In general, this is not uncommon for many food products considering there are not government mandates for sodium level in most geographies (Trieu et al., 2015). In addition, the actual sodium Table 11.2 Sodium reduction progress of various breakfast spreads as measured by mean sodium content (mg sodium per 100 g product) over a given period of time
Country Canadaa Irelandb
New Zealandc
United Kingdomd a
Breakfast spread Butter Margarine Butter Margarine All fat spreads (excluding margarine) Butter, margarine, and dairy spreads Branded Private label Edible oil
No. of products (year 1, year 2)
Year 1, mean (±SD) (mg/100 g)
Year 2, mean (±SD) (mg/100 g)
20, 19 49, 49 –
670 (±127) 672 (±110) 631 (±234) 313 (±191) 541 (±467)
664 (±188) 653 (±93) 518 (±124) 560 (±138) 467 (±92)
c
2010, 2013 2007, 2011
2003, 2013 36, 52 14, 6
421 (±89) 608 (±142)
414 (±136) 486 (±157)
406, 408
394
374
Arcand et al. (2016). Food Safety Authority of Ireland (2015). Monro et al. (2015). d Eyles et al. (2013). b
Year 1, year 2
2006, 2011
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c ontent may be an under- or overestimation of the product suggesting that accuracy may depend on the method used to determine the sodium content. Aganwal et al. (2011) observed the average sodium content of cheddar, mozzarella, and processed cheeses produced within the United States. Cheddar cheese had an average sodium content of 615 mg/100 g, with 95% of the products ranging between 474 and 731 mg/100 g cheese. Based on the nutrition facts label, the sodium levels for these cheeses ranged between 600 and 800 mg/100 g and had a mean of 648 mg/100 g cheese. As shown in Table 11.2, the range of sodium reported indicate that 68% (1 standard deviation) of the products reported for any one individual product group (e.g. butter, margarine, spreads, and edible oil) were >90 mg (above and below) the mean of the group. Monro et al. (2015) reported sodium reduction progress in many food categories; however, some products, including butter and margarines, have made little changes over the evaluated 10-year period. Arcand et al. (2016) observed no statistical difference between the change in sodium content of butter and margarine products evaluated between 2010 and 2013 in the Canadian market. The Food Safety Authority of Ireland (2015) reported an 18% reduction of sodium in all butters (butter and halffat butter) between 2007 and 2011. In their analysis, Eyles et al. (2013) compared the sodium content of commercial margarine products and compared them to the 2010 UK FSA sodium targets and found 65% and 83% of the products evaluated met the target in 2006 and 2011, respectively.
11.3 Sodium-containing ingredients in breakfast spreads Breakfast spreads are a broad category and include products, such as sweet fruit based, nut based, dairy based, and the savoury yeast extract based. The raw base ingredients (e.g. fruit, vegetables, nut, milk) will naturally contain sodium, but its contribution to the overall sodium content of the product is relatively low. For example, the sodium content of strawberries, peanuts, and milk is 1, 18, and 49 mg per 100 g product, respectively (United States Department of Agriculture, 2016). Since these are agricultural products, there will be variability between crop years, and between species and feeding practices, which may have a slight impact on the final sodium content. The majority of the sodium will be coming from the added ingredients, with the most common ingredient being salt. Most of the fruit-based and yeast categories do not contain sodium ingredients beyond salt. Nut and dairy spreads and cream cheeses may have other ingredients such as stabilisers to help keep the oil, proteins, ground nuts, and water in the emulsion state. With the exception of butter, the dairy-based category (e.g. cream cheese) will contain other sodium-containing ingredients (e.g. sodium sorbate, orthophosphates) beyond salt to help create the texture, act as preservative to extend shelf-life, and aid in food safety. Considering the broadness of this category, the focus of this discussion will be on the sodium-containing ingredients versus the specific type of food in this category or the raw base ingredients.
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11.3.1 Salt Salt is commonly used in many breakfast spreads for its salty flavour, enhancement of flavours, suppression of bitter or other off-notes, modification of proteins, and impact on microbial growth. Without salt, these foods would be bland and not well accepted by consumers. The salty taste and flavour enhancement is unique to salt. The effect of salty taste is due mainly to the sodium ion, although the exact mechanism within the taste bud is not clearly understood (Chaudhari and Roper, 2010). The importance of sodium for salty taste can be easily demonstrated by tasting other chloride salts, such as potassium chloride or other sodium salts, e.g. sodium glutamate. These sodium- containing ingredients do not bring on the same salty taste and flavour enhancement as sodium chloride. The level of salt used in foods to deliver the desired salty taste and flavour profile will largely depend on the food product. In general, more salt will be used for flavour in the savoury spreads (e.g. butter, cheese spreads, and nut butters) than in fruit-based spreads. Historically, salt was one of the first ingredients to be used as a preservative. It is well known that salt is very effective at minimising microbial activity to prevent food spoilage and help manage food safety. Present-day food manufacturing practices use combinations of salt, other ingredients (e.g. organic acids, salts of organic acids, emulsifying salts), processing conditions (e.g. heat), and storage conditions (e.g. refrigeration) to manage microbial growth, especially in dairy spreads (Glass and Doyle, 2005). The mechanism for salt's role in microbial management is its ability to decrease water activity, or conversely increase osmotic pressure, which creates an environment unsuitable for growth of spoilage organisms and pathogens. Originally salt was added to butter to help preserve it; however, the introduction of refrigeration has minimised that role. The effect of salt on protein modification has been studied extensively for dairy proteins, as well as the impact of removing salt on the texture and emulsification of dairy spreads (Guinee and O’Kennedy, 2007). Sodium from salt can disrupt the calcium-phosphate bonds of casein proteins in milk, which leads to structural changes and exposure of the hydrophobic portions of the proteins. As a result of these structural changes, the emulsifying properties of the proteins are enhanced and can be used to help stabilise the oil/water emulsions in butter and low fat dairy spreads. The one unique role for salt in the preparation of breakfast spreads that is starkly different from other spreads is in the production of yeast spreads. In this product, salt is used to help extract the highly desirable savoury and umami flavour compounds from the yeast organisms.
11.3.2 Yeast extracts Historically, yeast spreads were developed using yeast by-products of the alcohol beverage industry and marketed as a highly nutritious breakfast spread. The extracts from yeast used to make the spreads contain many amino acids, peptides, and nucleotides. These compounds impart a savoury, umami note that is highly desirable in some savoury foods. Yeast extract is also considered a nutritious source of B vitamins and proteins.
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There are three basic methods used to product yeast extracts: autolysis, plasmolysis, and hydrolysis (Nagodawithana, 1992). The production of yeast extracts from autolysis involves using the endogenous enzymes to break down the yeast cell walls. By controlling the pH, temperature, and environmental exposure time, the hydrolytic enzymes are preserved within the yeast organism. These enzymes are then able to digest various components within the yeast cell. Proteases hydrolyse proteins to create many desirable flavours. When part of a protein, glutamic acid elicits very little flavour; however in the free form, it can impart umami-like flavours. The glutamic acid is generally incorporated into peptides with the autolysis method, and as a result, this form of the amino acid does not create the same flavour perception as when it is in the free form. Yeast extracts produced by autolysis do not contain a significant amount of sodium; therefore, this method could be used to produce a low sodium yeast extract. The autolysis method for yeast extract has been modified to enrich the intensity and yield of the yeast extract. Plasmolysis involves adding substrates, such as salt, that increases the osmotic pressure and causes the cytoplasm to separate from the cell wall (Nagodawithana, 1992). As a result, the yeast cells enter into the death cycle and the digestion process by the endogenous enzymes can begin. This is a very simple process and cost effective, but the resulting extract contains a significant amount of sodium. The last method for yeast extract production, acid hydrolysis, involves using an acid (e.g. hydrochloric acid) at high temperature. For a more rapid process, this method can be performed in the presence of pressure. The product must be neutralised, usually with sodium hydroxide, which results in a high sodium concentration in the yeast extract. Hydrolysis also destroys the vitamins and amino acids, and may produce compounds that may be carcinogenic, thereby making this a less attractive method (Nagodawithana, 1992).
11.3.3 Emulsifying salts and stabilisers Emulsifying salts and stabilisers are used to prevent separation of components within spreads. They are commonly used in nut and seed spreads as well as processed cheese spreads. For nut and seed spreads, the goal is to keep ground nut or seed, which are hydrophilic in nature, suspended in oil. A stable processed dairy spread is the result of creating an oil/fat, water, and protein emulsion. In the case of whipped cream cheese, the emulsion also contains air in addition to oil/fat, water, and proteins. Sodium-containing ingredients are not generally used to stabilise nuts and seed spreads. Leveraging the physical properties of fats and oils is commonly used to prevent separation in this category of spreads. The crystalline structure of a hard fat will entrap the liquid oil within peanut butter (Wainwright, 2000). It is the morphology of the B′ polymorphic crystal that allows for the entrapment of oil. Typical oils used alone or in combination include palm, cottonseed, and high-erucic acid rapeseed oil. Hydrogenated fats and emulsifies, such as mono- and diglycerides, are also used to stabilise nut and seed spreads. Processed dairy spreads and cream cheeses have a significant presence in the dairy case and have become a standard breakfast item that is consumed with bakery products by the consumers. These dairy products have a smooth creamy texture and varying
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degrees of cheese sharpness taste that easily spreads onto baked goods. Critical for the spreadable characteristic is the addition of emulsifiers and stabilisers to help create a stable emulsion of fat, water, and protein in the food matrix (Guinee and O’Kennedy, 2007). Processed dairy spreads are made from natural cheeses, emulsifying salts (e.g. sodium salts of phosphates and citrates), and other ingredients, and then heated to create the smooth emulsion. Cream cheeses are more similar to natural cheese production in that it is produced with fluid milk or cream as the raw ingredient, which is then homogenised, pasteurised, and inoculated with a starter culture (McSweeney et al., 2004). The whey is separated and the curd is mixed with salt and stabilisers, and homogenised to create the desired smooth creamy texture. There is a cascade of events that occur to create the smooth homogeneous dairy spreads. Emulsifying salts, such as sodium orthophosphate, sequester calcium and adjust the pH of the food matrix. Removing calcium disrupts the calcium-phosphate bond within the casein protein network and exposes the hydrophobic and hydrophilic portions of the proteins. This reconfiguration increases the ability of casein to behave like an emulsifier (Gupta et al., 1984; Caric et al., 1985). The sodium from the emulsifying salts interacts with and helps hydrate the para-casein dairy proteins. The hydrated proteins then interact with free water and fat to help create a stable emulsion (Guinee and O’Kennedy, 2007). Stabilisers, such as hydrocolloids (e.g. sodium alginate) and acid salts (e.g. sodium citrate), help maintain the physico-chemical structure and extend the shelf-life of a food product. Many emulsifying salts and stabilisers are permitted for use in processed dairy spreads and cream cheeses including phosphates (e.g. sodium phosphate, tetra sodium phosphates, sodium hexamethyl phosphate, sodium orthophosphate), sodium metasulphate, sodium citrate and sodium tartrate, sodium citrates, sodium alginates, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, and sodium gluconate (Codex, 2011). The type and amount used in foods is largely determined by the regulatory agencies within a particular geography.
11.3.4 Preservatives Dairy spreads contain protein, sugars, and other nutrients that support the growth of spoilage organisms and pathogens. Therefore, food manufacturers leverage chemical (preservatives) and processing tools used in various combinations to obtain the desired effect to maximise shelf-life and prevent pathogen survival. Permitted usage of these additives will vary depending on the regulations within a particular country (Codex, 2011). In addition to reducing microbial activity, some additives are used to reduce chemical reaction (e.g. lipid oxidation) to preserve the quality of foods (Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Strategies to Reduce Sodium Intake, 2010). Historically, salt was one of the first ingredients added to foods to minimise spoilage organisms and pathogens activity. The increase in osmotic pressure due to the addition of salt causes water to move through the cell membrane and out of the microorganism. The resulting partial dehydration of the cell decreases microbial activity and severely interferes with the life cycle of the organism. The level of salt required to inhibit microbial activity is dependent on the specific organism (Doyle and Glass, 2009).
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In addition to salt, many of the emulsifying salts used in processed cheese spreads also have a preservative effect, including the sodium versions of many orthophosphates and polyphosphates. It has been suggested that the inhibitory mechanism may be due to the ability of these emulsifying salt to sequester iron, magnesium, and calcium (Glass and Doyle, 2005). Another potential mechanism is that the polyphosphate may create channels in the cell walls that allow inhibitors to penetrate into the cell and cause cell lysis. Other preservatives, such as sodium sorbate and sodium propionate, may be added to extend the shelf-life of the product and are subject to specific government regulations (Codex, 2011).
11.4 Non-sodium alternative for breakfast goods 11.4.1 Salt reduction and alternatives Usually the first attempt at sodium reduction is to reduce the amount of salt and evaluate the sensory and microbiological impact on the product. Generally there is an acceptable level of reduction, but at some point the reduction will negatively impact the product attributes where it becomes unacceptable to the consumer. This may be an effective solution for breakfast spreads that rely on salt only for salty flavour and flavour enhancement. Understanding the particle size and shape of the type of salts used in a formulation can impact the salty taste perception of fat based spreads (e.g. nut butter). Generally salts that are smaller sized, or have a greater surface area create a more salty taste perception due to the increase rate of dissolution in the mouth. The cheese flavour in some processed dairy spreads comes from the natural cheese that is added to the formula. Cheese itself can contain high levels of sodium, depending on the variety, and is largely due to the added salt. Therefore, using a lower sodium cheese can help reduce the sodium in the dairy spread. Attempts have been made to replace salt in cheese production using potassium chloride (KCl), calcium chloride (CaCl2), or magnesium chloride (MgCl2) with limited success. Grummer et al. (2012) compared the compositional, chemical, texture, and sensory of reduced sodium Cheddar-style cheeses (42%–55% reduction) to a full sodium control (salt and reduced sodium sea salt). The reduced sodium cheeses were prepared by using blends of salt or reduced sodium sea salt (contained chloride and sulphate-based salts of sodium, magnesium, and potassium) with KCl, modified KCl, CaCl2, or MgCl2. Similar to salt, these non- or lower sodium salts will alter protein structure, decrease water activity, and provide a salty taste to some degree. The pH of the cheeses was lower than the control for all the cheeses except for the KCl and sea salt plus MgCl2 treatments, suggesting that the other non‑sodium salt treatments (modified KCl, MgCl2, and CaCl2) had less inhibitory effect on the starter culture. Comparing texture, the low sodium sea salt plus CaCl2 had more hardness than the control, whereas the MgCl2 and modified KCl had less hardness. Cheeses made with CaCl2 or MgCl2 produced unacceptable off-flavours (e.g. bitter, metallic, earthly, unclean, soapy). The bitterness attribute for Cheddar-style cheeses made with KCl and modified KCl treatments was similar to that of the full‑ sodium control, which suggests KCl can be used successfully as an alternative for salt.
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In addition to using potassium chloride or other non‑sodium salt to help build back the salty and cheese flavour, a mature cheese or enzyme-modified cheese may be added to dairy spreads (Guinee and O’Kennedy, 2007). The intense cheese flavour of these ingredients can re-create a similar taste intensity of the full sodium product at a lower concentration. Additional flavours or inclusions (e.g. fruits, vegetables, nuts) may also be added to enhance the flavour profile. Karahadian and Lindsay (1984) reported the benefits of adding an enzyme cheese paste to improve the cheese-like flavour of process cheeses with 55% and 75% sodium reduction.
11.4.2 Yeast extract The addition of salt for plasmolysis or acid and base for hydrolysis during the extraction process for yeast extract is very effective at increasing yields; however, these methods lead to a significant contribution of sodium to yeast spreads. The autolysis method, however, does not contain a significant amount of sodium and could be used to produce a lower sodium yeast spread; however, yield and flavour may be compromised (Nagodawithana, 1992). Modifications to these extraction methods to reduce sodium include using less salt, non‑sodium base neutraliser (e.g. potassium hydroxide), or alternative non-salt ingredients (e.g. ethanol for plasmolysis).
11.4.3 Emulsifying salts and stabilisers Dairy spreads have a distinctive smooth texture and stable emulsion created by the processing conditions (heat and shear), and in some cases, stabilisers. For emulsifying salts (e.g. phosphates) and stabilisers (e.g. acid salts), there are some potassium versions available (e.g. dipotassium phosphates, potassium citrates), but these may have similar taste issues that are experienced with potassium chloride at high usage levels, namely a bitter or metallic taste especially at high levels. Other ingredients that can help recreate the desired texture in dairy spreads include gelatine, hydrocolloids (e.g. starch, xanthan gum), and dairy proteins, especially those with good water binding and emulsification properties (Codex, 2011; Guinee and O’Kennedy, 2007). Karahadian and Lindsay (1984) report acceptable attributes (e.g. sensory, meltability, slicing) for reduced sodium processed cheeses using a blend of salt and potassium chloride, and an emulsifying salt blend consisting of trisodium citrate and disodiumphosphate and trisodium citrate. Concern with most non‑sodium-containing ingredients is the impact on the taste, an attribute most recognised by consumers. Karahadian and Lindsay (1984) evaluate the impact of emulsifying salts on taste perception of processed cheeses. Various cations and anions were evaluated for performance for saltiness and off-flavours. Of the cations evaluated, lithium and sodium provided the most saltiness and least bitterness, followed by ammonium and potassium. The least saltiness and most bitter taste occurred with calcium and magnesium. Anions were evaluated for suppressing salty taste with chloride having the least impact, and phosphates and citrates having the most.
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11.4.4 Preservatives Many of the sodium-containing ingredients (e.g. sodium sorbate, sodium citrate, sodium nitrate, sodium benzoate) used to minimise microbial growth are commercially available in non‑sodium versions, usually in the potassium form. Similar to many potassium alternatives, these may have limitations due to the bitter and metallic taste detected at higher concentrations. Other non‑sodium options that can be implemented to minimise the microbial growth include the combined usage of chemical (e.g. organic acids fatty acid esters), physical (e.g. additional heating, irradiation), and biological (e.g. bacteriocins, protective cultures) hurdles (Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Strategies to Reduce Sodium Intake, 2010). Non-chemical treatments are also used to help minimise spoilage organisms and pathogens in breakfast spreads and are commonly used for dairy spreads. The incoming raw milk of the dairy product is typically subjected to a heat treatment (pasteurisation) to reduce the microbial load. Good sanitisation programs for the dairy equipment are critical in order to prevent contamination post pasteurisation. To help extend shelf-life, refrigeration or retort treatment (shelf-stable) of finished dairy spreads can also be a protective means to prevent growth. Microbial spoilage of low-fat dairy spreads is also impacted by particle size and pH of water droplets. Guinee and O’Kennedy (2007) suggest keeping particle size <20 μm and maintaining a lower pH to minimise microbial growth. In the latter case, however, the pH may alter the protein and hydrocolloid functionality.
11.5 Conclusions Recent emphasis on sodium reduction has created challenges for food scientists to reformulate products to reach a sodium target while maintaining consumers’ expectation of the desired sensory attributes. Critical for success is understanding the functional role of the sodium-containing ingredients in the food product to help determine alternative ingredients, or processing conditions that may recreate the effect. For example, preservatives are generally used in conjunction with other hurdles (e.g. pH, temperature) in order to manage the microbial growth in food products. Changes in formulation that decrease the sodium content may inadvertently impact the effectiveness of the original hurdles in the formulation (Doyle and Glass, 2009). Therefore, additional ingredients, increasing level of preservatives, altering processing conditions, or other modifications to the process or formula should be considered when reducing sodium in food products. For breakfast foods, additional research is required to identify alternative non‑sodium-containing ingredients or mechanical processing that provide the same functional role as the sodium-containing ingredient. Some functional roles include altering protein structure to create desired structure and texture, emulsification to prevent the separation of oil and water in an emulsion, extending the shelf-life of products and minimising food safety concerns. Most important to the consumer is the taste and many of the non‑sodium-containing ingredients impart negative taste
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characteristics (e.g. bitter, metallic), lack salty flavour, or alter the overall taste profile. The most challenging area of research is identifying the salty taste mechanism, which is instrumental for identifying a successful alternative solution.
References Aganwal, S., McCoy, D., Graves, W., Gerard, P.D., Clark, S., 2011. Sodium content in retail cheddar, mozzarella, and process cheeses varies considerable in the United States. J. Dairy Sci. 94 (3), 1605–1615. Arcand, J., Jefferson, K., Schermel, A., Shah, F., Trang, S., Kutlesa, D., Lou, W., L’Abbe, M.R., 2016. Examination of food industry progress in reducing the sodium content of packaged foods in Canada: 2010 to 2013. Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 41 (6), 684–690. Caric, M., Gantar, M., Kalab, M., 1985. Effects of emulsifying agents on the microstructure and other characteristics of process cheese – a review. Food Microstruct. 4, 297–312. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2012. Vital signs: food categories contributing the most to sodium consumption – United States, 2007–2008. Morb. Mortal. Weekly Rep. 6, 92–98. Chaudhari, N., Roper, S.D., 2010. The cell biology of taste. J. Cell Biol. 190 (3), 285–296. Codex, 2011. Codex Standard 221-2001 Milk and Milk Products, FAO The Codex Alimentarius Commission (2009; 2010), Codex Alimentarius. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Viewed 3 Aug 2016, http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2085e/i2085e00.pdf. Doyle, M., Glass, K., 2009. Sodium reduction and its effect on food safety, food quality, and human health. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 9 (1), 44–56. Euromonitor International, 2017. Passport Database, Breakfast Spread Market Research, Viewed 10 Aug 2017. Eyles, H., Webster, J., Jebb, S., Capelin, C., Neal, B., Ni Mhurchu, C., 2013. Impact of the UK voluntary sodium reduction targets on the sodium content of processed foods from 2006 to 2011: analysis of household consumer panel data. Prev. Med. 57, 555–560. Food Safety Authority of Ireland, 2015. Monitoring of sodium and potassium in processed foods. Viewed 26 Jun 2016, https://www.fsai.ie/uploadedFiles/Science_and_Health/Salt_ and_Health/Salt_Surveys_2003_onwards.pdf. Glass, K., Doyle, M., 2005. Safety of Processed Cheese – A Review of the Scientific Literature. University of Wisconsin, Madison. Viewed 1 Aug 2016, https://fri.wisc.edu/files/Briefs_File/ ProcCheese_May2005_v2.pdf. Grummer, J.M., Karalus, K., Zhang, K., Vickers, Z., Schoenfuss, T.C., 2012. Manufacture of reduced-sodium Cheddar-style cheese with mineral salts. J. Dairy Sci. 95, 2830–2839. Guinee, T.P., O’Kennedy, B.T., 2007. Reducing salt in cheese and dairy spreads. In: Kilcast, D., Angus, F. (Eds.), Reducing Salts in Foods. Woodbridge Publishing Limited, Cambridge, England, pp. 316–357. Gupta, S.K., Karahdian, C., Lindsay, R.C., 1984. Effect of emulsifier salts on textural and flavor properties of processed cheeses. J. Dairy Sci. 67 (4), 764–778. Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Strategies to Reduce Sodium Intake, 2010. Preservation and physical property roles of sodium in foods. In: Henney, J.E., Taylor, C.L., Boon, C.S. (Eds.), Strategies to Reduce Sodium Intake in the United States. National Academies Press, Washington, DC, pp. 91–118. Karahadian, C., Lindsay, R.C., 1984. Flavor and textural properties of reduced-sodium process American cheeses. J. Dairy Sci. 67 (7), 1892–1904.
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McSweeney, P.L.H., Ottogalli, G., Fox, P.F., 2004. Processed cheese. Diversity of cheese varieties: 1 An overview. In: Fox, P.F., McSweeney, P.L.H., Cogan, T.M., Guinee, T.P. (Eds.), Cheese – Chemistry, Physics and Microbiology, third ed. Major Cheese Groups, vol. 2. Elsevier Academic Press, London, pp. 1–22. Meneton, P., Lafay, L., Tard, A., Dufour, A., Ireland, J., Menard, J., Volatier, J.L., 2009. Dietary sources and correlates of sodium and potassium intakes in the French general population. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 63, 1169–1175. Monro, D., Ni Mhurchu, C., Jiang, Y., Gorton, D., Eyles, H., 2015. Changes in the sodium content of New Zealand processed foods: 2003–2013. Nutrients 7, 4054–4067. Nagodawithana, T., 1992. Yeast-derived flavors and flavor enhancers and their probable mode of action. Food Technol. 46, 138–144. Ni Mhurchu, C., Capelin, C., Dunford, E., Webster, J.L., Neal, B., Jebb, S.A., 2011. Sodium content of processed foods in the United Kingdom: analysis of 44,000 foods purchased by 21,000 households. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 93, 594–600. Trieu, K., Neil, B., Hawkes, C., Dunford, E., Campbell, N., Rodriguez-Fernandez, R., Legetic, B., McLaren, L., Barberio, A., Webster, J., 2015. Salt reduction initiatives around the world – a systematic review of progress towards the global target. PLoS One 10 (7), e0130247. United States Department of Agriculture, 2016. Nutrient Database. Viewed 8 Jul 2016. https:// ndb.nal.usda.gov. Wainwright, B., 2000. Specialty fats and oils. In: O'Brien, R.D., Farr, W.E., Wan, P.J. (Eds.), Introduction to Fats and Oils Technology, second ed. AOCS Press, Champaign, IL, pp. 505–511. Webster, J.L., Dunford, E.K., Neal, B., 2010. A systematic survey of the sodium contents of processed foods. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 91, 413–420.
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11.1 Breakfast spreads Breakfast spreads can be considered as food that is spread onto another food and often complement breakfast-type bakery products such as breads, biscuits, pancakes, and waffles. Typical spreads include fruit jams and jellies, chutney, dairy spreads (e.g. cream cheese and spreadable cheese), edible oils (e.g. butter and margarine), nut butters (e.g. peanut, hazelnut, and almond), and yeast extract spreads. Similar to many bakery products, some breakfast spreads don’t necessarily contain a lot of sodium on a per serving basis. Rather, they are consumed frequently throughout the day during meals and snacking, which may make spreads a significant contributor to sodium in the diet. The exception to lower sodium content for spreads are yeast extracts, some edible oils, and some dairy spreads. Fruit jams and jellies rarely contain added sodium ingredients, with the exception of added preservative, and contribute very little or no sodium in the diet. Consumers have options to purchase many unsalted breakfast spreads (e.g. nut butters, butter, margarines) in the market. Unsalted butter is commonly used in baking applications, which can help control the sodium content in bakery goods and other foods prepared in the home. However, a majority of the spreads will contain some level of added salt.
11.1.1 Global production of breakfast spreads In 2016, breakfast spreads food category (defined as margarine and spreads, butter, spreadable processed cheese, nut and seed spreads, and yeast extracts) had grown to total global market volume of 46.6 M tonnes and US$56 B food category (Euromonitor International, 2017). From a total volume perspective, margarine is the largest category (5.2 M tonnes), followed by butter (3.2 M tonnes), spreadable process cheese (2.1 M tonnes), nut and seed spreads (688 M tonnes), and yeast extracts (16.2 K tonnes). However from a financial perspective, the greatest retail value is the butter category (US$17.5 B), followed by processed cheese (US$15.2 B), margarines and spreads (US$14.3 B), nut and seed spreads (US$3.4 B), and yeast extracts (US$0.2 B). Since 2011, there has been a decline of 8.9% and 9.7% across the entire category for both total volume and retail value, respectively. For a total volume perspective, the decline is due to the margarine and spreads (−4.5%) and yeast extract categories (−6.6%). With the exception of nut and seed spreads (4.1%), all categories are on the decline in terms of the retail value. Preference for type of spread can vary significantly by geography (Euromonitor International, 2017). The top 10 countries for largest total volume of margarine, butter, and spreadable processed cheese are shown in Figs. 11.1–11.3, respectively. Reducing Salt in Foods. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100890-4.00011-1 Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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d Ru ss So ia ut h Th Af ric e N a et he rla nd s C an ad a
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m
an y
az il
er
Br
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Fig. 11.1 Total volume market size (’000 tonne) and growth rate (%) of margarine and spreads in various countries between 2011 and 2016 (Euromonitor International, 2017).
700
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2011
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a di In
Ita ly
il az Br
ad a an
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Ki ng
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d
Fr an
a si Ru s
an y m
G er
U
U
ni te
d
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at
es
0
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Fig. 11.2 Total volume market size (’000 tonne) and growth rate (%) of butter in various countries between 2011 and 2016 (Euromonitor International, 2017).
Breakfast spreads257 350
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2011
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iA
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es Ru ss ia G er m an y
at
Eg d te ni U
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te
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St
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az il
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Country
Fig. 11.3 Total volume market size (’000 tonne) and growth rate (%) of spreadable processed cheese in various countries between 2011 and 2016 (Euromonitor International, 2017).
Largest total volumes of margarine and spreads are found in United States (USA, 642.9 M tonnes), Brazil (581.6 M tonnes), Germany (364.7 M tonnes), and United Kingdom (UK, 303.3 M tonnes). As shown in Fig. 11.1, many of the countries exhibited a decline in total volume between 2011 and 2016. The United States has experienced the largest decline (−19.6%), followed by United Kingdom (−16.9%), Russia (−10.5%), and the Netherlands (−10.5%). On a per capita basis, Finland (9690 kg/’000 people), the Netherlands (8204 kg/’000 people), and Sweden (7589.7 kg/’000 people) have the highest reported numbers. Of these three countries, only Finland (2.4%) showed a growth between 2011 and 2016, whereas the Netherlands and Sweden decreased by −12.2% and −7.6%, respectively. The greatest per capita growth rate between 2011 and 2016 occurred in India (66%), Indonesia (25.8%), and Vietnam (22.3). As shown in Fig. 11.2, the United States leads in total volume for butter (664.9 M tonnes) followed by Germany (396.8 M tonnes) and Russia (217.3 M tonnes) in 2016 (Euromonitor International, 2017). Compared to margarine and spreads, the predominant category depends on the geography. Exceptions are observed for United States and Germany, where there are total volumes fairly similar for both categories. Unlike the margarine and spreads category, butter has shown an increase in global total volumes between 2011 and 2016. Margarine and spreads, and butter have grown at −4.5% and 8%, respectively. Of the countries within the top 10 largest total volume, only three have shown a decline between 2011 and 2016, namely Italy (−5.4%), Brazil (−2.7%), and France (−0.9%). Greatest total volume growth rates within this timeframe occurred in China (47.9%), Chile (45.4%), and the Netherlands (45%). On a per capita
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basis, Denmark (5822 kg/’000 people), Sweden (4986 kg/’000 people), and Germany (4830 kg/’000 people) lead in the market. Of these leaders, only Sweden had a positive growth rate (11.8%) between 2011 and 2016 (Euromonitor International, 2017). The greatest per capita growth rates between 2011 and 2016 occurred in China (66%), Indonesia (25.8%), and Vietnam (22.3%). Similar to butter, the total volume of spreadable processed cheese spreads is a growing food category for most of the top 10 countries (Fig. 11.3). Brazil, United States, and Russia lead the way in total volume in 2016 with 330.8, 243.3, 190.1 M tonnes, respectively (Euromonitor International, 2017). Greatest growth rates between 2011 and 2016 occurred in China (132.1%), India (84.7%), and Indonesia (74.2%). On a per capita basis, Finland (3161 kg/’000 people), Germany (2992 kg/’000 people), and Canada (2796 kg/’000 people) lead the top 10 countries in 2016; however, only Finland showed a positive growth rate (6%) between 2011 and 2016 (Euromonitor International, 2017). Greatest kg per capita growth rate over 2011 and 2016 occurred in China (118.5%), India (76.3%), and Vietnam (57.0%). In 2016, the total volume of nut and seed spreads was dominated by the US market (435.1 M tonnes), which was more than 2.5 times the combined volumes of the other nine countries in the top 10 highest list of total volumes. The growth rate continues to grow slightly for the United States at a rate of 0.4% between 2011 and 2016, which is significantly less than the highest growth rates of India (275.7%), Peru (190.2%), and Hungary (94.6%). On a per capita basis between 2011 and 2016, the United States was on a decline (−3.5%) compared to South Africa, Ireland, and United Kingdom, which are growing at 55%, 51.1%, and 17.5%, respectively (Euromonitor International, 2017). For yeast extracts in 2016, two countries dominate the yeast extract total volume, namely the United Kingdom and Australia with 6.6 and 6.1 M tonnes, respectively (Euromonitor International, 2017). The next two closest countries are South Africa (2.1 M tonnes) and New Zealand (1.2 M tonnes). Understandably, these four countries also have the highest volume per capita (Euromonitor International, 2017). In 2016, Australia (267 kg/’000 people) leads in volume per capita, followed closely by New Zealand (252 kg/’000 people). United Kingdom (97 kg/’000 people) and Australia (38 kg/’000 people) per capital rate is less than half of Australia and New Zealand. With the exception of South Africa, these countries have declined in total volumes and per capita between 2011 and 2016 (Euromonitor International, 2017).
11.1.2 Breakfast spreads and sodium consumption There are limited data on the sodium contribution of this category to the diet, most likely due to the relatively low contribution compared to other food categories. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2012) observed that 44% of the sodium intake in the American populations comes from 10 food categories of which breakfast spreads, or any of the products within that category, were not on the list. However, breakfast spreads are commonly used with foods stated in the top 10 list, in particular, breads and rolls, and sandwiches. According to the data published by the CDC (2012), the 10th food product on the list, savoury snacks (e.g. chips and pretzels) contributed 3.1% of the sodium consumption by Americans greater than 2 years of age.
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Meneton et al. (2009) reported the sodium contribution of edible oils to the adult and child diet was 0.2 (±0.3) and 0.2 (±0.2) %, respectively, in the French population. Observing purchasing behaviours, Ni Mhurchu et al. (2011) reported that butter and margarine contribute 1.1% and 2.9% of the annual sodium purchases in the UK households. Considering the data, it is difficult to determine the actual contribution breakfast spreads make to sodium consumption in any population, but the limited data suggest that it is low compared to other food categories.
11.2 Sodium content of breakfast spreads The sodium content of breakfast spreads will depend upon the specific product category and can vary significantly within a category and geographical location (Table 11.1). As expected, yeast extract has the highest sodium content (per 100 g) Table 11.1 Sodium content of various breakfast spreads in various geographies
Geography Australiaa
Canadab
United Kingdomc New Zealande
a
Breakfast spread
No. of products
Mean (SD) (mg/100 g)
Range (mg/100 g)
Regular butter Margarine Salt-reduced butter Unsalted butter Jams and marmalades Peanut butter Sweet spreads Yeast extracts Margarine, salted Butter, salted Butter
33 57 9
535 427 294
147–976 5–1300 200–350
8 124
40 19
18–19 0–47
43 7 3 49
379 98 3816 653 (±93)
6–720 33–268 3380–4667
19 111
Margarine
168
664 (±188) 487 (weighted)d 597 (weighted)d
Butter margarine dairy spreads branded Private label
Webster et al. (2010). Arcand et al. (2016). Ni Mhurchu et al. (2011). d Weighted by purchase volumes. e Monro et al. (2015). b c
Data collection timeframe (year) 2008
2013
0–1200
2008–2009
0–1000 2013
52 6
414 (136) 486 (157)
1–700 339–680
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of the reported spreads, nearly five times the next highest level. Butter and margarine tend to be similar in sodium content within any geography. Comparing between geographies, Canadian butters and margarine are approximately 100 mg sodium higher than others. As expected, the lowest level of sodium was observed for jams and marmalades in Australia, where sodium-containing ingredients are generally not present or at very low levels. The sodium level in unsalted butter from Australia demonstrates the inherent sodium within the raw material (milk) itself. Although food manufacturers have made progress in reducing sodium in many products, there are little data available on the progress made for breakfast spreads, which may be due to the perception that breakfast spreads are not the main contributor of the sodium consumed in a population diet. The lack of information in this category may also be due in part to the fact that many food manufacturers choose stealth reduction versus promoting an actual sodium reduction claim to prevent any backlash from the consumers. The data in Table 11.2 demonstrate the wide range of sodium content in butters and margarines in the market and the sodium content is dependent on the food manufacturer of any specific branded product. In general, this is not uncommon for many food products considering there are not government mandates for sodium level in most geographies (Trieu et al., 2015). In addition, the actual sodium Table 11.2 Sodium reduction progress of various breakfast spreads as measured by mean sodium content (mg sodium per 100 g product) over a given period of time
Country Canadaa Irelandb
New Zealandc
United Kingdomd a
Breakfast spread Butter Margarine Butter Margarine All fat spreads (excluding margarine) Butter, margarine, and dairy spreads Branded Private label Edible oil
No. of products (year 1, year 2)
Year 1, mean (±SD) (mg/100 g)
Year 2, mean (±SD) (mg/100 g)
20, 19 49, 49 –
670 (±127) 672 (±110) 631 (±234) 313 (±191) 541 (±467)
664 (±188) 653 (±93) 518 (±124) 560 (±138) 467 (±92)
c
2010, 2013 2007, 2011
2003, 2013 36, 52 14, 6
421 (±89) 608 (±142)
414 (±136) 486 (±157)
406, 408
394
374
Arcand et al. (2016). Food Safety Authority of Ireland (2015). Monro et al. (2015). d Eyles et al. (2013). b
Year 1, year 2
2006, 2011
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c ontent may be an under- or overestimation of the product suggesting that accuracy may depend on the method used to determine the sodium content. Aganwal et al. (2011) observed the average sodium content of cheddar, mozzarella, and processed cheeses produced within the United States. Cheddar cheese had an average sodium content of 615 mg/100 g, with 95% of the products ranging between 474 and 731 mg/100 g cheese. Based on the nutrition facts label, the sodium levels for these cheeses ranged between 600 and 800 mg/100 g and had a mean of 648 mg/100 g cheese. As shown in Table 11.2, the range of sodium reported indicate that 68% (1 standard deviation) of the products reported for any one individual product group (e.g. butter, margarine, spreads, and edible oil) were >90 mg (above and below) the mean of the group. Monro et al. (2015) reported sodium reduction progress in many food categories; however, some products, including butter and margarines, have made little changes over the evaluated 10-year period. Arcand et al. (2016) observed no statistical difference between the change in sodium content of butter and margarine products evaluated between 2010 and 2013 in the Canadian market. The Food Safety Authority of Ireland (2015) reported an 18% reduction of sodium in all butters (butter and halffat butter) between 2007 and 2011. In their analysis, Eyles et al. (2013) compared the sodium content of commercial margarine products and compared them to the 2010 UK FSA sodium targets and found 65% and 83% of the products evaluated met the target in 2006 and 2011, respectively.
11.3 Sodium-containing ingredients in breakfast spreads Breakfast spreads are a broad category and include products, such as sweet fruit based, nut based, dairy based, and the savoury yeast extract based. The raw base ingredients (e.g. fruit, vegetables, nut, milk) will naturally contain sodium, but its contribution to the overall sodium content of the product is relatively low. For example, the sodium content of strawberries, peanuts, and milk is 1, 18, and 49 mg per 100 g product, respectively (United States Department of Agriculture, 2016). Since these are agricultural products, there will be variability between crop years, and between species and feeding practices, which may have a slight impact on the final sodium content. The majority of the sodium will be coming from the added ingredients, with the most common ingredient being salt. Most of the fruit-based and yeast categories do not contain sodium ingredients beyond salt. Nut and dairy spreads and cream cheeses may have other ingredients such as stabilisers to help keep the oil, proteins, ground nuts, and water in the emulsion state. With the exception of butter, the dairy-based category (e.g. cream cheese) will contain other sodium-containing ingredients (e.g. sodium sorbate, orthophosphates) beyond salt to help create the texture, act as preservative to extend shelf-life, and aid in food safety. Considering the broadness of this category, the focus of this discussion will be on the sodium-containing ingredients versus the specific type of food in this category or the raw base ingredients.
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11.3.1 Salt Salt is commonly used in many breakfast spreads for its salty flavour, enhancement of flavours, suppression of bitter or other off-notes, modification of proteins, and impact on microbial growth. Without salt, these foods would be bland and not well accepted by consumers. The salty taste and flavour enhancement is unique to salt. The effect of salty taste is due mainly to the sodium ion, although the exact mechanism within the taste bud is not clearly understood (Chaudhari and Roper, 2010). The importance of sodium for salty taste can be easily demonstrated by tasting other chloride salts, such as potassium chloride or other sodium salts, e.g. sodium glutamate. These sodium- containing ingredients do not bring on the same salty taste and flavour enhancement as sodium chloride. The level of salt used in foods to deliver the desired salty taste and flavour profile will largely depend on the food product. In general, more salt will be used for flavour in the savoury spreads (e.g. butter, cheese spreads, and nut butters) than in fruit-based spreads. Historically, salt was one of the first ingredients to be used as a preservative. It is well known that salt is very effective at minimising microbial activity to prevent food spoilage and help manage food safety. Present-day food manufacturing practices use combinations of salt, other ingredients (e.g. organic acids, salts of organic acids, emulsifying salts), processing conditions (e.g. heat), and storage conditions (e.g. refrigeration) to manage microbial growth, especially in dairy spreads (Glass and Doyle, 2005). The mechanism for salt's role in microbial management is its ability to decrease water activity, or conversely increase osmotic pressure, which creates an environment unsuitable for growth of spoilage organisms and pathogens. Originally salt was added to butter to help preserve it; however, the introduction of refrigeration has minimised that role. The effect of salt on protein modification has been studied extensively for dairy proteins, as well as the impact of removing salt on the texture and emulsification of dairy spreads (Guinee and O’Kennedy, 2007). Sodium from salt can disrupt the calcium-phosphate bonds of casein proteins in milk, which leads to structural changes and exposure of the hydrophobic portions of the proteins. As a result of these structural changes, the emulsifying properties of the proteins are enhanced and can be used to help stabilise the oil/water emulsions in butter and low fat dairy spreads. The one unique role for salt in the preparation of breakfast spreads that is starkly different from other spreads is in the production of yeast spreads. In this product, salt is used to help extract the highly desirable savoury and umami flavour compounds from the yeast organisms.
11.3.2 Yeast extracts Historically, yeast spreads were developed using yeast by-products of the alcohol beverage industry and marketed as a highly nutritious breakfast spread. The extracts from yeast used to make the spreads contain many amino acids, peptides, and nucleotides. These compounds impart a savoury, umami note that is highly desirable in some savoury foods. Yeast extract is also considered a nutritious source of B vitamins and proteins.
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There are three basic methods used to product yeast extracts: autolysis, plasmolysis, and hydrolysis (Nagodawithana, 1992). The production of yeast extracts from autolysis involves using the endogenous enzymes to break down the yeast cell walls. By controlling the pH, temperature, and environmental exposure time, the hydrolytic enzymes are preserved within the yeast organism. These enzymes are then able to digest various components within the yeast cell. Proteases hydrolyse proteins to create many desirable flavours. When part of a protein, glutamic acid elicits very little flavour; however in the free form, it can impart umami-like flavours. The glutamic acid is generally incorporated into peptides with the autolysis method, and as a result, this form of the amino acid does not create the same flavour perception as when it is in the free form. Yeast extracts produced by autolysis do not contain a significant amount of sodium; therefore, this method could be used to produce a low sodium yeast extract. The autolysis method for yeast extract has been modified to enrich the intensity and yield of the yeast extract. Plasmolysis involves adding substrates, such as salt, that increases the osmotic pressure and causes the cytoplasm to separate from the cell wall (Nagodawithana, 1992). As a result, the yeast cells enter into the death cycle and the digestion process by the endogenous enzymes can begin. This is a very simple process and cost effective, but the resulting extract contains a significant amount of sodium. The last method for yeast extract production, acid hydrolysis, involves using an acid (e.g. hydrochloric acid) at high temperature. For a more rapid process, this method can be performed in the presence of pressure. The product must be neutralised, usually with sodium hydroxide, which results in a high sodium concentration in the yeast extract. Hydrolysis also destroys the vitamins and amino acids, and may produce compounds that may be carcinogenic, thereby making this a less attractive method (Nagodawithana, 1992).
11.3.3 Emulsifying salts and stabilisers Emulsifying salts and stabilisers are used to prevent separation of components within spreads. They are commonly used in nut and seed spreads as well as processed cheese spreads. For nut and seed spreads, the goal is to keep ground nut or seed, which are hydrophilic in nature, suspended in oil. A stable processed dairy spread is the result of creating an oil/fat, water, and protein emulsion. In the case of whipped cream cheese, the emulsion also contains air in addition to oil/fat, water, and proteins. Sodium-containing ingredients are not generally used to stabilise nuts and seed spreads. Leveraging the physical properties of fats and oils is commonly used to prevent separation in this category of spreads. The crystalline structure of a hard fat will entrap the liquid oil within peanut butter (Wainwright, 2000). It is the morphology of the B′ polymorphic crystal that allows for the entrapment of oil. Typical oils used alone or in combination include palm, cottonseed, and high-erucic acid rapeseed oil. Hydrogenated fats and emulsifies, such as mono- and diglycerides, are also used to stabilise nut and seed spreads. Processed dairy spreads and cream cheeses have a significant presence in the dairy case and have become a standard breakfast item that is consumed with bakery products by the consumers. These dairy products have a smooth creamy texture and varying
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degrees of cheese sharpness taste that easily spreads onto baked goods. Critical for the spreadable characteristic is the addition of emulsifiers and stabilisers to help create a stable emulsion of fat, water, and protein in the food matrix (Guinee and O’Kennedy, 2007). Processed dairy spreads are made from natural cheeses, emulsifying salts (e.g. sodium salts of phosphates and citrates), and other ingredients, and then heated to create the smooth emulsion. Cream cheeses are more similar to natural cheese production in that it is produced with fluid milk or cream as the raw ingredient, which is then homogenised, pasteurised, and inoculated with a starter culture (McSweeney et al., 2004). The whey is separated and the curd is mixed with salt and stabilisers, and homogenised to create the desired smooth creamy texture. There is a cascade of events that occur to create the smooth homogeneous dairy spreads. Emulsifying salts, such as sodium orthophosphate, sequester calcium and adjust the pH of the food matrix. Removing calcium disrupts the calcium-phosphate bond within the casein protein network and exposes the hydrophobic and hydrophilic portions of the proteins. This reconfiguration increases the ability of casein to behave like an emulsifier (Gupta et al., 1984; Caric et al., 1985). The sodium from the emulsifying salts interacts with and helps hydrate the para-casein dairy proteins. The hydrated proteins then interact with free water and fat to help create a stable emulsion (Guinee and O’Kennedy, 2007). Stabilisers, such as hydrocolloids (e.g. sodium alginate) and acid salts (e.g. sodium citrate), help maintain the physico-chemical structure and extend the shelf-life of a food product. Many emulsifying salts and stabilisers are permitted for use in processed dairy spreads and cream cheeses including phosphates (e.g. sodium phosphate, tetra sodium phosphates, sodium hexamethyl phosphate, sodium orthophosphate), sodium metasulphate, sodium citrate and sodium tartrate, sodium citrates, sodium alginates, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, and sodium gluconate (Codex, 2011). The type and amount used in foods is largely determined by the regulatory agencies within a particular geography.
11.3.4 Preservatives Dairy spreads contain protein, sugars, and other nutrients that support the growth of spoilage organisms and pathogens. Therefore, food manufacturers leverage chemical (preservatives) and processing tools used in various combinations to obtain the desired effect to maximise shelf-life and prevent pathogen survival. Permitted usage of these additives will vary depending on the regulations within a particular country (Codex, 2011). In addition to reducing microbial activity, some additives are used to reduce chemical reaction (e.g. lipid oxidation) to preserve the quality of foods (Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Strategies to Reduce Sodium Intake, 2010). Historically, salt was one of the first ingredients added to foods to minimise spoilage organisms and pathogens activity. The increase in osmotic pressure due to the addition of salt causes water to move through the cell membrane and out of the microorganism. The resulting partial dehydration of the cell decreases microbial activity and severely interferes with the life cycle of the organism. The level of salt required to inhibit microbial activity is dependent on the specific organism (Doyle and Glass, 2009).
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In addition to salt, many of the emulsifying salts used in processed cheese spreads also have a preservative effect, including the sodium versions of many orthophosphates and polyphosphates. It has been suggested that the inhibitory mechanism may be due to the ability of these emulsifying salt to sequester iron, magnesium, and calcium (Glass and Doyle, 2005). Another potential mechanism is that the polyphosphate may create channels in the cell walls that allow inhibitors to penetrate into the cell and cause cell lysis. Other preservatives, such as sodium sorbate and sodium propionate, may be added to extend the shelf-life of the product and are subject to specific government regulations (Codex, 2011).
11.4 Non-sodium alternative for breakfast goods 11.4.1 Salt reduction and alternatives Usually the first attempt at sodium reduction is to reduce the amount of salt and evaluate the sensory and microbiological impact on the product. Generally there is an acceptable level of reduction, but at some point the reduction will negatively impact the product attributes where it becomes unacceptable to the consumer. This may be an effective solution for breakfast spreads that rely on salt only for salty flavour and flavour enhancement. Understanding the particle size and shape of the type of salts used in a formulation can impact the salty taste perception of fat based spreads (e.g. nut butter). Generally salts that are smaller sized, or have a greater surface area create a more salty taste perception due to the increase rate of dissolution in the mouth. The cheese flavour in some processed dairy spreads comes from the natural cheese that is added to the formula. Cheese itself can contain high levels of sodium, depending on the variety, and is largely due to the added salt. Therefore, using a lower sodium cheese can help reduce the sodium in the dairy spread. Attempts have been made to replace salt in cheese production using potassium chloride (KCl), calcium chloride (CaCl2), or magnesium chloride (MgCl2) with limited success. Grummer et al. (2012) compared the compositional, chemical, texture, and sensory of reduced sodium Cheddar-style cheeses (42%–55% reduction) to a full sodium control (salt and reduced sodium sea salt). The reduced sodium cheeses were prepared by using blends of salt or reduced sodium sea salt (contained chloride and sulphate-based salts of sodium, magnesium, and potassium) with KCl, modified KCl, CaCl2, or MgCl2. Similar to salt, these non- or lower sodium salts will alter protein structure, decrease water activity, and provide a salty taste to some degree. The pH of the cheeses was lower than the control for all the cheeses except for the KCl and sea salt plus MgCl2 treatments, suggesting that the other non‑sodium salt treatments (modified KCl, MgCl2, and CaCl2) had less inhibitory effect on the starter culture. Comparing texture, the low sodium sea salt plus CaCl2 had more hardness than the control, whereas the MgCl2 and modified KCl had less hardness. Cheeses made with CaCl2 or MgCl2 produced unacceptable off-flavours (e.g. bitter, metallic, earthly, unclean, soapy). The bitterness attribute for Cheddar-style cheeses made with KCl and modified KCl treatments was similar to that of the full‑ sodium control, which suggests KCl can be used successfully as an alternative for salt.
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In addition to using potassium chloride or other non‑sodium salt to help build back the salty and cheese flavour, a mature cheese or enzyme-modified cheese may be added to dairy spreads (Guinee and O’Kennedy, 2007). The intense cheese flavour of these ingredients can re-create a similar taste intensity of the full sodium product at a lower concentration. Additional flavours or inclusions (e.g. fruits, vegetables, nuts) may also be added to enhance the flavour profile. Karahadian and Lindsay (1984) reported the benefits of adding an enzyme cheese paste to improve the cheese-like flavour of process cheeses with 55% and 75% sodium reduction.
11.4.2 Yeast extract The addition of salt for plasmolysis or acid and base for hydrolysis during the extraction process for yeast extract is very effective at increasing yields; however, these methods lead to a significant contribution of sodium to yeast spreads. The autolysis method, however, does not contain a significant amount of sodium and could be used to produce a lower sodium yeast spread; however, yield and flavour may be compromised (Nagodawithana, 1992). Modifications to these extraction methods to reduce sodium include using less salt, non‑sodium base neutraliser (e.g. potassium hydroxide), or alternative non-salt ingredients (e.g. ethanol for plasmolysis).
11.4.3 Emulsifying salts and stabilisers Dairy spreads have a distinctive smooth texture and stable emulsion created by the processing conditions (heat and shear), and in some cases, stabilisers. For emulsifying salts (e.g. phosphates) and stabilisers (e.g. acid salts), there are some potassium versions available (e.g. dipotassium phosphates, potassium citrates), but these may have similar taste issues that are experienced with potassium chloride at high usage levels, namely a bitter or metallic taste especially at high levels. Other ingredients that can help recreate the desired texture in dairy spreads include gelatine, hydrocolloids (e.g. starch, xanthan gum), and dairy proteins, especially those with good water binding and emulsification properties (Codex, 2011; Guinee and O’Kennedy, 2007). Karahadian and Lindsay (1984) report acceptable attributes (e.g. sensory, meltability, slicing) for reduced sodium processed cheeses using a blend of salt and potassium chloride, and an emulsifying salt blend consisting of trisodium citrate and disodiumphosphate and trisodium citrate. Concern with most non‑sodium-containing ingredients is the impact on the taste, an attribute most recognised by consumers. Karahadian and Lindsay (1984) evaluate the impact of emulsifying salts on taste perception of processed cheeses. Various cations and anions were evaluated for performance for saltiness and off-flavours. Of the cations evaluated, lithium and sodium provided the most saltiness and least bitterness, followed by ammonium and potassium. The least saltiness and most bitter taste occurred with calcium and magnesium. Anions were evaluated for suppressing salty taste with chloride having the least impact, and phosphates and citrates having the most.
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11.4.4 Preservatives Many of the sodium-containing ingredients (e.g. sodium sorbate, sodium citrate, sodium nitrate, sodium benzoate) used to minimise microbial growth are commercially available in non‑sodium versions, usually in the potassium form. Similar to many potassium alternatives, these may have limitations due to the bitter and metallic taste detected at higher concentrations. Other non‑sodium options that can be implemented to minimise the microbial growth include the combined usage of chemical (e.g. organic acids fatty acid esters), physical (e.g. additional heating, irradiation), and biological (e.g. bacteriocins, protective cultures) hurdles (Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Strategies to Reduce Sodium Intake, 2010). Non-chemical treatments are also used to help minimise spoilage organisms and pathogens in breakfast spreads and are commonly used for dairy spreads. The incoming raw milk of the dairy product is typically subjected to a heat treatment (pasteurisation) to reduce the microbial load. Good sanitisation programs for the dairy equipment are critical in order to prevent contamination post pasteurisation. To help extend shelf-life, refrigeration or retort treatment (shelf-stable) of finished dairy spreads can also be a protective means to prevent growth. Microbial spoilage of low-fat dairy spreads is also impacted by particle size and pH of water droplets. Guinee and O’Kennedy (2007) suggest keeping particle size <20 μm and maintaining a lower pH to minimise microbial growth. In the latter case, however, the pH may alter the protein and hydrocolloid functionality.
11.5 Conclusions Recent emphasis on sodium reduction has created challenges for food scientists to reformulate products to reach a sodium target while maintaining consumers’ expectation of the desired sensory attributes. Critical for success is understanding the functional role of the sodium-containing ingredients in the food product to help determine alternative ingredients, or processing conditions that may recreate the effect. For example, preservatives are generally used in conjunction with other hurdles (e.g. pH, temperature) in order to manage the microbial growth in food products. Changes in formulation that decrease the sodium content may inadvertently impact the effectiveness of the original hurdles in the formulation (Doyle and Glass, 2009). Therefore, additional ingredients, increasing level of preservatives, altering processing conditions, or other modifications to the process or formula should be considered when reducing sodium in food products. For breakfast foods, additional research is required to identify alternative non‑sodium-containing ingredients or mechanical processing that provide the same functional role as the sodium-containing ingredient. Some functional roles include altering protein structure to create desired structure and texture, emulsification to prevent the separation of oil and water in an emulsion, extending the shelf-life of products and minimising food safety concerns. Most important to the consumer is the taste and many of the non‑sodium-containing ingredients impart negative taste
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characteristics (e.g. bitter, metallic), lack salty flavour, or alter the overall taste profile. The most challenging area of research is identifying the salty taste mechanism, which is instrumental for identifying a successful alternative solution.
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