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Bridging the gap between academia and practice: Perspectives from two large-scale and niche research projects in Canada
Journal Pre-proofs Case Review Bridging the gap between academia and practice: perspectives from two largescale and niche research projects in Canada D.V. Beresford, T. Stotesbury, S.V. Langer, M. Illes, C. Kyle, B. Yamashita PII: DOI: Reference:
S1355-0306(19)30023-1 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scijus.2019.09.005 SCIJUS 845
To appear in:
Science & Justice
Received Date: Revised Date: Accepted Date:
30 January 2019 17 September 2019 22 September 2019
Please cite this article as: D.V. Beresford, T. Stotesbury, S.V. Langer, M. Illes, C. Kyle, B. Yamashita, Bridging the gap between academia and practice: perspectives from two large-scale and niche research projects in Canada, Science & Justice (2019), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scijus.2019.09.005
This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the addition of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is not yet the definitive version of record. This version will undergo additional copyediting, typesetting and review before it is published in its final form, but we are providing this version to give early visibility of the article. Please note that, during the production process, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
© 2019 The Chartered Society of Forensic Sciences. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46
David V. Beresford Biology/Trent School of the Environment Depts. Trent University 1600 West Bank Drive Peterborough ON, Canada, K9J 0G2 Phone: 705-748-1011 ext 7540 E-mail: [email protected] Submitted to: Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Collaboration in Forensic Sciences Editor: Graeme Horsman Type: Professional Article (non-technical commentary) Bridging the gap between academia and practice: perspectives from two large-scale and niche research projects in Canada D.V. Beresford1*, T. Stotesbury2*, S. V. Langer3, M. Illes2, C. Kyle2, B. Yamashita4, Biology Department, Trent University, 1600 West Bank Drive, Peterborough, ON K9J 0G2, Canada. 2 Forensic Science Department, Trent University, 1600 West Bank Drive, Peterborough, ON K9J 0G2, Canada. 3 Environmental and Life Sciences Graduate Program, Trent University, 1600 West Bank Drive, Peterborough, ON K9J 0G2, Canada. 4 Royal Canadian Mounted Police, emeritus. * represents equal contribution 1
Abstract: There is a recognized disconnect in priority and synergy between academic and practitioners in forensic science. In this work, we personally reflect on our experiences in conducting research studies that directly involve academic and practitioner stakeholders. We believe, amongst others, that this “gap” can be mitigated through regular and productive communication. We also emphasize the need to create stronger and national research strategies which identifies the current and pressing needs of enforcement officials in order to bring these needs directly to academia. As part of this, researchers should actively seek to make sure what they study will be relevant within the discipline. Our reflection is geared on direct feedback from an entomological study in large scale sampling of blowflies and workshops in bloodstain pattern analysis using the research and development of a forensic blood substitute. Keywords: case study, collaboration, lessons learned, research Acknowledgments: Funding for the large-scale blow fly sampling was provided by the Canadian Police Research Centre, CPRC Research project (91067) to CJK, MI, DB, BY, and NSERC to CJK. Thank you to the officers across Canada who participated in this work; Scott Larkin who originally designed the mailout packages, Donald Bourne for help with mailing out traps, and the members of the Beresford and Kyle labs. Funding for the forensic blood research was provided in part by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council, and the Vanier Canada Graduate Scholarship. Declarations of Interest None
2 47 48
Declaration of Conflict of Interest: None. 1. Introduction
49 50
“Thanks for explaining why we kill maggots using hot water. I had heard
51
before that we were supposed to, but I had no idea why. Knowing the purpose
52
means I don’t have to remember it as just something we have to do anymore –
53
now that I know the reasons, I will not be able to forget.” Told to the authors by a
54
police officer during a Time of Death Investigation Course at Ontario Police
55
College
56 57
Within the discipline of forensic science, academic researchers have limited opportunities
58
to interact directly with law enforcement or other forensic practitioners prior to publishing the
59
findings of their research. This disconnect has been identified as an impediment within the
60
forensic sciences [1], as sometimes theoretically sound academic findings are impractical to
61
implement in the field. Disparate subsections of the discipline vary [2], with each often having
62
their own specialized practices [3]. For example, in Canada entomological evidence collection
63
and processing is commonly performed by officers but examined by trained entomologists [4].
64
Integrating both research and practitioner involvement allows for productive collaborative efforts
65
between disciplines in order to drive innovation and achieve common outcomes, ideally at local
66
and regional scales. However, to do this, there must first be an understanding by both parties
67
(research and practice) of what these common outcomes are [2, 5].
68 69
In this paper we detail and reflect on our experiences working with enforcement officials in two niche areas in forensic science; forensic entomology and bloodstain pattern analysis
3 70
(BPA). We treat these interactions as case studies, and provide reflections on one a nation-wide
71
project in forensic entomology and a workshop in BPA.
72
The ultimate goal of each project was to find out what each party could do to help our
73
front-line forensic practitioners and trainers be more effective. In the first case we document our
74
experiences working with the Ontario Provincial Police (OPP) and Royal Canadian Mounted
75
Police (RCMP) officers from across Canada to collect blow flies as part of a nation-wide survey
76
of these taxa in urban and rural habitats to enhance the practice of forensic entomology [6]. The
77
second describes our experience working with industry and practitioners to create more practical
78
and effective standard reference materials in BPA for research and training.
79
Both of these projects required finding volunteer officers and civilian practitioners
80
willing to undertake the collaborative effort in their own time and with little direct supervision.
81
We describe the projects briefly then comment on feedback received, followed by the outcomes
82
of the project to highlight successes found in both and comment on common-themed problems
83
and their solutions within a general and Canadian framework.
84
2. Case Study 1: Large Scale Canada-wide sampling of blow flies
85
Published entomological research takes place in different regions of North America, and
86
we were curious about how applicable these published data are on a more local scale. For
87
example, a survey done at a university campus in western Canada or the southern USA may not
88
be relevant in Ontario. Would similar species occur in cities across Canada, and in similar
89
abundance, and would these differ from the species in adjacent rural areas? To conduct this
90
research required a country wide survey done more or less at the same time and repeated if
91
possible, hence the need for dedicated volunteers. These data would allow us to compare the
4 92
different species that were caught in cities, suburban, rural, and wildness areas [6], and to assess
93
identification methods.
94
To accomplish this, we enlisted the help of volunteer officers from the Ontario Provincial
95
Police (OPP) (within Ontario) and Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) (provinces outside
96
of Ontario) from seven of the Canadian provinces; we were unable to find volunteers from three
97
provinces. Volunteers were obtained by the efforts of two of the authors who were law
98
enforcement employees with the OPP (MI) and the RCMP (BY). The work was funded by a
99
grant application submitted by two Trent University researches (CK and DB) as well as the two
100
enforcement agency members of enforcement agencies (MI and BY), and was conducted by one
101
of our graduate students (SL).
102
For this project we mailed prebaited traps made of 2L pop-bottles to each volunteer. We
103
included a set of instructions, a capture bottle with screw top lid, and a pre-labelled box so that
104
the samples could be shipped back. Because the traps were simple and inexpensive [6] we had
105
expected officers to dispose of these in the garbage when finished, although some sent these back
106
to us. The bait we provided was rotted liver in a 250 mL bottle to be placed in the trap.
107
Volunteers were then instructed to remove a plastic covering which exposed a hole in the bait
108
bottle lid. The entire design was intended to enable an officer to open the package, hang up the
109
trap outside and then install the bait bottle. After being deployed one week, and again after a
110
second week, once the samples were collected, the officer would remove the sampling bottle,
111
screw down the lid we provided and mail this back to us in the box provided. We were keenly
112
aware that we were obliged to make the work as straightforward and simple as possible in order
113
to not take our volunteers time for granted.
5 114
The uptake was impressive. We had 37 volunteers in 2011; 17 in 2012; and 29, 24, and
115
16 in the spring, summer and fall of 2013, respectively. Throughout the survey many of the
116
contacts changed. Most volunteers were willing to take on the task and assist in the data
117
collection, with some going well beyond what we needed by providing us with excellent details
118
of study site, day to day weather data, photographs of the trapping locations, and home contact
119
information should we need additional information. For example, one volunteer set out the traps
120
we provided in different types of locations quite far apart. Almost all the volunteers we have
121
talked to since the project ended have commented on the stench of the trap bait, yet these same
122
volunteers have told us that it was an overall enjoyable experience to be part of this research.
123
An unexpected and welcome part of this collaboration were the written notes provided
124
by the volunteers in the returned traps, which gave us a window into this part of the project. One
125
volunteer apologised for the late deployment of the traps because this officer had to focus on
126
more pressing work-related duties. Other volunteers expressed a willingness to help more, giving
127
us contact information so we could find the exact location of the traps and the site habitat.
128
In this project, one of the enforcement co-researchers (MI) explained from firsthand
129
experience what working at crime scenes is like, the kind of information investigators need, what
130
investigators bring to a crime scene, and what is not practically possible even though it is
131
theoretically possible.
132
2.1. Feedback: communication is key
133
In retrospect, we should have mailed a package to ourselves to see how our delivery
134
method would work. Some of the volunteers told us that the liver container leaked when they
135
opened the package in their office. Surprisingly, even though this provided a perfectly good
136
reason for the participants to no longer continue, these same volunteers persevered with the
6 137
project. Also, it became apparent that we needed to emphasize the commitment involved with the
138
research process. We did not make it clear we were collecting 5 replicates of each experiment.
139
This should have been made more explicit at the beginning of the study.
140
2.2. Outcome: academic-practitioner synergy
141
We were correct to include someone from both the RCMP and the OPP from the outset of
142
this project, and to include them during the writing stage for the funding application. Both of
143
these individuals were able to prevent us from wasted effort, explaining what kind of data would
144
be useful for crime scene investigators, and the methods we could make the greatest contribution
145
toward. As one of us stated (MI), “Sampling is easy on a nice summer day, but usually when I
146
am at a crime scene it is raining, at night, down a ravine”.
147
In addition, we were ambitious to begin with, hoping to get 36 samples at each site from
148
two traps set out for two weeks over three years, sampling in spring, summer, and fall (2 traps x
149
2 weeks x 3 seasons x 3 years). On the advice of one of us (BY) this was reduced to something
150
far more manageable in order to ensure continued buy-in from the volunteers: at least 1 sample
151
and ideally 4 samples per year (2 traps x 2 weeks each year), and additional years if possible.
152
Scientific rigor needed to be balanced with pragmatism and consideration for volunteer time.
153
Additionally, feedback gained from teaching about the role of entomological evidence at
154
a Time of Death Investigation Course at Ontario Police College was invaluable in our project.
155
There we learned that there is a big difference in crime scene response depending on where the
156
officers are located. Officers in large cities have dedicated teams that collect entomological
157
evidence, whereas this falls to the local officers in more remote areas. This allowed us to design
158
our experiment in a way that the results would provide the greatest benefit across this spectrum.
159
3. Case Study 2: Small scale BPA workshops using a forensic blood substitute
7 160
This second case study provides an example of how small working groups can make
161
lasting changes on pedagogy and innovation. This was a multi-year academic project to develop
162
a forensic blood substitute (FBS), along with a series of recommended design considerations for
163
training and research purposes [7]. The practical benefits were tested by analysts each year at a
164
training conference (International Association of Bloodstain Pattern Analysis) from 2015-2018
165
in the forms of presentations with interactive exercises and workshops. Participants were those
166
who had provided expert testimony on BPA in the courts, all with a minimum of a 40-hour basic
167
bloodstain course, and most having some advanced training in fluid dynamics. Some participants
168
had conducted BPA-specific experimentation for reconstruction and scientific purposes.
169
The workshop provided significantly more opportunities for experiential learning. They
170
included lectures, practical exercises, and a final reflection by the attendees on the event. The
171
lecture enabled the academics to provide context to our research. We explained the theory,
172
concepts and purpose of our research studies to the participants. The exercise was an interactive
173
time between academics and practitioners using the forensic blood substitute material. The final
174
reflection allowed the practitioner to provide their professional insights on operational
175
practicality of using the material in training (Trent University REB 24896). Direct feedback from
176
the participants was a critical aspect of these workshops in order to improve the practical
177
deliverables of the blood substitute in relation to its performance in an operational context.
178
3.1. Feedback: practical material improvement
179
The overall goal of this work was to determine if colour influences the spatial reasoning
180
of blood pattern analysis practitioners during their training. Specifically, we wanted to obtain
181
feedback of the utility of the FBS in order to provide the forensic community with new
182
innovations in teaching bloodstain pattern analysis. We were interested in understanding if the
8 183
forensic community perceives any added benefits to incorporating colour extensions to our
184
technologies in a training capacity. The FBS looks like oxygenated blood in white light, and
185
fluoresces when excited with UV light in the dark, as demonstrated in Figure 1. This is still an
186
ongoing research project (TS and MI), but before we started we wanted to find out if there was
187
interest in this material, and what sort of engagement we could expect for this technology. We
188
asked participants to rate a series of statements related to the specific workshop, training sessions
189
in general and their engagement and involvement in BPA research. These statements are
190
presented in Table 1.
191
3.2. Outcome: academic-practitioner synergy
192
Our survey results (Table 1) suggested that there was a high level of engagement in the
193
technology which provided the practitioners with an excellent visual demonstration of limitations
194
of blood pattern analysis, such as the number of patterns, sequencing. From these results, we
195
determined that there is a need within the enforcement community for this material, and that
196
BPA practitioners generally support continued development and research into this material. We
197
learned that the main areas for the future use of this and similar materials were in practitioner
198
training programs at the more advanced level. We were asked to hold more workshops,
199
indicative of a strong interest on the part of enforcement officers and practitioners in more
200
forensic science research. There was also recognition within the workshop participants of the
201
need for more communication between researchers and the enforcement community.
202
We asked our participants to assess statements related to their feelings about research
203
projects that involved academic and practitioner stakeholders. An example of a statement is,
204
“Academic-practitioner collaboration promotes innovation in the classroom.” Participants were
205
asked to rank the statement from strongly disagree to strongly agree. When asked to if academic-
9 206
practitioner collaboration promoted innovation in the classroom, all participants agreed with this.
207
However, when asked if there were opportunities for participation in BPA research, the results
208
were mixed, some stating that such opportunities were lacking. We suspect the high number of
209
those involved currently with BPA research is a bias of the workshop attendance, when in reality
210
the general population data may be lower. The most enthusiasm was generated when asked if
211
they would like to participate in BPA research studies; almost all participants expressed a strong
212
interest in doing so.
213
4. General recommendations for research
214
While more undergraduate and graduate research is being done in collaboration with
215
practitioners, and while there are now more forensic programs at universities, if these do not
216
have a good connection to law enforcement this can result in projects of little relevance. Based
217
on the experience of one of the authors reviewing manuscripts for forensic journals (BY), there is
218
a tendency for some academics to be far too theoretical and impractical, and a similar tendency
219
for law enforcement personnel trying to produce needed research to undertake projects that
220
suffer from with poor experimental design, thus compromising the scientific rigour of any
221
findings.
222
We suggest that there needs to be a stronger and national research strategy which
223
identifies the current and pressing needs of law enforcement officials in order to bring these
224
needs directly to academia. As part of this, researchers should ensure what they study will be
225
relevant within the discipline. To achieve these goals, conferences should promote both
226
researchers and end users. Within existing institutions, we recommend that researcher goals
227
include requests for input from enforcement, and that this be added as an additional criterion in
228
terms of getting institutional support. Broadly, researchers need to tell enforcement professionals
10 229
what can be done, and these need to tell researchers what can be done; continuing a positive and
230
reciprocal feedback loop of communication and understanding.
231
At both the graduate and undergraduate level, we strongly recommend that every course
232
offered in the forensic sciences have police and other enforcement officers present guest lectures
233
to the students [1]. However good the content of any one course is, it remains in the realm of the
234
theoretical in the minds of students without this personal and experiential interaction. To achieve
235
this, we encourage undergraduate programs in forensic science include a requirement that each
236
course have at least one guest lecturer from a police officer, conservation officer, canine unit, or
237
similar enforcement official. Universities should also sponsor conferences that bridge the gap,
238
and invite enforcement officials onto campus for these conferences [8]. It is important for each of
239
us to understand how our various professions are organized, what our priorities are. Similarly,
240
universities should invite the police to work on research, be involved at the design stages as they
241
were in both of our projects which we found to be a strength of them.
242
4.1 Recommendations for law enforcement and forensic practitioners
243
Ideally, police colleges should invite researchers to present seminars to facilitate
244
communication between academics and practitioners in order to find best practices, and so both
245
groups can know what is being done, what the demands and limits of each other’s professions
246
are, and to prevent wasted work suggesting impossible protocols.
247
Similarly, we strongly suggest that officers involved in forensic investigations invite
248
researchers to address them in their course-work, to describe the process of research, and the
249
strengths and limitations of applying the scientific method to forensic investigations. While this
250
does indeed often occur, we recommend that lecture series be established to achieve this in
251
police academies.
11 252 253
5. Conclusion Canada is missing collaborative opportunities for academic-researcher engagement for a
254
variety of reasons: often the priorities do not align [9], hence there is a mismatch in the two
255
arenas often driven by short term budgetary considerations [10]. Additionally, Canada is a
256
comparatively small country, and specialized researcher professionals (such as entomologists) do
257
not work full-time with law enforcement. This is an opportunity to redress this situation and to
258
identify potentials for improvement. Front line officers need this, and researchers need this –
259
telling each other what does and does not work in each other’s spheres.
260
The goal is to strengthen collaborative efforts by leveraging the specialized skills and
261
approaches of practitioners within each sector, to overcome preconceived ideas of each other’s
262
roles, and to open ongoing mechanisms of communication across the two at all levels.
263
After each collaboration we suggest that feedback be formalized to allow one to meet the
264
needs of enforcement. Often, we have no idea of what worked and what did not [11]. Formal
265
feedback should be worked into the end of each collaboration. We did not do this ourselves in
266
the blow fly project as we should have, but found it was very useful in the blood stain pattern
267
analysis project.
12 268
References
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[1] D.H. Bayley, Police Research: Trends and Prospects, in: R. Granér, O. Kronkvist (Eds.), The Past, the Present and the Future of Police Research, Linnéuniversitetet: Linnæus University, 2015, pp. 8–15. [2] B. Steinheider, T. Wuestewald, R.E. Boyatzis, P. Kroutter, In search of a methodology of collaboration: understanding researcher–practitioner philosophical differences in policing, Police Practice and Research 13 (2012) 357–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2012.671620. [3] Committee on identifying the needs of the forensic sciences community. Strengthening forensic science in the United States: a path forward, National Research Council, 2009. Report No. 2009-DN-BX-0001. [4] J. Amendt, C. P. Campobasso, E. Gaudry, C. Reiter, H.N. LeBlanc, M.J.R. Hall, Best practice in forensic entomology—standards and guidelines, International journal of legal medicine 121 (2007) 90–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00414-006-0086-x. [5] C. Roux, O. Ribaux, F. Crispino, Forensic science 2020–the end of the crossroads?, Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences 50 (2018) 607–18. [6] S.V. Langer, C.J. Kyle, M. Illes, S. Larkin, D.V. Beresford, Urban and rural spatial delineations in blow fly species (Diptera: Calliphoridae) across Canada: implications for forensic entomology. Journal of Medical Entomology 56 (2019) 927–935 https://doi.org/10.1093/jme/tjz047. [7] T. Stotesbury, C. Bruce, M. Illes, R. Hanley-Dafoe, Design considerations for the implementation of artificial fluids as blood substitutes for educational and training use in the forensic sciences, Forensic Science Policy and Management: An International Journal 7 (2016) 81–6. https://doi.org/10.1080/19409044.2016.1218574. [8] A. Linacre, Towards a research culture in the forensic sciences, Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences 45 (2013) 381–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00450618.2012.738246. [9] M.S. Pollanen, M.J. Bowes, S.L. VanLaerhoven, J. Wallace, Forensic Science in Canada: A Report of Multidisciplinary Discussion, Toronto: Centre for Forensic Science and Medicine, University of Toronto, 2013. www. crime-scene-investigator. net/forensicscience-in-canada. pdf 2013 (accessed 29 January 2019). [10] C. Griffiths, Economics of Policing: Baseline for Policing Research in Canada. Report for Public Safety Canada. http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/bsln-plcngrsrch/index-en.aspx / 2014 (accessed 29 January 2019). [11] J. Rojek, G. Alpert, H. Smith, The utilization of research by the police, Police practice and research 13 (2012) 329–341. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2012.671599.
13 303
Table 1. Statements presented to workshop participants and their responses to these
304
statements (means and standard deviations). Participants were asked to rank their opinion of each
305
statement based on the Likert Scale: 1 – strongly disagree, 2 – disagree, 3 – neither agree nor
306
disagree, 4 – agree, 5 – strongly agree, 6 – N/A to me. The frequencies of response preferences
307
for the last statement are given in parenthesis (n=12 participants). Statement Complex patterns presented in colour are useful to demonstrate theoretical
Mean
SD
concepts in bloodstain pattern analysis (BPA).
4.3
1.1
Complex patterns in colour are useful to demonstrate limitations in analysis.
3.7
1.2
Colour is not very helpful in explaining complex patterns.
1.7
0.5
Complex patterns in colour do not enhance learning in training sessions.
1.9
0.5
3.6
1.2
4.3
0.9
5
0
New technologies in the classroom can be integrated into my training courses.
4.4
0.5
Using a material other than blood is encouraged in my training.
3.4
0.9
Using a material other than blood is not necessary in my training.
2.5
0.5
Academic-practitioner collaboration promotes innovation in the classroom.
4.1
0.5
4
0.9
4.4
0.7
Students in a basic BPA training course would benefit from completing exercise(s) that use coloured patterns. Students in an advanced BPA training course would benefit from completing exercise(s) that use coloured patterns Practical exercise are important in BPA training courses.
I have opportunities to participate in research studies in BPA. I would like to participate in research studies in BPA. I prefer the mult-coloured (2), glow-in-the dark (4), both (6), neither (0) patterns. 308
14 309 310
Figure caption Figure 1: Example of a complex bloodstain pattern in white light (left), no light (middle)
311
and low light (right) conditions. The scenario includes 4 patterns, and impact pattern near the top
312
left (aqua), impact pattern near the bottom (dark blue), cast of pattern on the left (orange) and
313
cast of pattern on the right (green). Analysts were first allowed to only observe the pattern in
314
white light (right) and take observations.
15
315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326
Highlights - officer/academic research collaborations on entomology and blood spatter projects - mistakes revealed need for stated assumptions from each perspective - urgent need to include policing professionals in university courses - urgent need to include researchers in enforcement training courses - highlights the importance of ongoing formal project assessment
S1355-0306(19)30023-1 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scijus.2019.09.005 SCIJUS 845
To appear in:
Science & Justice
Received Date: Revised Date: Accepted Date:
30 January 2019 17 September 2019 22 September 2019
Please cite this article as: D.V. Beresford, T. Stotesbury, S.V. Langer, M. Illes, C. Kyle, B. Yamashita, Bridging the gap between academia and practice: perspectives from two large-scale and niche research projects in Canada, Science & Justice (2019), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scijus.2019.09.005
This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the addition of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is not yet the definitive version of record. This version will undergo additional copyediting, typesetting and review before it is published in its final form, but we are providing this version to give early visibility of the article. Please note that, during the production process, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
© 2019 The Chartered Society of Forensic Sciences. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46
David V. Beresford Biology/Trent School of the Environment Depts. Trent University 1600 West Bank Drive Peterborough ON, Canada, K9J 0G2 Phone: 705-748-1011 ext 7540 E-mail: [email protected] Submitted to: Special Issue on Interdisciplinary Collaboration in Forensic Sciences Editor: Graeme Horsman Type: Professional Article (non-technical commentary) Bridging the gap between academia and practice: perspectives from two large-scale and niche research projects in Canada D.V. Beresford1*, T. Stotesbury2*, S. V. Langer3, M. Illes2, C. Kyle2, B. Yamashita4, Biology Department, Trent University, 1600 West Bank Drive, Peterborough, ON K9J 0G2, Canada. 2 Forensic Science Department, Trent University, 1600 West Bank Drive, Peterborough, ON K9J 0G2, Canada. 3 Environmental and Life Sciences Graduate Program, Trent University, 1600 West Bank Drive, Peterborough, ON K9J 0G2, Canada. 4 Royal Canadian Mounted Police, emeritus. * represents equal contribution 1
Abstract: There is a recognized disconnect in priority and synergy between academic and practitioners in forensic science. In this work, we personally reflect on our experiences in conducting research studies that directly involve academic and practitioner stakeholders. We believe, amongst others, that this “gap” can be mitigated through regular and productive communication. We also emphasize the need to create stronger and national research strategies which identifies the current and pressing needs of enforcement officials in order to bring these needs directly to academia. As part of this, researchers should actively seek to make sure what they study will be relevant within the discipline. Our reflection is geared on direct feedback from an entomological study in large scale sampling of blowflies and workshops in bloodstain pattern analysis using the research and development of a forensic blood substitute. Keywords: case study, collaboration, lessons learned, research Acknowledgments: Funding for the large-scale blow fly sampling was provided by the Canadian Police Research Centre, CPRC Research project (91067) to CJK, MI, DB, BY, and NSERC to CJK. Thank you to the officers across Canada who participated in this work; Scott Larkin who originally designed the mailout packages, Donald Bourne for help with mailing out traps, and the members of the Beresford and Kyle labs. Funding for the forensic blood research was provided in part by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council, and the Vanier Canada Graduate Scholarship. Declarations of Interest None
2 47 48
Declaration of Conflict of Interest: None. 1. Introduction
49 50
“Thanks for explaining why we kill maggots using hot water. I had heard
51
before that we were supposed to, but I had no idea why. Knowing the purpose
52
means I don’t have to remember it as just something we have to do anymore –
53
now that I know the reasons, I will not be able to forget.” Told to the authors by a
54
police officer during a Time of Death Investigation Course at Ontario Police
55
College
56 57
Within the discipline of forensic science, academic researchers have limited opportunities
58
to interact directly with law enforcement or other forensic practitioners prior to publishing the
59
findings of their research. This disconnect has been identified as an impediment within the
60
forensic sciences [1], as sometimes theoretically sound academic findings are impractical to
61
implement in the field. Disparate subsections of the discipline vary [2], with each often having
62
their own specialized practices [3]. For example, in Canada entomological evidence collection
63
and processing is commonly performed by officers but examined by trained entomologists [4].
64
Integrating both research and practitioner involvement allows for productive collaborative efforts
65
between disciplines in order to drive innovation and achieve common outcomes, ideally at local
66
and regional scales. However, to do this, there must first be an understanding by both parties
67
(research and practice) of what these common outcomes are [2, 5].
68 69
In this paper we detail and reflect on our experiences working with enforcement officials in two niche areas in forensic science; forensic entomology and bloodstain pattern analysis
3 70
(BPA). We treat these interactions as case studies, and provide reflections on one a nation-wide
71
project in forensic entomology and a workshop in BPA.
72
The ultimate goal of each project was to find out what each party could do to help our
73
front-line forensic practitioners and trainers be more effective. In the first case we document our
74
experiences working with the Ontario Provincial Police (OPP) and Royal Canadian Mounted
75
Police (RCMP) officers from across Canada to collect blow flies as part of a nation-wide survey
76
of these taxa in urban and rural habitats to enhance the practice of forensic entomology [6]. The
77
second describes our experience working with industry and practitioners to create more practical
78
and effective standard reference materials in BPA for research and training.
79
Both of these projects required finding volunteer officers and civilian practitioners
80
willing to undertake the collaborative effort in their own time and with little direct supervision.
81
We describe the projects briefly then comment on feedback received, followed by the outcomes
82
of the project to highlight successes found in both and comment on common-themed problems
83
and their solutions within a general and Canadian framework.
84
2. Case Study 1: Large Scale Canada-wide sampling of blow flies
85
Published entomological research takes place in different regions of North America, and
86
we were curious about how applicable these published data are on a more local scale. For
87
example, a survey done at a university campus in western Canada or the southern USA may not
88
be relevant in Ontario. Would similar species occur in cities across Canada, and in similar
89
abundance, and would these differ from the species in adjacent rural areas? To conduct this
90
research required a country wide survey done more or less at the same time and repeated if
91
possible, hence the need for dedicated volunteers. These data would allow us to compare the
4 92
different species that were caught in cities, suburban, rural, and wildness areas [6], and to assess
93
identification methods.
94
To accomplish this, we enlisted the help of volunteer officers from the Ontario Provincial
95
Police (OPP) (within Ontario) and Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) (provinces outside
96
of Ontario) from seven of the Canadian provinces; we were unable to find volunteers from three
97
provinces. Volunteers were obtained by the efforts of two of the authors who were law
98
enforcement employees with the OPP (MI) and the RCMP (BY). The work was funded by a
99
grant application submitted by two Trent University researches (CK and DB) as well as the two
100
enforcement agency members of enforcement agencies (MI and BY), and was conducted by one
101
of our graduate students (SL).
102
For this project we mailed prebaited traps made of 2L pop-bottles to each volunteer. We
103
included a set of instructions, a capture bottle with screw top lid, and a pre-labelled box so that
104
the samples could be shipped back. Because the traps were simple and inexpensive [6] we had
105
expected officers to dispose of these in the garbage when finished, although some sent these back
106
to us. The bait we provided was rotted liver in a 250 mL bottle to be placed in the trap.
107
Volunteers were then instructed to remove a plastic covering which exposed a hole in the bait
108
bottle lid. The entire design was intended to enable an officer to open the package, hang up the
109
trap outside and then install the bait bottle. After being deployed one week, and again after a
110
second week, once the samples were collected, the officer would remove the sampling bottle,
111
screw down the lid we provided and mail this back to us in the box provided. We were keenly
112
aware that we were obliged to make the work as straightforward and simple as possible in order
113
to not take our volunteers time for granted.
5 114
The uptake was impressive. We had 37 volunteers in 2011; 17 in 2012; and 29, 24, and
115
16 in the spring, summer and fall of 2013, respectively. Throughout the survey many of the
116
contacts changed. Most volunteers were willing to take on the task and assist in the data
117
collection, with some going well beyond what we needed by providing us with excellent details
118
of study site, day to day weather data, photographs of the trapping locations, and home contact
119
information should we need additional information. For example, one volunteer set out the traps
120
we provided in different types of locations quite far apart. Almost all the volunteers we have
121
talked to since the project ended have commented on the stench of the trap bait, yet these same
122
volunteers have told us that it was an overall enjoyable experience to be part of this research.
123
An unexpected and welcome part of this collaboration were the written notes provided
124
by the volunteers in the returned traps, which gave us a window into this part of the project. One
125
volunteer apologised for the late deployment of the traps because this officer had to focus on
126
more pressing work-related duties. Other volunteers expressed a willingness to help more, giving
127
us contact information so we could find the exact location of the traps and the site habitat.
128
In this project, one of the enforcement co-researchers (MI) explained from firsthand
129
experience what working at crime scenes is like, the kind of information investigators need, what
130
investigators bring to a crime scene, and what is not practically possible even though it is
131
theoretically possible.
132
2.1. Feedback: communication is key
133
In retrospect, we should have mailed a package to ourselves to see how our delivery
134
method would work. Some of the volunteers told us that the liver container leaked when they
135
opened the package in their office. Surprisingly, even though this provided a perfectly good
136
reason for the participants to no longer continue, these same volunteers persevered with the
6 137
project. Also, it became apparent that we needed to emphasize the commitment involved with the
138
research process. We did not make it clear we were collecting 5 replicates of each experiment.
139
This should have been made more explicit at the beginning of the study.
140
2.2. Outcome: academic-practitioner synergy
141
We were correct to include someone from both the RCMP and the OPP from the outset of
142
this project, and to include them during the writing stage for the funding application. Both of
143
these individuals were able to prevent us from wasted effort, explaining what kind of data would
144
be useful for crime scene investigators, and the methods we could make the greatest contribution
145
toward. As one of us stated (MI), “Sampling is easy on a nice summer day, but usually when I
146
am at a crime scene it is raining, at night, down a ravine”.
147
In addition, we were ambitious to begin with, hoping to get 36 samples at each site from
148
two traps set out for two weeks over three years, sampling in spring, summer, and fall (2 traps x
149
2 weeks x 3 seasons x 3 years). On the advice of one of us (BY) this was reduced to something
150
far more manageable in order to ensure continued buy-in from the volunteers: at least 1 sample
151
and ideally 4 samples per year (2 traps x 2 weeks each year), and additional years if possible.
152
Scientific rigor needed to be balanced with pragmatism and consideration for volunteer time.
153
Additionally, feedback gained from teaching about the role of entomological evidence at
154
a Time of Death Investigation Course at Ontario Police College was invaluable in our project.
155
There we learned that there is a big difference in crime scene response depending on where the
156
officers are located. Officers in large cities have dedicated teams that collect entomological
157
evidence, whereas this falls to the local officers in more remote areas. This allowed us to design
158
our experiment in a way that the results would provide the greatest benefit across this spectrum.
159
3. Case Study 2: Small scale BPA workshops using a forensic blood substitute
7 160
This second case study provides an example of how small working groups can make
161
lasting changes on pedagogy and innovation. This was a multi-year academic project to develop
162
a forensic blood substitute (FBS), along with a series of recommended design considerations for
163
training and research purposes [7]. The practical benefits were tested by analysts each year at a
164
training conference (International Association of Bloodstain Pattern Analysis) from 2015-2018
165
in the forms of presentations with interactive exercises and workshops. Participants were those
166
who had provided expert testimony on BPA in the courts, all with a minimum of a 40-hour basic
167
bloodstain course, and most having some advanced training in fluid dynamics. Some participants
168
had conducted BPA-specific experimentation for reconstruction and scientific purposes.
169
The workshop provided significantly more opportunities for experiential learning. They
170
included lectures, practical exercises, and a final reflection by the attendees on the event. The
171
lecture enabled the academics to provide context to our research. We explained the theory,
172
concepts and purpose of our research studies to the participants. The exercise was an interactive
173
time between academics and practitioners using the forensic blood substitute material. The final
174
reflection allowed the practitioner to provide their professional insights on operational
175
practicality of using the material in training (Trent University REB 24896). Direct feedback from
176
the participants was a critical aspect of these workshops in order to improve the practical
177
deliverables of the blood substitute in relation to its performance in an operational context.
178
3.1. Feedback: practical material improvement
179
The overall goal of this work was to determine if colour influences the spatial reasoning
180
of blood pattern analysis practitioners during their training. Specifically, we wanted to obtain
181
feedback of the utility of the FBS in order to provide the forensic community with new
182
innovations in teaching bloodstain pattern analysis. We were interested in understanding if the
8 183
forensic community perceives any added benefits to incorporating colour extensions to our
184
technologies in a training capacity. The FBS looks like oxygenated blood in white light, and
185
fluoresces when excited with UV light in the dark, as demonstrated in Figure 1. This is still an
186
ongoing research project (TS and MI), but before we started we wanted to find out if there was
187
interest in this material, and what sort of engagement we could expect for this technology. We
188
asked participants to rate a series of statements related to the specific workshop, training sessions
189
in general and their engagement and involvement in BPA research. These statements are
190
presented in Table 1.
191
3.2. Outcome: academic-practitioner synergy
192
Our survey results (Table 1) suggested that there was a high level of engagement in the
193
technology which provided the practitioners with an excellent visual demonstration of limitations
194
of blood pattern analysis, such as the number of patterns, sequencing. From these results, we
195
determined that there is a need within the enforcement community for this material, and that
196
BPA practitioners generally support continued development and research into this material. We
197
learned that the main areas for the future use of this and similar materials were in practitioner
198
training programs at the more advanced level. We were asked to hold more workshops,
199
indicative of a strong interest on the part of enforcement officers and practitioners in more
200
forensic science research. There was also recognition within the workshop participants of the
201
need for more communication between researchers and the enforcement community.
202
We asked our participants to assess statements related to their feelings about research
203
projects that involved academic and practitioner stakeholders. An example of a statement is,
204
“Academic-practitioner collaboration promotes innovation in the classroom.” Participants were
205
asked to rank the statement from strongly disagree to strongly agree. When asked to if academic-
9 206
practitioner collaboration promoted innovation in the classroom, all participants agreed with this.
207
However, when asked if there were opportunities for participation in BPA research, the results
208
were mixed, some stating that such opportunities were lacking. We suspect the high number of
209
those involved currently with BPA research is a bias of the workshop attendance, when in reality
210
the general population data may be lower. The most enthusiasm was generated when asked if
211
they would like to participate in BPA research studies; almost all participants expressed a strong
212
interest in doing so.
213
4. General recommendations for research
214
While more undergraduate and graduate research is being done in collaboration with
215
practitioners, and while there are now more forensic programs at universities, if these do not
216
have a good connection to law enforcement this can result in projects of little relevance. Based
217
on the experience of one of the authors reviewing manuscripts for forensic journals (BY), there is
218
a tendency for some academics to be far too theoretical and impractical, and a similar tendency
219
for law enforcement personnel trying to produce needed research to undertake projects that
220
suffer from with poor experimental design, thus compromising the scientific rigour of any
221
findings.
222
We suggest that there needs to be a stronger and national research strategy which
223
identifies the current and pressing needs of law enforcement officials in order to bring these
224
needs directly to academia. As part of this, researchers should ensure what they study will be
225
relevant within the discipline. To achieve these goals, conferences should promote both
226
researchers and end users. Within existing institutions, we recommend that researcher goals
227
include requests for input from enforcement, and that this be added as an additional criterion in
228
terms of getting institutional support. Broadly, researchers need to tell enforcement professionals
10 229
what can be done, and these need to tell researchers what can be done; continuing a positive and
230
reciprocal feedback loop of communication and understanding.
231
At both the graduate and undergraduate level, we strongly recommend that every course
232
offered in the forensic sciences have police and other enforcement officers present guest lectures
233
to the students [1]. However good the content of any one course is, it remains in the realm of the
234
theoretical in the minds of students without this personal and experiential interaction. To achieve
235
this, we encourage undergraduate programs in forensic science include a requirement that each
236
course have at least one guest lecturer from a police officer, conservation officer, canine unit, or
237
similar enforcement official. Universities should also sponsor conferences that bridge the gap,
238
and invite enforcement officials onto campus for these conferences [8]. It is important for each of
239
us to understand how our various professions are organized, what our priorities are. Similarly,
240
universities should invite the police to work on research, be involved at the design stages as they
241
were in both of our projects which we found to be a strength of them.
242
4.1 Recommendations for law enforcement and forensic practitioners
243
Ideally, police colleges should invite researchers to present seminars to facilitate
244
communication between academics and practitioners in order to find best practices, and so both
245
groups can know what is being done, what the demands and limits of each other’s professions
246
are, and to prevent wasted work suggesting impossible protocols.
247
Similarly, we strongly suggest that officers involved in forensic investigations invite
248
researchers to address them in their course-work, to describe the process of research, and the
249
strengths and limitations of applying the scientific method to forensic investigations. While this
250
does indeed often occur, we recommend that lecture series be established to achieve this in
251
police academies.
11 252 253
5. Conclusion Canada is missing collaborative opportunities for academic-researcher engagement for a
254
variety of reasons: often the priorities do not align [9], hence there is a mismatch in the two
255
arenas often driven by short term budgetary considerations [10]. Additionally, Canada is a
256
comparatively small country, and specialized researcher professionals (such as entomologists) do
257
not work full-time with law enforcement. This is an opportunity to redress this situation and to
258
identify potentials for improvement. Front line officers need this, and researchers need this –
259
telling each other what does and does not work in each other’s spheres.
260
The goal is to strengthen collaborative efforts by leveraging the specialized skills and
261
approaches of practitioners within each sector, to overcome preconceived ideas of each other’s
262
roles, and to open ongoing mechanisms of communication across the two at all levels.
263
After each collaboration we suggest that feedback be formalized to allow one to meet the
264
needs of enforcement. Often, we have no idea of what worked and what did not [11]. Formal
265
feedback should be worked into the end of each collaboration. We did not do this ourselves in
266
the blow fly project as we should have, but found it was very useful in the blood stain pattern
267
analysis project.
12 268
References
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[1] D.H. Bayley, Police Research: Trends and Prospects, in: R. Granér, O. Kronkvist (Eds.), The Past, the Present and the Future of Police Research, Linnéuniversitetet: Linnæus University, 2015, pp. 8–15. [2] B. Steinheider, T. Wuestewald, R.E. Boyatzis, P. Kroutter, In search of a methodology of collaboration: understanding researcher–practitioner philosophical differences in policing, Police Practice and Research 13 (2012) 357–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2012.671620. [3] Committee on identifying the needs of the forensic sciences community. Strengthening forensic science in the United States: a path forward, National Research Council, 2009. Report No. 2009-DN-BX-0001. [4] J. Amendt, C. P. Campobasso, E. Gaudry, C. Reiter, H.N. LeBlanc, M.J.R. Hall, Best practice in forensic entomology—standards and guidelines, International journal of legal medicine 121 (2007) 90–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00414-006-0086-x. [5] C. Roux, O. Ribaux, F. Crispino, Forensic science 2020–the end of the crossroads?, Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences 50 (2018) 607–18. [6] S.V. Langer, C.J. Kyle, M. Illes, S. Larkin, D.V. Beresford, Urban and rural spatial delineations in blow fly species (Diptera: Calliphoridae) across Canada: implications for forensic entomology. Journal of Medical Entomology 56 (2019) 927–935 https://doi.org/10.1093/jme/tjz047. [7] T. Stotesbury, C. Bruce, M. Illes, R. Hanley-Dafoe, Design considerations for the implementation of artificial fluids as blood substitutes for educational and training use in the forensic sciences, Forensic Science Policy and Management: An International Journal 7 (2016) 81–6. https://doi.org/10.1080/19409044.2016.1218574. [8] A. Linacre, Towards a research culture in the forensic sciences, Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences 45 (2013) 381–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00450618.2012.738246. [9] M.S. Pollanen, M.J. Bowes, S.L. VanLaerhoven, J. Wallace, Forensic Science in Canada: A Report of Multidisciplinary Discussion, Toronto: Centre for Forensic Science and Medicine, University of Toronto, 2013. www. crime-scene-investigator. net/forensicscience-in-canada. pdf 2013 (accessed 29 January 2019). [10] C. Griffiths, Economics of Policing: Baseline for Policing Research in Canada. Report for Public Safety Canada. http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/bsln-plcngrsrch/index-en.aspx / 2014 (accessed 29 January 2019). [11] J. Rojek, G. Alpert, H. Smith, The utilization of research by the police, Police practice and research 13 (2012) 329–341. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2012.671599.
13 303
Table 1. Statements presented to workshop participants and their responses to these
304
statements (means and standard deviations). Participants were asked to rank their opinion of each
305
statement based on the Likert Scale: 1 – strongly disagree, 2 – disagree, 3 – neither agree nor
306
disagree, 4 – agree, 5 – strongly agree, 6 – N/A to me. The frequencies of response preferences
307
for the last statement are given in parenthesis (n=12 participants). Statement Complex patterns presented in colour are useful to demonstrate theoretical
Mean
SD
concepts in bloodstain pattern analysis (BPA).
4.3
1.1
Complex patterns in colour are useful to demonstrate limitations in analysis.
3.7
1.2
Colour is not very helpful in explaining complex patterns.
1.7
0.5
Complex patterns in colour do not enhance learning in training sessions.
1.9
0.5
3.6
1.2
4.3
0.9
5
0
New technologies in the classroom can be integrated into my training courses.
4.4
0.5
Using a material other than blood is encouraged in my training.
3.4
0.9
Using a material other than blood is not necessary in my training.
2.5
0.5
Academic-practitioner collaboration promotes innovation in the classroom.
4.1
0.5
4
0.9
4.4
0.7
Students in a basic BPA training course would benefit from completing exercise(s) that use coloured patterns. Students in an advanced BPA training course would benefit from completing exercise(s) that use coloured patterns Practical exercise are important in BPA training courses.
I have opportunities to participate in research studies in BPA. I would like to participate in research studies in BPA. I prefer the mult-coloured (2), glow-in-the dark (4), both (6), neither (0) patterns. 308
14 309 310
Figure caption Figure 1: Example of a complex bloodstain pattern in white light (left), no light (middle)
311
and low light (right) conditions. The scenario includes 4 patterns, and impact pattern near the top
312
left (aqua), impact pattern near the bottom (dark blue), cast of pattern on the left (orange) and
313
cast of pattern on the right (green). Analysts were first allowed to only observe the pattern in
314
white light (right) and take observations.
15
315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326
Highlights - officer/academic research collaborations on entomology and blood spatter projects - mistakes revealed need for stated assumptions from each perspective - urgent need to include policing professionals in university courses - urgent need to include researchers in enforcement training courses - highlights the importance of ongoing formal project assessment