BTEX in indoor air of beauty salons: Risk assessment, levels and factors influencing their concentrations

Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 159 (2018) 102–108

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BTEX in indoor air of beauty salons: Risk assessment, levels and factors influencing their concentrations

T

Abbas Norouzian Baghania, Roohollah Rostamib, Hossein Arfaeiniac, Sadegh Hazratid, Mehdi Fazlzadeha,e,⁎, Mahdieh Delikhoonf a

Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran c Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Bushehr University of Medical Sciences, Bushehr, Iran d Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, Ardabil, Iran e Social Determinants of Health Research Center, School of Public Health, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, Ardabil, Iran f Department of Occupational Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran b

A R T I C LE I N FO

A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Beauty salons BTEX Indoor air quality Cancer risk Makeup Ventilation

Concentrations of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene (BTEX) were investigated in indoor air quality of 50 beauty salons in Ardabil, Iran (2017). Ten liters of air samples were collected from each salons regarding the recommended method and analyzed by GC-FID for BTEX concentration. Also, structural and operational conditions of the salons were studied with a self-designed questioner. The results of this study show that the mean concentration of benzene (32.40 ± 26.38) higher than the recommended levels by Health Canada, ANSES and HKSAR. Among the BTEX, ethylbenzene (62.38 ± 32.37) has the most concentrations in the salons. Subsequently, the cancer risk values in different age groups of birth to <6, 6 to <21, and 21 to <81 for benzene (1.83 × 10−3, 2.76 × 10−4 and 1.50 × 10−4, respectively) and ethylbenzene (4.9 × 10−4, 7.30 × 10−5 and 3.52 × 10−5, respectively) for long time exposure were drastically higher than the recommended levels. The results showed that the benzene concentration is significantly influenced by the structural and operational conditions of type of ventilation system, area of the salons, the number of people in the salon, number of services in the salons, and while doing of bridal makeup.

1. Introduction Cosmetology is a common female skill in around the world; and cosmetologists employed in beauty salons (Pak et al., 2013; Ronda et al., 2009). In addition, females have always referred to these salons to use different range of beauty treatments; and beauty salons have supplied extensive services such as pedicures, manicures, facials, hair dryer, hair dye, make up, hairdressing, epilation, eyelash extension, and removal of face hair or body hair etc (Harling et al., 2010; Lewis et al., 2013; Mandiracioglu et al., 2009; Pak et al., 2013; Ronda et al., 2009; Tsigonia et al., 2010). In these salons beauticians is utilized range of cosmetic products including shampoo, lipstick, persulfates, oil and bleaching powder, hair spray, gel, mascara, perfume, rouge, creams, lotions and cleansers and so on (Mandiracioglu et al., 2009; Pak et al., 2013; Ronda et al., 2009). Each of these cosmetic products can be released many components consisting of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC), phthalates, parabens,

⁎

carbon monoxide, 5-diamine, p-benzenediamine, p-toluenediamine, toluene-2, m-aminophenol, and methacrylates into the air of beauty salons (Harling et al., 2010; Lewis et al., 2013; Mandiracioglu et al., 2009; Tsigonia et al., 2010). Furthermore, findings of previous studies have reported that some factors such as relative humidity, materials used in building interiors, temperature and ventilation can be influenced on indoor air beauty salons (Alaves et al., 2013; Hazrati et al., 2016a, 2015; Mandiracioglu et al., 2009; Tsigonia et al., 2010). Besides, customers and cosmetologists can be exposed to large number of chemical compounds that caused diseases such as respiratory disorders, bladder and urothelial cancer, leukemia and multiple myeloma (Brown et al., 1992; Harling et al., 2010; Pak et al., 2013; Zahm et al., 1992). For example, several studies presented that between using cosmetic products and bladder and urothelial cancer have correlated (Harling et al., 2010; Pak et al., 2013). Moreover, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene (BTEX)

Corresponding author at: Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (A.N. Baghani), [email protected] (R. Rostami), [email protected] (S. Hazrati), [email protected], [email protected] (M. Fazlzadeh), [email protected] (M. Delikhoon). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.04.044 Received 8 March 2018; Received in revised form 19 April 2018; Accepted 20 April 2018 0147-6513/ © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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guideline (under 4 °C). Samples were saved at −20 °C freezer and analyzed within 72 h after collection (Rezazadeh Azari et al., 2011). BTEX concentrations were measured in afternoon (2:00–7:00 AM local time). Furthermore, sampling was carried out from breathing zone (150 cm) (Hazrati et al., 2016a, 2015).

compounds are the main pollutants that released into the air of beauty salons from cosmetic products (Alaves et al., 2013; Dehghani et al., 2018; Fazlzadeh Davil et al., 2012; Ronda et al., 2009). International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has categorized benzene as carcinogen and it can be caused the main impacts on human health consisting of neurological disorders and cancer (Demirel et al., 2014; Smoke and Smoking, 2004). However, standard values for emission of chemical components, especially BTEX in beauty salons have not been defined in Iran yet and state and local agencies have no monitoring programs in this regard. In addition, there are no previous exposures studies about beauty salons in Iran. Hence, for these reasons we used the guideline proposed by NAOSH (North American Occupational Safety and Health) for BTEX in the air of beauty salons. To our knowledge no data have been presented on BTEX components in beauty salons in Iran. Hence, the present study aims to 1) investigate concentration of BTEX in indoor air of beauty salons and 2) risk assessment of exposure to BTEX in three age groups in indoor air of beauty salons.

2.3. Sample preparation and analysis Firstly, target compounds were elicited from charcoal tubes using two milliliters of carbon disulfide. Then, samples were gradually stirred for twenty minutes. After that, the solvent was transferred to the GC vials and target contaminants were measured using a GC (Agilent 7890A- FID detector) with a capillary column (30 m, TRB-1ms). Finally, temperatures of injector and detector were adjusted at 250 and 300 °C, respectively. Temperature of oven was designed at forty degree centigrade for ten minutes then ten degree centigrade per minute to 230 degree centigrade (NIOSH, 2003; Rezazadeh Azari et al., 2011). 2.4. QC & QA measures

2. Material and methods

QC and QA measures were accomplished based on previous works by Hazrati et al. (2015, 2016a). Hence, in this work the back and front parts of tubes were analyzed separately for checking breakthrough for all the samples. There were no evidence of target compounds in the charcoal tube sections. Ten samples were collected as blank samples and the concentrations of target compounds in blank samples limited from 0.00 to 0.036 (µg/m3) for benzene, 0.00–0.073 (µg/m3) for toluene, 0.00–0.129 (µg/m3) for ethylbenzene and 0.00–0.108 (µg/m3) for xylene. The mean recovery of 93% (88–116%) was determined for target compounds with relative SDs less than 2.00%. The calibration was carried out in five levels (0.01–50 ppm) of standard solutions and R2 values of 0.998 for benzene, 0.997 for ethylbenzene, 0.998 for toluene, and 0.988 for xylene were obtained.

2.1. Study area and data collection In order to selection of sampling locations, beauty salons were studied for their indoor air pollution in Ardabil city, capital of Ardabil province in North West of Islamic Republic of Iran (Fazlzadeh et al., 2015; Hazrati et al., 2016a, 2015). All of beauty salons in catchment areas of Ardabil urban health centers and health posts were listed and 50 out of 123 salons were selected using systematic random sampling method and monitored for BTEX compounds. In addition, information were collected via field measurements (temperature and humidity) and observations (ventilation: natural or mechanical or both; heating system: gas heater or radiator; material: plaster or ceramic), interviews (bridal makeup: yes or no) and fill out a questionnaire (operation: oneservice (hair dryer, makeup, hairdressing, hair coloring, facial shaving, haircut, epilation, manicure, facial steam, and eyelash extension), twoservices (hair dryer and makeup; makeup and facial shaving; hairdressing and facial shaving; hairdressing and hair coloring; makeup and hairdressing; haircut and manicure; makeup and hair coloring; makeup and facial steam; haircut and manicure; makeup and hair coloring; makeup and facial steam; facial shaving and facial steam) and multiservices (hair dryer, facial shaving and haircut; hair dryer, makeup and hairdressing; makeup, hairdressing and hair coloring; makeup, hair coloring and facial shaving; hair dryer, makeup and facial shaving; hair dryer, makeup and hair coloring; makeup, hair coloring and eyelash extension; hairdressing, epilation and eyelash extension; hairdressing, hair coloring and facial shaving; hair dryer, hair coloring and facial shaving)) in beauty salons in Ardabil, Iran in 2017. Data were analyzed using the SPSS statistical software, version 22. The relationship between target compounds were evaluated by Spearman's rho correlation coefficient. Additionally, for comparison of non-normal quantitative variables for example in this research heating system (gas heater and radiator) was used Mann-Whitney U test. Furthermore, Chi-squared tests are used when data (nonparametric) are categorized into several groups (for example operation: one-service, two-service and multi- service).

2.5. Cancer and non-cancer risk calculation Benzene is one of the most important harmful pollutant that has negative impacts on cosmetologists and customers (Pak et al., 2013). In order to evaluate the risk of BTEXs on the human health, cancer and non-cancer risk of these pollutant were calculated. Inhalation lifetime cancer risk (LTCR) of benzene and ethylbenzene were calculated based on the following equation (Harati et al., 2017; Hazrati et al., 2016a, 2015, 2016b; Li et al., 2008):

Cancer risk = CDI × CSF

(1)

where CDI (mg/kg/day) is chronic daily intake and CSF (mg/kg/day)−1 is inhalation cancer slope factor. In addition, the CDI was calculated by the following equation (Harati et al., 2017; Li et al., 2008):

CDI = (CA × IR × CF × ED × EF)/(AT × BW)

(2)

Where CA describes the concentration of target pollutants in beauty salons (µg/m3), CF and IR are the conversion factor (mg/µg) and inhalation rate, respectively. In addition, ED (yr), EF(days/yr), BW (kg) and AT (yr) are exposure duration, exposure frequency, body weight and average lifetime, respectively (Harati et al., 2017; Hazrati et al., 2016a, 2015; Li et al., 2008). Monte Carlo simulations used for calculating of inhalation lifetime cancer risk (LTCR) of benzene and ethylbenzene using Oracle Crystal Ball software 11.1.2.3 (Voas et al., 1997). Table 1 shows the selected parameters used for calculating of inhalation lifetime cancer risk (LTCR) of benzene and ethylbenzene. Hence, If LTCR > 1.00 × 10−6 it indicates carcinogenic effects of concern. In addition, If LTCR ≤ 1.00 × 10−6 as “acceptable” by World Health Organization (WHO) and United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). The non-carcinogenic of target components (BTEXs) can be computed by the hazard quotient (HQ), this means dividing CDI by the

2.2. Air sampling process Samples were collected according to the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) method number 1501. A soap bubble flow meter was used for calibration of flow rates. Sampling was carried out at 0.2 l per minute and hold for fifty minutes to collect ten liters of air volume. Sampling was performed using Charcoal sorbent tubes (SKC). Then, attached samples transfer to laboratory based on 103

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Table 1 Exposure variables recommendations for Monte Carlo simulations. Description

Parameters

Birth to <6 3

Inhalation rate (m /day) Body weight (kg) Exposure duration (year) Exposure frequency (day/year) Averaging time (day) Cancer slope factor (mg/kg/day) Inhalation reference concentration (mg/kg/day)

IR BW ED EF AT CSF RfC

6 to <21

21 to <81

9.75 ± 1.73 15.73 ± 0.55 14.36 ± 1.55 13.25 ± 4.03 53.4 ± 20.11 80 3 5 49 365 365 365 1095 1825 17,885 −2 −3 2.73 × 10 for benzene, 3.85 × 10 for ethylbenzene −2 -2 Benzene 3 × 10 , toluene 5, xylene 1 × 10 , ethylbenzene 1

reference concentration (RfC), HQ was figured using Eq. (3) (It is noted that both parameters in this equation have the same units (mg/kg-day)) (Harati et al., 2017; Hazrati et al., 2015; Pak et al., 2013):

HQ = CDI/RfC

References

Age groups (year)

((EPA), 2011) ((EPA), 2011) ((EPA), 2011) ((EPA), 2011) ((EPA), 2011) (Young, 2014) (EPA, 1999; Moolla et al., 2015)

recommended guidelines. Regarding Fig. 1, ethylbenzene is the most abundant of the four species. It consisted the low and the high levels of 5 and 132 µg/m3, respectively. The abundance concentrations of ethylbenzene could be linked to the activities in the salons as more than 30% salons have used simultaneously hair dryer, hair dye, hairdressing, facial shaving, and makeup. High concentrations of ethylbenzene is reported in the similar study by Ronda at al. (2009). In contrast, Tsigonia at al. (2010) reported that the predominant of VOCs in the beauty salons in Athens (Greece) were toluene and xylene (Tsigonia et al., 2010). In addition, Bruno et al. (2008) stated that the concentration of VOCs in non-residential indoor such as offices, gymnasiums and libraries were higher than outdoor levels; these are in line with the findings of our study (Bruno et al., 2008). Moreover, the mean ± standard deviation of temperature and relative humidity in this research were 25.38 ± 2.62 °C and 70.80 ± 2.35%, respectively.

(3)

Where; if HQ > 1 it shows, adverse non-carcinogenic is important. Furthermore, If HQ ≤ 1, it means as acceptable hazard (Demirel et al., 2014; Harati et al., 2017; Hazrati et al., 2016a, 2015; Li et al., 2008; Moolla et al., 2015; Tunsaringkarn et al., 2012; Zhang et al., 2012). According to EPA in 2011, exposure variables recommendations to estimate the CDI (Table 1), HQ and LTCR were applied. For calculating the CDI, the mean of target pollutants was used. Moreover, CSF for benzene and ethylbenzene are 0.00273 and 0.00385, respectively, and inhalation reference concentration for benzene, toluene, xylene, and ethylbenzene 30, 5000, 10, and 1000 µg/kg-day (EPA, 1999; Moolla et al., 2015; Young, 2014). It is noted that LTCR for toluene and xylene (TX) cannot be computed because CSF for these pollutants are not existed (Hazrati et al., 2015).

3.2. Influence of structural and ambient condition on BTEX concentration Concentration of BTEX was studied according to the structural (material of wall and ceiling, ventilation system type, salon area and heating system type) and ambient conditions (temperature and relative humidity). Fig. 2 shows the concentration of BTEX in beauty salons based on the structural and ambient conditions. The ambient conditions did not show significant influence on BTEX concentrations (p-value ≥ 0.05) (Table 2a and Fig. 3a); however, for the structural conditions (salon area and ventilation systems) there were significant influence on concentration of benzene (p-value ≤ .05) (Table 2a and Fig. 3a). Furthermore, Bruno at al. (2008) and Wargocki et al. (2002) reported that low ventilation in offices, gymnasiums and libraries could lead to a high concentration of target compounds in these non-residential indoor (Bruno et al., 2008; Wargocki et al., 2002). In addition, the heating system and wall material had not significant influence on BTEX concentrations (Table 2a). As it is clear in Fig. 2, the natural ventilation cannot support adequately air exchange to decrease benzene concentration. Due to BTEX can be released readily from the cosmetics and diffused in the microenvironment air. Influence of ventilation system also is reported in the previous researches (Hazrati et al., 2016a, 2015). Given the results, benzene concentration found to be significantly lower in the larger

3. Results and discussion 3.1. BTEX concentration in the beauty salons Mean concentrations of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene in the air of the fifty beauty salons were 32.40 ± 26.38, 16.10 ± 14.34, 62.38 ± 32.37, and 13.82 ± 11.6 µg/m3, respectively (Fig. 1). Furthermore, Tsigonia at al. (2010) reported that the total VOCs estimated in the beauty salons were ranged 100–1450 μg/m3, which could be in result of the cosmetic products, ventilation and the number of people in the salon (Tsigonia et al., 2010). With the results benzene is not exceeded the guidelines of HSE (U.K.), Ministry of Health and Medical Education, Iran (MHMEI), NIOSH, and ACGIH, while it is higher than for Health Canada, ANSES and HKSAR. However, the mean concentrations of toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene were lower than the

Fig. 1. Descriptive statistics for BTEX concentrations (µg/m3) in indoor air of in fifty beauty salons.

Fig. 2. Average concentration of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene in beauty salons based on the structural and ambient conditions. 104

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Table 2 a. Influence of (a) structural and environmental conditions and (b) operational conditions on BTEX concentration in the beauty salons. (a) Salon condition

Heating system Material Ventilation

Area Temperature Relative humidity

Different categorizes

Gas heater Radiator Plaster Ceramic Natural Mechanical Both – – –

Nonparametric test

P-value Benzene

Toluene

Ethylbenzene

Xylene

Mann-Whitney U

0.248

0.589

0.811

0.833

Mann-Whitney U

0.112

0.080

0.054

0.509

Chi-Square

0.005

0.863

0.850

0.871

Correlation Correlation Correlation

0.021 0.196 0.196

0.735 0.261 0.593

0.305 0.366 0.571

0.238 0.296 0.530

Benzene

Toluene

Ethylbenzene

Xylene

Mann-Whitney U

0.000

0.720

0.109

0.113

Chi-Square

0.007

0.001

1.000

0.000

Correlation Correlation

0.030 0.000

0.858 0.876

0.955 0.597

0.706 0.627

(b) Service

Bridal makeup Number of services

Number of people People per area

Different categorizes

Yes No One-service Two-services Multi-services – –

Nonparametric test

p-value

salons (coefficient of Spearman correlation (r) = −0.325), that could be related to dilution of benzene in the salons' air.

In order to understand the influence of operational condition in the beauty salons, in this study some operational factors namely the bridal makeup, number of simultaneous activities and number of people present in the salon were investigated. The results indicated that the operational factors had significant influence on the concentrations of benzene (Table 2b). From the operational factors, bridal makeup and the number of simultaneous services showed more extend effect of BTEX as it consisted significant influence of benzene, toluene and xylene, which could be in result of emission of BTEX form the various cosmetics in use for frequent makeup procedures and the bridal makeup (de Gennaro et al., 2014). This also could be consistent with the significant correlation (r = 0.406) between number of people present in the salons and benzene concentration (Table 2b). To confirm the effect of the number of people present in the salons with considering the area as an influencing factor in this research, parameter of people per area was calculated and studied for the influence on BTEX concentration (Fig. 3b). Hence, the results confirmed the influence of people/area (people/m2) on benzene concentration, which indicated higher benzene concentration in greater people/area, in agreement with the previous results (r = 0.497) (de Gennaro et al., 2014).

that drastically exceeded the suggested value by US EPA and WHO. Furthermore, the average of LTCRs for ethylbenzene in three age groups were estimated 4.9 × 10−4, 7.30 × 10−5, and 3.52 × 10−5, respectively. Hence, the LTCRs for ethylbenzene in different age groups were exceed the recommended value by US EPA and WHO. Similar finding is reported by Harati et al. (2017) (Harati et al., 2017) indoor air of automobile painters, Tehran (Iran) and Hazrati et al. (2016a) indoor air of residential buildings, Ardabil (Iran). In addition, different finding is reported by Demirel et al. (2014) (Demirel et al., 2014) in indoor air of primary-school children, Eskişehir (Turkey) and Hazrati et al. (2015) in indoor air of waterpipe cafés, Ardabil (Iran) with the average LTCR values of 4314 × 10−6 and 125 × 10−6 for benzene, respectively. According to standards, parameters examined for the model simulations sensitivity analysis of benzene and ethylbenzene LTCR included BW, IR, ED, AT, and EF. The percentage value relevant to each variable represents the amount of the LTCR accounted for by that variable. According to Table 4, the concentration of benzene and ethylbenzene had the highest positive contribution to affect the average LTCR for three age groups in the beauty salons, while Miri et al. (2016) stated that body weight was the most negative portion (−51.6%) to the mean LTCR in the ambient urban atmosphere of Tehran (Iran) (Miri et al., 2016). The finding of our study determined that the HQ of benzene, toluene, and ethylbenzene (BTE) were bellowed the reference levels while, the HQ of Xylene was more than 1. Therefore, the HQ for BTE are an acceptable limit for humans in indoor air of beauty salons.

3.4. Health risk assessment

4. Conclusion

The inhalation lifetime cancer risk that recommended as “acceptable hazard” by WHO is ranged between 1 × 10−5 and 1 × 10−6, but the United States Environmental Protection Agency recommended the inhalation lifetime cancer risk lower than 1 × 10−6 (Gong et al., 2017; Miri et al., 2016). Table 3 is shown the results of HQ and LTCR and the model simulations sensitivity analysis of benzene and ethylbenzene LTCR. As can be seen in Tables 3, 4, the mean of LTCRs for benzene in different age groups birth to < 6, 6 to < 21, and 21 to < 81 were calculated 1.83 × 10−3, 2.76 × 10−4, and 1.50 × 10−4, respectively,

Concentration of BTEX has found lower than the guideline values in this research, only benzene concentration was higher than some guideline values but not excess than HSE (U.K.), MHMEI (Iran), NIOSH, and ACGIH. In a conservative view benzene concentration related to cosmetics in the beauty salons is high and need to be a serious point of attention. Moreover, ethylbenzene was noticeably high in the salons. Regarding the results, BTEX concentrations in the salons were not affected by the material of walls and ceiling, kind of heating system, temperature, and relative humidity; however, the salons with both

3.3. Influence of operational situation on BTEX concentration

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Fig. 3. Concentration of BTEX in the beauty salons as a function of a) the ambient temperature, relative humidity and salon area and b) number of peoples in the salon, and people/area of the salon.

the salon, number of people present in the salon, bridal makeup, and people/area. The worthy point of the result is the influence of people/ area on benzene concentration, which show lower benzene levels in lower people/area. Regarding the risk assessment of BTEX concentrations in the beauty salons in this research, it found that only xylene has unallowable non-

mechanical and natural ventilation system showed lower BTEX concentrations. Also, the greater salons have lower BTEX levels as significant correlation was found between salon area and benzene. The other finding of this research was the significant influence of operational conditions on BTEX concentrations. Namely the benzene concentration was significantly influenced by the number of services in

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Table 3 Comparison of the results of HQ and LTCR in the present study and other linked studies. HQ and LTCR HQ LTCR LTCR LTCR HQ LTCR HQ LTCR HQ LTCR HQ

Benzene Mean SD Birth to <6 6 to <21 21 to <81 Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean

Toluene 1

0.108 × 10 8.79 × 101 1.83 × 10-3 2.76 × 10−4 1.50 × 10−4 271.23 – 3.21 × 10−2 0.51 0.47 125 × 10−6 43.50 – 4314 × 10−6 0.0057

Ethylbenzene −3

−2

3.22 × 10 2.68 × 10−3 – – – 3.112 – – 0.014 0.015 – 0.26 – – 0.043

6.23 × 10 3.23 × 10-2 4.9 × 10−4 7.30 × 10−5 3.52 × 10−5 6538.1 – 3.63 × 10−2 0.012 0.013 – 1.15 – – 0.015

Xylene

Reference

1.38 0.116 × 101 – – – 768.01 – – 0.47 0.7 – 17.32 – – 0.0104

This study

(Harati et al., 2017)

(Hazrati et al., 2016a) (Hazrati et al., 2015)

(Demirel et al., 2014)

Table 4 Sensitivity to LTCR for different age ranges. Age groups (year) Birth to <6

C (%) IR (%) BW (%) EF (%) AT (%)

6 to <21

21 to <81

Benzene

Ethylbenzene

Benzene

Ethylbenzene

Benzene

Ethylbenzene

51.8 1.9 9.6 00 36.6

29.3 6.7 11 0.9 52

80.2 0.2 18.3 0.3 00

62.3 0.2 37.3 0.1 0.3

97.7 1.9 00 0.1 00

93 6.7 00 0.3 00

HQ: hazard quotient; ILTCR: integrated lifetime cancer risk. C: concentration of the pollutant, IR: inhalation rate, ED: Exposure duration, BW: body weight, AT: Averaging time, and EF: Exposure frequency.

cancer risk. On the other hand, benzene and ethylbenzene are expected to have notably higher cancer risk than the recommended levels by US EPA and WHO.

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