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BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
963
morphine, paraldehyde, sulphonal and its homologues whether by any trade name, mark, or designation. The BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE regulation does not apply to liniments or preparations for external uses only. ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. in Vaccination (Concluded from p. 900.) Queensland. Compclsory The Home Secretary for Queensland has now approved THE meeting of the British Association which came to an of additional regulations promulgated by the Commissioner for Public Health under the Public Health Act, with special end on Wednesday, Sept. 17th, was a very successful one. reference to the suppression of small-pox as well as checking Besides the sectional meetings addresses also were the spread of certain other diseases. The powers given to delivered on the evenings of Friday, Sept. 12th, and the Commissioner to authorise house-to-house inspections, Sir Henry Cunynghame, and the medical examination of the inmates, if necessary, Tuesday, Sept. 16th, respectively, by Power is given to isolate infected or K.C.B., on Explosions in Mines and the Means of Preventing are again included. suspected premises until the examination and (if required) Them, in which he showed that the mixture of a certain proeffective inoculation prescribed have been made. Force may portion of stone dust with the coal dust rendered explosions be used to prevent persons from leaving such premises. It and by Dr. G. Smith Woodward, F.R.S., is provided that any health officer or authorised medical almost impossible; on Missing Links among Extinct Animals. There were, in shall have the with following powers dealing practitioner persons in contact with disease or suspected disease : (a) For further, five"citizens’"lectures delivered of a more rudithe purpose of observing whether they are suffering or are mentary character to non-members of the Association at likely to suffer from an epidemic disease he may order that the Digbeth Institute, respectively on the Decorative Art of they shall be detained for such period and at such place and under such conditions as he may direct, subject to the Savages, by Dr. A. C. Haddon, F. R. S. ; the Panama Canal, approval of the Commissioner. (b) In the case of small-pox by Dr. Vaughan Cornish ; Recent Work on Heredity in he may inoculate any person so detained with glycerinated Relation to Man, by Dr. Leonard Doncaster ; the Microcalf lymph or other lymph proper for the purpose; and scopic Structure of Metals, by Dr. W. Rosenbaum; and if such person is required to be inoculated as aforesaid, Radioactivity by Dr. F. W. Soddy, F.R.S. These lectures until he has been effectively inoculated ; or (c) after disare proving an increasing means of stimulating popular infection of the person, clothing, and personal effects of such interest in scientific work and research.
person, and of the premises in which such person resides, or It was decided to hold the meeting of 1915 in Manchester, any of these, and if such person is required to be inoculated and that of 1916 in Newcastle-on-Tyne, for the fourth time in as aforesaid, after he has been effectively inoculated, he may discharge such person upon condition that he reports him- each case. Next year’s meeting will take place in Australia self to a medical practitioner approved by the Commissioner, under the presidency of Professor William Bateson, F.R.S., and submits to inspection and examination by a medical director of the John Innes Horticultural Institute. The vacancy practitioner for such period, and at such intervals, places, in the board of trustees occasioned by the death of Lord and times as the Commissioner or health officer shall direct. Avebury was filled by the election of Major P. A. Macmahon, Where a person is suffering from an epidemic disease there one of the general secretaries, to whom a cordial vote of is power to order his removal to an isolation hospital or thanks was accorded for his 11 years’ service, who was The isolate him or her at home. Power is given to vaccinate succeeded in that post by Professor H. H. Turner. members of were appointed : Professor new council force if following prisoners, using necessary. W. H. Bragg, F.R.S., of Leeds University: Dr. F. A. Dixey, August 20th. F.R.S., of Oxford; Mr. A. Lodge, of Birmingham University ; Professor H. H. Dixon, F.R.S., of Dublin University; H.H. Prince Alexander of Teck will distribute and Sir Everard Im Thurn. the prizes to the students of the Royal Dental Hospital of Grants amounting to E1286 for the scientific purposes of London and London School of Dental Surgery on Tuesday, the sectional committees were decided on. Oct. 7th, at 5 P. M. and Nature of ’
09,iqin
LITERARY INTELLIGENCE.—Dr. Jacques head of the Department of Experimental Biology
Loeb,
Life.
Professor J. REINKE, Ph.D., in a thoughtful paper in the before the joint session of the Sections of Zoology, Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, has written a com- Botany, and Anthropology, discussed the questionspanion work to his Mechanistic Conception of Life," What is the nature of life? and How is it to be which attracted much attention on its publication last year, explained? Considering the question of whether life entitled" Artificial Parthenogenesis and Fertilisation." It ought to be interpreted merely mechanically, he said a will be issued during the autumn by the Cambridge plant and an animal ought to be mechanisms, machines, University Press as British agents for the University of nothing else, but of so complicated a construction that Chicago Press. The subject of the book is an analysis of the analysis is even yet unable to explain this merely mechanical mechanism by which the male sex cell, the spermatozoon, machinery. In still older times people believed a vis vitalis to develop.-Professor Dr. J. to be active in the organism that did not accord with any causes the animal egg Katzenstein, who presides over the Phonetics Department of other power in nature and that caused life. But this the Nose and Ear Clinic at the University of Berlin, is vis vitalis came more and more into contradiction with the publishing, through Mr. S. Karger in Berlin, the "Archives principles of science until at last the contrary doctrine for Experimental and Clinical Phonetics " (a supplement to arose, that life was only a complicated example of the proPassow’s and Schaefer’s Contributions), of which one volume cesses predominant in lifeless nature. This opinion was will consist of three or four parts, and of which the price founded on the knowledge that plants and animals are comwill be 24 marks. As in certain medical centres phonetic posed of chemical combinations known also outside the laboratories and out-patient departments have now been organisms ; that these combinations influence one another officially established, it has been felt that a publication which according to the universal chemical laws ; that everywhere in should collect and collate work relating to phonetics would the living body physical powers are active. In this manner have a proper place in medical literature. -A fifth edition of, physiology becomes the chemistry and physics of organisms. Dr. I. Burney Yeo’s "Manual of Medical Treatment"is: But the greater the progress in experimental physiology, he announced by Messrs. Cassell and Co. The revision has: continued, the better we learn to use our knowledge of nonbeen carried out by Dr. Raymond Crawfurd and Dr. E. living matter for the explanation of the processes of life, the Farquhar Buzzard, who collaborated with the author in the more we understand that a complete physico-chemical fourth edition.-Her Majesty the Queen has intimated analysis is impossible for any important process of life. her willingness to receive a copy of a new work to be! Behind all the physico-chemical facts found out by our published by the St. Catherine Press for the National Food physiological studies an unknown factor is hiding, an x Reform Association, entitled -"Rearing an Imperial Race," not to be solved by levers and screws and chemical reagents. and edited by Charles E. Hecht, M.A. The volume purports! For his part he refused both the exclusive vital and the to supply a key to forthcoming legislation from the stand- exclusive mechanical dogma, but did not wish to subordinate matter and to draw from the the living to the point of health and the domestic arts. ,
’
lifeless
964 dominion of lifeless nature only parallels for the explanation of life. He was sure that the laws of energy are valid in the organism as well as in unorganised nature, and that the change of matter and of power in animals and plants depends only on them. Life is based upon such transformations of energy —" Elementarprozesse "-and these elementary processes are bound to elementary mechanisms in the cells of animals and plants. These elementary processes and elementary mechanisms are not thrown together without order in the living body ; they are united by an invisible string or chain, and this invisible chain or force that maintains the order among the elementary processes represents the true difference between life and any event in lifeless nature. Life, he concluded, has its own laws as well as light, heat, chemistry ; which does not exclude the fact that the physico-chemical laws reign in the elementary processes of a living body. Professor BENJAMIN MooRE and Dr. ARTHUR WEBSTER contributed an interesting paper on the Synthesis of Organic Matter by Sunlight in Presence of Inorganic Colloids and its Relationship to the Origin of Life. They pointed out that the whole world of living plants and animals depends for its present continuance upon the synthesis of organic compounds from inorganic by the green colouring matter of the plant acting as a transformer of light energy into chemical A little reflection, they said, shows that this energy. present state of affairs must have evolved in complexity from something more simple existing at the commencement. For chlorophyll, which now acts as the transformer, is itself one of the most complex of known organic substances, and could not have been the first organic substance to evolve from inorganic matter. In considering the origin of life, the start must be made in a purely inorganic world without a trace of organic matter, either plant or animal. As Schafer has pointed out, any other supposition merely removes the seat of origin to some conveniently remote planet, and pushes the origin back farther in time, but brings us no nearer to a real solution. The earlier theories and views as to spontaneous generation all possess the error of attempting to start life amidst organic nutritive material which could not be there until life had already appeared. The complex organic substances, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and all the many other organic cell constituents, are late products along the line of evolution of life, and the beginning lies at a level much below that of the bacterium or diatom. As a result of about 18 months of experimental work, they have, they believe, obtained evidence of the first organic step in the evolution. When dilute solutions of colloidal ferric hydroxide, or the corresponding uranium compound, are exposed to strong sunlight, or the light of a mercury arc, there are synthesised the same organic compounds which are at present formed as the first stage in the process of organic synthesis by the green plant-namely, formaldehyde and formic acid. If, now, we consider a planet exposed to the proper conditions of temperature and sunlight, that chain of events can be followed, which not only can but must occur. At first, as the planet cools down, only elements would be present, at a lower temperature binary compounds form, next simple crystalloidal salts arise. Then, by the union of single molecules into groups of 50 or 60, colloidal aggregates appear. As these colloidal aggregates increase in complexity, they also become more delicately balanced in structure, and are meta-stable or labile-that is, they are easily destroyed by sudden changes in environment, but, within certain limits, are peculiarly sensitive to energy changes, and can take up energy in one form’ and transform it into another. These labile colloids take up water and carbon dioxide, and, utilising the sunlight streaming upon the plant, produce the simplest organic structures. Next these simpler organic structures, reacting with themselves, and with nitrogenous inorganic matter, continue the process and build up more and more complex, and also more labile, organic colloids, until finally these acquire the property of transforming light energy into chemical energy. The problem of the origin of life hence acquires, in their view, the aspect of an experimental inquiry with vast opportunities for obtaining more exact knowledge. From this first step in the organic synthesis advance must be made to study how more and more complex organic compounds can be evolved. But it is clear, they concluded, that by the continued action of this "law of molecular complexitylife must originate, that forms of life are now
originating, that the origin of life was no fortuitous accident, and that the same processes are guiding life onwards to higher evolution in a progressive creation. The
Effect of Low Temperatures on Cold-blooded Animals.
To the Section of Physiology the committee, consisting of Professor SwALE VINCENT (chairman) and Mr. A. T. CAMERON (secretary), presented its report (drawn up by the secretary) stating that Messrs. Cameron and Brownlee had carried out experiments on frogs (R. pipiens). They froze at a temperature of 0.44°-0.02°C., in a manner very similar to that of solutions isotonic with their body fluids. They would survive a temperature of - 1° C., but not one of 1.8°C. The heart tissue, whether exsected or in vivo, of these frogs survived a temperature of - 2.5°, but was killed by one of - 3.0° C. Other observers had shown that frogs’ muscular tissue would survive a temperature of - 2’ 90 C., while the peripheral nerves were not killed by much lower tempera. tures. Hence the cause of death was probably connected with a specific temperature effect on the brain or cord. Full details of these results would shortly be published, and the committee requested to be reappointed with a grant of £10. Dr. DAWSON TURNER read a paper in the same section on Radium Rays in Thyroid Hypersecretion, which is published in full in our present issue (p. 924). -
Tests for the Mental Diagnosis of Children. Mr. W. H. WINCH, in the Subsection of Psychology, offered an additional series of tests supplementary to those presented to the British Psychological Society on May 6th, 1911. The tests consisted of series of statements propounding a simple problem in intelligence, to be presented in writing to the children and read without undue emphasis by a person whose voice and accent are familiar to the children. As an example the following (No. 4 in Set 5) is quoted : "If more than half the boys in a class get all their sums right, and more than half the boys in the same class get no mistakes in dictation, do you think there were any boys who got all their sums right and also no mistakes in dictation, or do you think there were no boys who got all their sums right and also no mistakes in dictation, or can’t you tell ?2 You must say why." The methods of marking were described. It was claimed that these tests help to measure the higher mental faculties, and not being taught in schools form a good measure of the pupil’s natural ability as distinct from the school’s pedagogic proficiency. They indicate subnormality or backwardness, and assist in grading pupils on a basis of natural ability. They may help in distinguishing mental differences, if any, between boys and girls and the different levels of mental ability in schools of different social class," and in selecting scholarship children. The results of the tests correlate fairly with age and still more closely with mental proficiency as indicated by"school standards." They show a considerable difference in reasoning ability among children of difEerent social classes, and that the difference between boys and girls in non-numerical reasoning is only slightly in favour of the boys. The pedagogical efficiency of schools has very little bearing on the results of these tests. Colour Perception in Children. Mr. C. W. VALENTINE, in the same subsection, read an interesting communication on his observations of a three months old child regarding its perception of and preference for colour. The observations, which extended over a period of four weeks, consisted in measuring the periods during which the child looked at either of two coloured wools displayed simultaneously before him for two minutes. It was noted that while the brightest colours were preferred in general, some other factor of choice must exist, for the order of preference shown by the child was yellow, white, red, pink, brown, black, green, violet, and blue. Mr. Valentine’s suggestion was that the capacity of colours for stimulating muscular strength, which according to Fere was greatest at the warm end and weakest at the cold end of the spectrum,
Reasoning
possible determining factor. A Preliminary Note on Habit-formnation in Guinea-pigs. Miss E. M. SMITH (Cambridge), in the same subsection,
was a
described some observations carried out under the direction of Dr. Myers at the Cambridge Psychological Laboratory this year, forming part of a larger scheme to test the inheritability in guinea-pigs of such characters as rapidity
965
learning, ability to profit by practice, accuracy of per- yet there is conveyance of stimulus, as shown by disturbThe tests used were : (a) the ances of coordination. The protoplasmic links between the formance, retentiveness, &c. labyrinth test, and (b) a new form of sensory discrimination cells must therefore be the conductors of stimulus. test, in which photic and ordinary stimuli were combined. The Morphology of the Mammalian Tonsil. Although this preliminary investigation was necessarily someMiss M. L. HETT, in the same section, said that tonsils what general, it has brought to light hitherto unrecorded were normally present in most mammalian orders. Except points of interest concerning guinea-pig behaviour, tending: in man did not atrophy till extreme old age. She they to show the superiority of the females over the males in the described Hammar’s division of animal tonsils into primary matter of reliability and accuracy as regards both the maze and secondary, according as to whether lymphoid tissue was test and the sensory discrimination test. of
.
,
,
laid down in the tuberculum tonsillare or not, and discussed A New Theory of Laughter. the difficulties presented by this classification. Investigation Dr. W. McDoUGALL reviewed the problems presented byr of many tonsils showed a distinctive gross anatomy for each laughter to the great thinkers, from Aristotle to Bergson,. animal group, characteristic always of the order, frequently discussing the various theories enunciated, and suggestedl of the family, sometimes of the genus. that laughter was primarily and fundamentally the antidote’ The Problem of Sleeping Sickness. to sympathy, preventing us from dwelling unduly on the Professor E. A. MINCHIN in the same section discussed depressing influences that surrounded us. While the sympa- Some Aspects of the Sleeping Sickness Problem. After thetic tendencies of the species were of the first importance the trypanosome and its life-history, he gave a for social life, it would have been a serious disadvantage to describing of the symptoms caused by its growth in the human picture the species if each man had had to suffer sympathetically, ini The symptoms showed themselves in two periodshowever small a degree, all the minor pains of his fellows, subject. first characterised by irregular fever and swollen the which would overwhelm him with their cumulative force. the neck, the second corresponding Nature had solved the problem of the necessity of makinglymphatics, especially in to the invasion of the nervous system by the parasites by : each man continue to share in some degree all the more of the lymphatics to the cerebro-spinal fluid. With the intense feelings of his fellow men, by sparing him the way second stage drowsiness, lethargy, and emaciation set in. needless suffering that would have been entailed by his The two periods varied in length, but the milder the disease : sharing also their multitudinous lesser pains, and the facultythe longer was the first period, and in West Africa the of laughter was, therefore, a protective one. second was sometimes never reached at and .
,
,
.
;
:
all,
stage
The Evolution of Man from the Ape. Professor CARVETH READ, in the Section of Anthropology, read a paper on the Differentiation of Man from the Anthropoids. He attributed man’s evolution to his taste for animal food enabling him to wander beyond the confines of the forest, which led him to associate with others in pursuit of game. A consequently more regular food-supply would put an end to the seasonal relation between fruit time and the marriage- and birth-rate. Articulate speech would arise from cooperation. The upright position, with its effect on the alimentary canal, would be due to its advantage as a hunting posture, and the increased difficulty of catching a rabbit over plucking a banana would give rise to an increase in intelligence and the evolution of weapons and snares. Cannibalism was not generally associated with flesh eating, but was to be regarded as belonging to the experimental stage of human development. Dr. HARRY CAMPBELL, discussing the factors in man’s evolution from the anthropoids, said that evolving man like his anthropoid ancestor was polygamous. The man with the best physique and the largest intellectual endowment secured the largest offspring to inherit these endowments. Man’s upward evolution had taken place essentially through bloodshed. The factors influencing the moral evolution of mind were the restrictions and obligations of communal life and motherhood, from which the altruistic sentiment took its rise.1 Living Cultures of the Embryonic Ileccrt on the
Kinematograph. Professor H. BRAUS in the Section of Zoology exhibited on the kinematograph certain delicate phenomena of movement that were too rapid or too slow for simple inspection. The beating heart of a frog larva (Rana esculenta) 6 mm. long, perceivable only as a dot on a black background, was shown by magnifying it. It was an S-shaped tube. It was seven days old when photographed, but the rate of pulsation was about 80 per minute as on the first day. The movement was peristaltic, pulsation of sinus, atrium, ventricle, and bulbus being clearly distinguishable. The application of chemical rays caused suspension and irregularity. There were also typical refractory periods in certain cases. The proof of growing was afforded by photographing pigment cells at ten minute intervals for ten hours. As these are shown on the screen in a few minutes they increase in thickness, ameeboid movements, and so forth, appearing to take place rapidly. The heart has no ganglion cells at either the beginning or the end of the experiment, and nerves proper are still a long way off. It consisted of two epithelial membranes, the cells lying in a compact layer. The heart cultivated in vitro possesses at first no cross striping and no microscopically distinguishable muscle cells, so the stimulus cannot be conducted by muscle ; 1
THE
LANCET, May 24th, 1913, p. 1473.
less normal life with trypanoThe tsetse flies which conveyed the somes in their blood. parasite were not infective until the parasite reached the fly’s salivary glands. This full development took place in only about 5 per cent. of flies fed on infected persons. In the rest the parasites are digested by the fly. The difficulty of combating the disease was in part due to the fact that the specific trypanosomes were not confined for one part of their cycle to man, but could live and propagate in certain other animals-e.g., antelopes, and some forms of domestic stock. It was proposed to exterminate the big game, but the domestic stock would still remain. Again, extermination of the flies’ natural food might drive them into closer proximity to human habitations. Therefore such extermination should at first be done only experimentally and in limited areas. As to destroying the fly itself, gallinaceous birds were its chief Wild enemy, scratching up and destroying its pupa. gallinaceous birds should therefore be protected and fresh ones, such as the Indian jungle fowl, should be imported. The keeping of domestic fowls by the natives should be
persons
might live
a more or
encouraged. The Reading Optophone." Probably one of the most remarkable inventions of modern times is the reading optophone," exhibited on Sept. 11th by Dr. E. E. FOURNIER D’ALBE. Last year Dr. d’Albe showed at the Optical Convention in London an optophone," whereby the blind were enabled to recognise bright lights by I
their conversion into sound. The "reading optophone" consists essentially of a perforated disc which revolves above an electric lamp. Above the disc is a detector of selenium interposed in circuit with a battery and telephone. The flashes of light through the perforations in the disc are transformed by the detector into noises in the telephone. The interposition of an opaque object between the disc and the detector inhibits the telephonic sound, but the interposition of a lantern slide, partly transparent and partly opaque, breaks up the sound into different combinations of notes. Printed material gives notes differing with each letter. With practice it becomes easy to read the letters interposed Dr. d’Albe is now between the disc and the detector.
perfecting the instrument to make it possible for ordinary letterpress on paper to be read thereby.
CENTENARIANS.-Miss Harriett Light, of Southside, Weston-super-Mare, celebrated the 100th anniversary Weston possesses another of her birthday last week. centenarian in the person of Mrs. Cooper, of Upper Churchroad.-Mrs. Waugh, of Magor, Monmouthshire, who celebrated the 100th anniversary of her birthday on August 29th, has received a congratulatory letter from the King.-Mrs. Harriet Elizabeth Bignall, Elmside Estate, Exeter, has recently died, aged 100 years.
morphine, paraldehyde, sulphonal and its homologues whether by any trade name, mark, or designation. The BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE regulation does not apply to liniments or preparations for external uses only. ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. in Vaccination (Concluded from p. 900.) Queensland. Compclsory The Home Secretary for Queensland has now approved THE meeting of the British Association which came to an of additional regulations promulgated by the Commissioner for Public Health under the Public Health Act, with special end on Wednesday, Sept. 17th, was a very successful one. reference to the suppression of small-pox as well as checking Besides the sectional meetings addresses also were the spread of certain other diseases. The powers given to delivered on the evenings of Friday, Sept. 12th, and the Commissioner to authorise house-to-house inspections, Sir Henry Cunynghame, and the medical examination of the inmates, if necessary, Tuesday, Sept. 16th, respectively, by Power is given to isolate infected or K.C.B., on Explosions in Mines and the Means of Preventing are again included. suspected premises until the examination and (if required) Them, in which he showed that the mixture of a certain proeffective inoculation prescribed have been made. Force may portion of stone dust with the coal dust rendered explosions be used to prevent persons from leaving such premises. It and by Dr. G. Smith Woodward, F.R.S., is provided that any health officer or authorised medical almost impossible; on Missing Links among Extinct Animals. There were, in shall have the with following powers dealing practitioner persons in contact with disease or suspected disease : (a) For further, five"citizens’"lectures delivered of a more rudithe purpose of observing whether they are suffering or are mentary character to non-members of the Association at likely to suffer from an epidemic disease he may order that the Digbeth Institute, respectively on the Decorative Art of they shall be detained for such period and at such place and under such conditions as he may direct, subject to the Savages, by Dr. A. C. Haddon, F. R. S. ; the Panama Canal, approval of the Commissioner. (b) In the case of small-pox by Dr. Vaughan Cornish ; Recent Work on Heredity in he may inoculate any person so detained with glycerinated Relation to Man, by Dr. Leonard Doncaster ; the Microcalf lymph or other lymph proper for the purpose; and scopic Structure of Metals, by Dr. W. Rosenbaum; and if such person is required to be inoculated as aforesaid, Radioactivity by Dr. F. W. Soddy, F.R.S. These lectures until he has been effectively inoculated ; or (c) after disare proving an increasing means of stimulating popular infection of the person, clothing, and personal effects of such interest in scientific work and research.
person, and of the premises in which such person resides, or It was decided to hold the meeting of 1915 in Manchester, any of these, and if such person is required to be inoculated and that of 1916 in Newcastle-on-Tyne, for the fourth time in as aforesaid, after he has been effectively inoculated, he may discharge such person upon condition that he reports him- each case. Next year’s meeting will take place in Australia self to a medical practitioner approved by the Commissioner, under the presidency of Professor William Bateson, F.R.S., and submits to inspection and examination by a medical director of the John Innes Horticultural Institute. The vacancy practitioner for such period, and at such intervals, places, in the board of trustees occasioned by the death of Lord and times as the Commissioner or health officer shall direct. Avebury was filled by the election of Major P. A. Macmahon, Where a person is suffering from an epidemic disease there one of the general secretaries, to whom a cordial vote of is power to order his removal to an isolation hospital or thanks was accorded for his 11 years’ service, who was The isolate him or her at home. Power is given to vaccinate succeeded in that post by Professor H. H. Turner. members of were appointed : Professor new council force if following prisoners, using necessary. W. H. Bragg, F.R.S., of Leeds University: Dr. F. A. Dixey, August 20th. F.R.S., of Oxford; Mr. A. Lodge, of Birmingham University ; Professor H. H. Dixon, F.R.S., of Dublin University; H.H. Prince Alexander of Teck will distribute and Sir Everard Im Thurn. the prizes to the students of the Royal Dental Hospital of Grants amounting to E1286 for the scientific purposes of London and London School of Dental Surgery on Tuesday, the sectional committees were decided on. Oct. 7th, at 5 P. M. and Nature of ’
09,iqin
LITERARY INTELLIGENCE.—Dr. Jacques head of the Department of Experimental Biology
Loeb,
Life.
Professor J. REINKE, Ph.D., in a thoughtful paper in the before the joint session of the Sections of Zoology, Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, has written a com- Botany, and Anthropology, discussed the questionspanion work to his Mechanistic Conception of Life," What is the nature of life? and How is it to be which attracted much attention on its publication last year, explained? Considering the question of whether life entitled" Artificial Parthenogenesis and Fertilisation." It ought to be interpreted merely mechanically, he said a will be issued during the autumn by the Cambridge plant and an animal ought to be mechanisms, machines, University Press as British agents for the University of nothing else, but of so complicated a construction that Chicago Press. The subject of the book is an analysis of the analysis is even yet unable to explain this merely mechanical mechanism by which the male sex cell, the spermatozoon, machinery. In still older times people believed a vis vitalis to develop.-Professor Dr. J. to be active in the organism that did not accord with any causes the animal egg Katzenstein, who presides over the Phonetics Department of other power in nature and that caused life. But this the Nose and Ear Clinic at the University of Berlin, is vis vitalis came more and more into contradiction with the publishing, through Mr. S. Karger in Berlin, the "Archives principles of science until at last the contrary doctrine for Experimental and Clinical Phonetics " (a supplement to arose, that life was only a complicated example of the proPassow’s and Schaefer’s Contributions), of which one volume cesses predominant in lifeless nature. This opinion was will consist of three or four parts, and of which the price founded on the knowledge that plants and animals are comwill be 24 marks. As in certain medical centres phonetic posed of chemical combinations known also outside the laboratories and out-patient departments have now been organisms ; that these combinations influence one another officially established, it has been felt that a publication which according to the universal chemical laws ; that everywhere in should collect and collate work relating to phonetics would the living body physical powers are active. In this manner have a proper place in medical literature. -A fifth edition of, physiology becomes the chemistry and physics of organisms. Dr. I. Burney Yeo’s "Manual of Medical Treatment"is: But the greater the progress in experimental physiology, he announced by Messrs. Cassell and Co. The revision has: continued, the better we learn to use our knowledge of nonbeen carried out by Dr. Raymond Crawfurd and Dr. E. living matter for the explanation of the processes of life, the Farquhar Buzzard, who collaborated with the author in the more we understand that a complete physico-chemical fourth edition.-Her Majesty the Queen has intimated analysis is impossible for any important process of life. her willingness to receive a copy of a new work to be! Behind all the physico-chemical facts found out by our published by the St. Catherine Press for the National Food physiological studies an unknown factor is hiding, an x Reform Association, entitled -"Rearing an Imperial Race," not to be solved by levers and screws and chemical reagents. and edited by Charles E. Hecht, M.A. The volume purports! For his part he refused both the exclusive vital and the to supply a key to forthcoming legislation from the stand- exclusive mechanical dogma, but did not wish to subordinate matter and to draw from the the living to the point of health and the domestic arts. ,
’
lifeless
964 dominion of lifeless nature only parallels for the explanation of life. He was sure that the laws of energy are valid in the organism as well as in unorganised nature, and that the change of matter and of power in animals and plants depends only on them. Life is based upon such transformations of energy —" Elementarprozesse "-and these elementary processes are bound to elementary mechanisms in the cells of animals and plants. These elementary processes and elementary mechanisms are not thrown together without order in the living body ; they are united by an invisible string or chain, and this invisible chain or force that maintains the order among the elementary processes represents the true difference between life and any event in lifeless nature. Life, he concluded, has its own laws as well as light, heat, chemistry ; which does not exclude the fact that the physico-chemical laws reign in the elementary processes of a living body. Professor BENJAMIN MooRE and Dr. ARTHUR WEBSTER contributed an interesting paper on the Synthesis of Organic Matter by Sunlight in Presence of Inorganic Colloids and its Relationship to the Origin of Life. They pointed out that the whole world of living plants and animals depends for its present continuance upon the synthesis of organic compounds from inorganic by the green colouring matter of the plant acting as a transformer of light energy into chemical A little reflection, they said, shows that this energy. present state of affairs must have evolved in complexity from something more simple existing at the commencement. For chlorophyll, which now acts as the transformer, is itself one of the most complex of known organic substances, and could not have been the first organic substance to evolve from inorganic matter. In considering the origin of life, the start must be made in a purely inorganic world without a trace of organic matter, either plant or animal. As Schafer has pointed out, any other supposition merely removes the seat of origin to some conveniently remote planet, and pushes the origin back farther in time, but brings us no nearer to a real solution. The earlier theories and views as to spontaneous generation all possess the error of attempting to start life amidst organic nutritive material which could not be there until life had already appeared. The complex organic substances, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and all the many other organic cell constituents, are late products along the line of evolution of life, and the beginning lies at a level much below that of the bacterium or diatom. As a result of about 18 months of experimental work, they have, they believe, obtained evidence of the first organic step in the evolution. When dilute solutions of colloidal ferric hydroxide, or the corresponding uranium compound, are exposed to strong sunlight, or the light of a mercury arc, there are synthesised the same organic compounds which are at present formed as the first stage in the process of organic synthesis by the green plant-namely, formaldehyde and formic acid. If, now, we consider a planet exposed to the proper conditions of temperature and sunlight, that chain of events can be followed, which not only can but must occur. At first, as the planet cools down, only elements would be present, at a lower temperature binary compounds form, next simple crystalloidal salts arise. Then, by the union of single molecules into groups of 50 or 60, colloidal aggregates appear. As these colloidal aggregates increase in complexity, they also become more delicately balanced in structure, and are meta-stable or labile-that is, they are easily destroyed by sudden changes in environment, but, within certain limits, are peculiarly sensitive to energy changes, and can take up energy in one form’ and transform it into another. These labile colloids take up water and carbon dioxide, and, utilising the sunlight streaming upon the plant, produce the simplest organic structures. Next these simpler organic structures, reacting with themselves, and with nitrogenous inorganic matter, continue the process and build up more and more complex, and also more labile, organic colloids, until finally these acquire the property of transforming light energy into chemical energy. The problem of the origin of life hence acquires, in their view, the aspect of an experimental inquiry with vast opportunities for obtaining more exact knowledge. From this first step in the organic synthesis advance must be made to study how more and more complex organic compounds can be evolved. But it is clear, they concluded, that by the continued action of this "law of molecular complexitylife must originate, that forms of life are now
originating, that the origin of life was no fortuitous accident, and that the same processes are guiding life onwards to higher evolution in a progressive creation. The
Effect of Low Temperatures on Cold-blooded Animals.
To the Section of Physiology the committee, consisting of Professor SwALE VINCENT (chairman) and Mr. A. T. CAMERON (secretary), presented its report (drawn up by the secretary) stating that Messrs. Cameron and Brownlee had carried out experiments on frogs (R. pipiens). They froze at a temperature of 0.44°-0.02°C., in a manner very similar to that of solutions isotonic with their body fluids. They would survive a temperature of - 1° C., but not one of 1.8°C. The heart tissue, whether exsected or in vivo, of these frogs survived a temperature of - 2.5°, but was killed by one of - 3.0° C. Other observers had shown that frogs’ muscular tissue would survive a temperature of - 2’ 90 C., while the peripheral nerves were not killed by much lower tempera. tures. Hence the cause of death was probably connected with a specific temperature effect on the brain or cord. Full details of these results would shortly be published, and the committee requested to be reappointed with a grant of £10. Dr. DAWSON TURNER read a paper in the same section on Radium Rays in Thyroid Hypersecretion, which is published in full in our present issue (p. 924). -
Tests for the Mental Diagnosis of Children. Mr. W. H. WINCH, in the Subsection of Psychology, offered an additional series of tests supplementary to those presented to the British Psychological Society on May 6th, 1911. The tests consisted of series of statements propounding a simple problem in intelligence, to be presented in writing to the children and read without undue emphasis by a person whose voice and accent are familiar to the children. As an example the following (No. 4 in Set 5) is quoted : "If more than half the boys in a class get all their sums right, and more than half the boys in the same class get no mistakes in dictation, do you think there were any boys who got all their sums right and also no mistakes in dictation, or do you think there were no boys who got all their sums right and also no mistakes in dictation, or can’t you tell ?2 You must say why." The methods of marking were described. It was claimed that these tests help to measure the higher mental faculties, and not being taught in schools form a good measure of the pupil’s natural ability as distinct from the school’s pedagogic proficiency. They indicate subnormality or backwardness, and assist in grading pupils on a basis of natural ability. They may help in distinguishing mental differences, if any, between boys and girls and the different levels of mental ability in schools of different social class," and in selecting scholarship children. The results of the tests correlate fairly with age and still more closely with mental proficiency as indicated by"school standards." They show a considerable difference in reasoning ability among children of difEerent social classes, and that the difference between boys and girls in non-numerical reasoning is only slightly in favour of the boys. The pedagogical efficiency of schools has very little bearing on the results of these tests. Colour Perception in Children. Mr. C. W. VALENTINE, in the same subsection, read an interesting communication on his observations of a three months old child regarding its perception of and preference for colour. The observations, which extended over a period of four weeks, consisted in measuring the periods during which the child looked at either of two coloured wools displayed simultaneously before him for two minutes. It was noted that while the brightest colours were preferred in general, some other factor of choice must exist, for the order of preference shown by the child was yellow, white, red, pink, brown, black, green, violet, and blue. Mr. Valentine’s suggestion was that the capacity of colours for stimulating muscular strength, which according to Fere was greatest at the warm end and weakest at the cold end of the spectrum,
Reasoning
possible determining factor. A Preliminary Note on Habit-formnation in Guinea-pigs. Miss E. M. SMITH (Cambridge), in the same subsection,
was a
described some observations carried out under the direction of Dr. Myers at the Cambridge Psychological Laboratory this year, forming part of a larger scheme to test the inheritability in guinea-pigs of such characters as rapidity
965
learning, ability to profit by practice, accuracy of per- yet there is conveyance of stimulus, as shown by disturbThe tests used were : (a) the ances of coordination. The protoplasmic links between the formance, retentiveness, &c. labyrinth test, and (b) a new form of sensory discrimination cells must therefore be the conductors of stimulus. test, in which photic and ordinary stimuli were combined. The Morphology of the Mammalian Tonsil. Although this preliminary investigation was necessarily someMiss M. L. HETT, in the same section, said that tonsils what general, it has brought to light hitherto unrecorded were normally present in most mammalian orders. Except points of interest concerning guinea-pig behaviour, tending: in man did not atrophy till extreme old age. She they to show the superiority of the females over the males in the described Hammar’s division of animal tonsils into primary matter of reliability and accuracy as regards both the maze and secondary, according as to whether lymphoid tissue was test and the sensory discrimination test. of
.
,
,
laid down in the tuberculum tonsillare or not, and discussed A New Theory of Laughter. the difficulties presented by this classification. Investigation Dr. W. McDoUGALL reviewed the problems presented byr of many tonsils showed a distinctive gross anatomy for each laughter to the great thinkers, from Aristotle to Bergson,. animal group, characteristic always of the order, frequently discussing the various theories enunciated, and suggestedl of the family, sometimes of the genus. that laughter was primarily and fundamentally the antidote’ The Problem of Sleeping Sickness. to sympathy, preventing us from dwelling unduly on the Professor E. A. MINCHIN in the same section discussed depressing influences that surrounded us. While the sympa- Some Aspects of the Sleeping Sickness Problem. After thetic tendencies of the species were of the first importance the trypanosome and its life-history, he gave a for social life, it would have been a serious disadvantage to describing of the symptoms caused by its growth in the human picture the species if each man had had to suffer sympathetically, ini The symptoms showed themselves in two periodshowever small a degree, all the minor pains of his fellows, subject. first characterised by irregular fever and swollen the which would overwhelm him with their cumulative force. the neck, the second corresponding Nature had solved the problem of the necessity of makinglymphatics, especially in to the invasion of the nervous system by the parasites by : each man continue to share in some degree all the more of the lymphatics to the cerebro-spinal fluid. With the intense feelings of his fellow men, by sparing him the way second stage drowsiness, lethargy, and emaciation set in. needless suffering that would have been entailed by his The two periods varied in length, but the milder the disease : sharing also their multitudinous lesser pains, and the facultythe longer was the first period, and in West Africa the of laughter was, therefore, a protective one. second was sometimes never reached at and .
,
,
.
;
:
all,
stage
The Evolution of Man from the Ape. Professor CARVETH READ, in the Section of Anthropology, read a paper on the Differentiation of Man from the Anthropoids. He attributed man’s evolution to his taste for animal food enabling him to wander beyond the confines of the forest, which led him to associate with others in pursuit of game. A consequently more regular food-supply would put an end to the seasonal relation between fruit time and the marriage- and birth-rate. Articulate speech would arise from cooperation. The upright position, with its effect on the alimentary canal, would be due to its advantage as a hunting posture, and the increased difficulty of catching a rabbit over plucking a banana would give rise to an increase in intelligence and the evolution of weapons and snares. Cannibalism was not generally associated with flesh eating, but was to be regarded as belonging to the experimental stage of human development. Dr. HARRY CAMPBELL, discussing the factors in man’s evolution from the anthropoids, said that evolving man like his anthropoid ancestor was polygamous. The man with the best physique and the largest intellectual endowment secured the largest offspring to inherit these endowments. Man’s upward evolution had taken place essentially through bloodshed. The factors influencing the moral evolution of mind were the restrictions and obligations of communal life and motherhood, from which the altruistic sentiment took its rise.1 Living Cultures of the Embryonic Ileccrt on the
Kinematograph. Professor H. BRAUS in the Section of Zoology exhibited on the kinematograph certain delicate phenomena of movement that were too rapid or too slow for simple inspection. The beating heart of a frog larva (Rana esculenta) 6 mm. long, perceivable only as a dot on a black background, was shown by magnifying it. It was an S-shaped tube. It was seven days old when photographed, but the rate of pulsation was about 80 per minute as on the first day. The movement was peristaltic, pulsation of sinus, atrium, ventricle, and bulbus being clearly distinguishable. The application of chemical rays caused suspension and irregularity. There were also typical refractory periods in certain cases. The proof of growing was afforded by photographing pigment cells at ten minute intervals for ten hours. As these are shown on the screen in a few minutes they increase in thickness, ameeboid movements, and so forth, appearing to take place rapidly. The heart has no ganglion cells at either the beginning or the end of the experiment, and nerves proper are still a long way off. It consisted of two epithelial membranes, the cells lying in a compact layer. The heart cultivated in vitro possesses at first no cross striping and no microscopically distinguishable muscle cells, so the stimulus cannot be conducted by muscle ; 1
THE
LANCET, May 24th, 1913, p. 1473.
less normal life with trypanoThe tsetse flies which conveyed the somes in their blood. parasite were not infective until the parasite reached the fly’s salivary glands. This full development took place in only about 5 per cent. of flies fed on infected persons. In the rest the parasites are digested by the fly. The difficulty of combating the disease was in part due to the fact that the specific trypanosomes were not confined for one part of their cycle to man, but could live and propagate in certain other animals-e.g., antelopes, and some forms of domestic stock. It was proposed to exterminate the big game, but the domestic stock would still remain. Again, extermination of the flies’ natural food might drive them into closer proximity to human habitations. Therefore such extermination should at first be done only experimentally and in limited areas. As to destroying the fly itself, gallinaceous birds were its chief Wild enemy, scratching up and destroying its pupa. gallinaceous birds should therefore be protected and fresh ones, such as the Indian jungle fowl, should be imported. The keeping of domestic fowls by the natives should be
persons
might live
a more or
encouraged. The Reading Optophone." Probably one of the most remarkable inventions of modern times is the reading optophone," exhibited on Sept. 11th by Dr. E. E. FOURNIER D’ALBE. Last year Dr. d’Albe showed at the Optical Convention in London an optophone," whereby the blind were enabled to recognise bright lights by I
their conversion into sound. The "reading optophone" consists essentially of a perforated disc which revolves above an electric lamp. Above the disc is a detector of selenium interposed in circuit with a battery and telephone. The flashes of light through the perforations in the disc are transformed by the detector into noises in the telephone. The interposition of an opaque object between the disc and the detector inhibits the telephonic sound, but the interposition of a lantern slide, partly transparent and partly opaque, breaks up the sound into different combinations of notes. Printed material gives notes differing with each letter. With practice it becomes easy to read the letters interposed Dr. d’Albe is now between the disc and the detector.
perfecting the instrument to make it possible for ordinary letterpress on paper to be read thereby.
CENTENARIANS.-Miss Harriett Light, of Southside, Weston-super-Mare, celebrated the 100th anniversary Weston possesses another of her birthday last week. centenarian in the person of Mrs. Cooper, of Upper Churchroad.-Mrs. Waugh, of Magor, Monmouthshire, who celebrated the 100th anniversary of her birthday on August 29th, has received a congratulatory letter from the King.-Mrs. Harriet Elizabeth Bignall, Elmside Estate, Exeter, has recently died, aged 100 years.