- Email: [email protected]
Calculation of Emissions from Transport Services and their use for the Internalisation of External Costs in Road Transport
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect Procedia Engineering 192 (2017) 677 – 682
TRANSCOM 2017: International scientific conference on sustainable, modern and safe transport
Calculation of emissions from transport services and their use for the internalisation of external costs in road transport František Petroa,*, Vladimír Konečnýa a
University of Zilina, Faculty of Operation and Economics of Transport and Communications, Department of Road and Urban Transport, Univerzitna 1, 010 26 Zilina, Slovakia
Abstract Impact of transport operations on the environment is an important criterion of quality services. Requirements for environmental acceptability has recently escalated, manufacturing and trading companies require the carriers to declare the impact of their activities on the environment. Area of concern are the emission factors used for calculating emissions and their unification. For this reason it was accepted norm STN EN 16258, which deals with the methodology of calculation and declaration of energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions from transport services. Existing emission calculators do not allow the calculation of the external costs of transport services in the area of transport services impacts on the environment. Article deals with the design and application of the calculator of external costs of transport services as an extension, respectively another important function, emission calculator for field of transport services. © 2017 2017The TheAuthors. Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license © Published by Elsevier Ltd. This Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of TRANSCOM 2017: International scientific conference on (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-review responsibility of the scientific committee of TRANSCOM 2017: International scientific conference on sustainable, sustainable,under modern and safe transport. modern and safe transport Keywords: environment; emissions; emission calculator; external costs; internalisation.
1. Introduction Transport plays an important role in social and economic development of the state. But on the other hand, in relation to the environment is a source of emissions, noise and vibration, it puts pressure on space and causes health and safety risks. Nowadays, ordinary consignee of the goods has no overview of how much energy is consumed and emissions produced while until his shipment arrives practically until the "door". Also increases the total transport capacity by the carrier, so it is possible to conclude that the transport of goods is a growing concern. It is gradually putting pressure on carriers to operate vehicles that are environmentally friendly. Impact on the environment are among the quality criteria set out in the STN EN 13816 Transport, Logistics and Services, Public transport, Definition, targeting and * Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected]
1877-7058 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of TRANSCOM 2017: International scientific conference on sustainable, modern and safe transport
doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2017.06.117
678
František Petro and Vladimír Konečný / Procedia Engineering 192 (2017) 677 – 682
measurement of quality of service. Increasingly, suppliers of services required to declare impact of their activities on the environment and through the issuing of documents containing specific amounts of pollutant emissions from traffic, especially carbon dioxide (CO2) as the most widespread greenhouse gas. 1.1. Impact of transport operations on the environment Traffic operation has a negative effect on all elements of the environment (air, water, soil, fauna and flora). Most affected, however, the air and the influence of the combustion of hydrocarbon fuels in internal combustion engines of vehicles, of formation of toxic and carcinogenic substances (CO, NOx, SO2, heavy metals and particulates), and substances which contribute to the global warming of the atmosphere of the Earth (CO 2, N2O, CH4). Production development in transport emissions in the Slovak Republic has in recent years declining, as can be seen in Table 1. It is caused with the growing positive impact of new generation vehicles with the environmental and energy parameters more suitable and more specific legislation in the field of ecologisation (emission limits). The total production of basic pollutants from traffic has a major share of road transport. Shares of the other modes of transport in the production of emissions is very small. Individual car transport to the production of CO accounts for 76,11 %, road transport 19,24 %, road public passenger transport 1,33 %. [1,4] Table 1. Overview of the total emissions produced in the Slovak Republic for each year Total transport emissions 1995 2000 2005 2010 (thous. tonnes) CO 156,743 121,909 108,688 49,307 CO2 4 377,592 4 319,283 6 394,860 6 997,699 NOx 45,452 38,297 41,828 45,548 VOC 34,116 26,145 20,089 7,758 SO2 2,490 0,857 0,236 0,254 TPM 2,648 2,374 2,821 1,571 PM10 2,187 PM2,5 -
2013 41,937 6 191,304 35,735 7,132 0,074 1,030 1,551 1,302
2014
2015
36,961 5 780,233 32,055 6,443 0,047 0,900 1,389 1,154
37,285 5 933,670 32,041 6,438 0,047 0,860 1,361 1,121 Source: [4]
In addition to stricter environmental legislation, which obliges hauliers change fleets, there's also another cost item, which is very important when doing business in road freight transport and that is the toll. Amount of the toll is determined in each country according to other parameters, but essentially depends on the distance traveled, the type of roads, the number of axles, the type of vehicle and the emission class. Therefore, the toll is for that reason more convenient for transport companies procure newer vehicles because the higher the emission class of a given vehicle, it will lead to lower costs for tolls. 2. Methods for calculating the greenhouse gas emissions Different approaches to calculate energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from traffic have led to the need to standardize their methodologies. In 2012 was the European standard EN 16258 Methodology for calculation and declaration of energy consumption and GHG emissions of transport services (freight and passengers) approved by the European Committee for Standardisation (CEN). This standard has been taken over in september 2013 by slovak standardization system in the slovak language under the name STN EN 16258: 2013. The methodology of calculation and declaration of energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions from transport services (freight and passenger traffic). The purpuse of this standard is to make it widely applicable across the transport sector and accessible to a very diverse user group. The use of standards provides a common approach to the calculation and declaration of energy consumption and emissions for transport services, irrespective of the difficulty of transportation technology and transportation process. The standard ensures that the declarations have greater consistency and transparency, and that the energy consumed and emissions produced correspond to the load, respectively occupancy of vehicles. Standard specifies requirements and methodology for the calculation and reporting of energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from transport services. However, in the calculations of energy consumption and emissions associated with vehicles it takes into account energy consumption and related emissions and energy processes for fuels and / or electricity used vehicles (including for example the production and distribution of fuel). This ensures that the standard assumes the implementation calculations and in declaring the users of transport services approach "well-to-wheel". [5]
František Petro and Vladimír Konečný / Procedia Engineering 192 (2017) 677 – 682
Well-to-Wheel (WtW) is an approach to monitor energy consumption and emission production from production of energy to its final consumptions. It consists of two parts: x Well-to-Tank (WtT) - energy consumption and emission production during energy production x Tank-to-Wheel (TtW) - energy consumption and emission production during vehicle operation [5]
Fig. 1. The life cycle of a vehicle
In freight transport, there is also a standard that deals with the structure and content of the declaration of the freight transport on the environment. This is a standard STN TNI CEN / TR 14310 Freight Services. The promulgation and reporting of environmental performance in freight transport network (includes CEN / TR 14310: 2003). The aim of the standard is to provide guidance for preparing (creating) environmental declarations and reports. It contains recommendations on the content and structure of the documentation and evaluation of the impact of freight on the environment. The standard provides guidance on the structure declaration, it does not give advice on the procedure for calculating the emissions (or methodology about emission factors). Standard applies to road freight, rail freight transport and maritime transport. It does not apply to air freight or procedure to applied for passenger transport. Standard includes general recommendations relating to these modes of transport and specific recommendations for each one of them. 2.1 Analysis of emission calculators Emissions calculator is a software-computer equipment, with which we can calculate the emissions for specific transportation. The software can either be self-installable, part of another program or Internet application. It simplifies the work of a dispatcher, respectively worker of the transportation company in declaring the emissions produced by the vehicle. These three emission calculators have been analyzed: Map & Guide, NTMCalc Basic 4.0 and EcoTransit. a) Map & Guide It is a software tool from a reputable company PVT, which is aimed to total transportation planning, routes planning, calculate social legislation, calculate tolls and vehicle emissions. The program used to calculate emissions with a fixed number of particles determined by spent fuel at individual rides, the amount is determined in grams per kilometer. [6] b) NTMCalc Basic 4.0 NTM is a non-profit organization founded in 1993 to create a common base of values on how to calculate the environmental impact for all the different modes of transport, including transport of goods and passengers. [7] c) EcoTransit EcoTransit identifies the environmental impacts of freight transport in terms of direct energy consumption and emissions when operating vehicles for the transportation of products. In addition, the calculation covers the indirect energy consumption and emissions associated with the production, transport and distribution of energy required for operation of the vehicle. [8]
679
680
František Petro and Vladimír Konečný / Procedia Engineering 192 (2017) 677 – 682 Table 2. Analysis of strengths and weaknesses of emission calculators Parameters Map & Guide Choice of means of transport? Yes The calculation of direct and indirect No emissions? Free availability? Yes (registration required) Knowledge of emission factors? Yes Design declaration? No Internalization of emissions? No
NTMCalc Basic 4.0 Yes
EcoTransit Yes
No
Yes
Yes No Yes No
Yes No Yes No Source: elaborated by authors
Results of the analysis of emission calculators are reported in Table 2. It is important to note that neither of used emissions calculator does not include a function that would calculated emissions expressed in monetary terms. Regarding the availability of emission factors, only software Map & Guide has available emission factors by which they calculate the emissions produced on a given route. Calculators NTMCalc Basic 4.0 and Map & Guide are only trial versions of the software, therefore have limited possibilities to more precisely specifying the transport session. 3. The internalisation of external costs External costs of transport are the costs associated with the negative effects of transport activities on the environment and human life, they are costs associated with deleting their effects. In particular, the pollution of air, water and soil disturbance of ecosystems, noise pollution, traffic accidents (of the damage not covered by insurance), takes up space and overloading capacity. Categories of external costs are accident costs, air pollution costs (emissions), noise costs, congestion costs. [3, 9] The internalisation of external costs is an objectification costs and subsequently attributed to the those entities that cause them and are responsible for. Internalization is a tool to convert external effects of transport in monetary terms to those that actually cause these effects. The instruments include the internalisation of tolls, motor vehicle tax and the tax on mineral oils. An important document is the guide Handbook on External Cost of Transport. It is featured from studies and provides best practices and methodologies for valuation of the different categories of costs. It contains the amount of financial charges depending on the country, through which a transportation is conducted and the type of emissions, as in Table 5, and depending on the type of vehicle and the emission class, as in Table 7. [3, 9] 3.1 Calculation of emissions and internalisation of external costs in transportation from Žilina to Hamburg The objectivity of the results of the emissions is compiled by the model of a case study with the following information: x Articulated vehicle - articulated vehicle consisting of a tractor with 2 axles and a maximum permissible axle load with 18 600 kg of semi-trailer with 3 axles and a maximum permissible axle load 24,000 kg. x Emission class EURO V. Table 3. Comparison of emissions per emission calculators CO2 total [kg] Map & Guide 879,87 NTMCalc Basic 4.0 1 962,97 EcoTransit 2 130
CO2e [kg] 896,79 1 945,16 2 210
N2O [g] 56,67 74,71 6 090
CH4 [g] 2,13 1 820,83 Source: elaborated by authors
After entering the input values to the three emission calculators and the subsequent calculation, the output value are shown in Table 3. It is seen that the values are different in each case. The biggest differences are in the case of N2O between NTMCalc Basic 4.0 and EcoTransit calculator. Due to ignorance of the emission factors of these two calculators, we will take into account the results of the calculator Map & Guide. According to the guide Handbook on External Cost of Transport it is possible to quantify the emissions of two ways. In the first method, the costs of emissions are quantify specificly for each type of emissions in € / tonne and the second method, the costs are generally calculated in €c / vkm. In table 4 below, is stated amount of emissions produced during transportation Žilina - Hamburg, via software the Map & Guide. The emissions are expressed in tonnes. Furthermore, based on the amount of actual emissions will impose costs on emissions. [9]
681
František Petro and Vladimír Konečný / Procedia Engineering 192 (2017) 677 – 682 Table 4. Produced emissions in tonnes, transportation from Žilina to Hamburg CO2 CO2e NOx 0,87987 0,89679 0,003564
N2O 0,00005667
CH4 0,00000213 Source: [6]
3.2. Method of calculating the costs of emissions This method of calculating the cost of emissions is based on the cost on emissions and the amount of emissions produced during the transportation. Table 5 shows the prices for emissions in countries through which our transportation leads, and the calculations will take the resulting average value. Table 5. Costs for individual emissions in € / tonne Country Slovakia Czech republic Poland Germany average
Rural 54 030 43 028 47 491 48 583 48 283
PM2,5 Suburban 79 270 68 427 74 215 73 221 73 783
Urban 226 510 215 667 221 455 220 461 221 023
NOx
NMVOC
SO2
CO2
21 491 15 788 13 434 17 039 16 938
1 709 1 648 1 678 1 858 1 723
17 134 14 112 14 435 14 513 15 049
4,81
Source: [9]
Cost for emissions were calculated on the basis of prices for individual emissions in € / tonne, multiplied by the quantity of produced tons of various pollutants in the transport. The sum of the cost of emissions is the sum of the partial cost of emissions for a particular pollutant, see Table 6. Table 6. The total cost of the emissions in €, transportation from Žilina to Hamburg, 1. method Cost of the emissions [€] CO2 NOx 4,23 60,37
∑ in € 64,6 Source: elaborated by authors
3.3 Method of calculating the costs of emissions The second method of calculating the cost of emissions takes into account the distance traveled during transportation and costs are determined depending on the category of vehicle, emission class, and the area through which the transportation is conducted. Table 7. Cost for emissions in €c / vkm Vehicle category EURO class EURO 0 EURO I EURO II > 32 t EURO III EURO IV EURO V EURO VI
Urban 39,2 29,8 23,7 19,9 10,9 8,5 2,1
Suburban 25,1 18,1 17 13,9 8,7 6,3 0,9
Rural 17,7 12,5 12,5 10,1 6,8 3,4 0,5
Motorway 14,8 10,5 10,6 8,4 5,8 2,3 0,4 Source: [9]
In determining the amount of the cost of emissions are taken into account in terms of area, the motorway at 80% and 20% of the suburban area, as most transportation going down the highway and the rest passed through suburban areas. Urban areas were not taken into account as road freight transport vehicles are less likely to go straight through urban areas, while more prevented. The costs were obtained by multiplying the cost of emissions and the number of kilometers traveled particular vehicle over a certain area, see Table 8. Table 8. The total cost of the emissions in €, transportation from Žilina to Hamburg, 2. method Area Mileage [km] motorway 786,35 suburban 196,59 ∑ 982,94
Costs of emissions [€/vkm] 18,09 12,39 30,48 Source: elaborated by authors
682
František Petro and Vladimír Konečný / Procedia Engineering 192 (2017) 677 – 682
The resulting amount in the cost of emissions is the amount of € 30.48. Here you can see a marked difference between the two ways of calculating the cost of emissions because the price in this method is lower by € 34.12 for transport, compared to the first method. For comparison, the amount of external costs according to the emission classes of a vehicle, which was used for transport, the calculation was made for an articulated vehicle with the same parameters but with the EURO III emission limit. Again, based on data from the calculator Map & Guide. The resulting comparison is in Table 9. Table 9. A comparison of the total cost of € emissions, transportation from Žilina to Hamburg 1. 2.
method method
Emission limit EURO III
Emission limit EURO V
difference
126,19 € 93,38 €
64,6 € 30,48 €
61,59 € 62,9 € Source: elaborated by authors
4. Conclusion Demand for road freight transport continues to increase, resulting in increased pollution of exhaust gases. Reduce the production of emissions you can either make better technological design of internal combustion engine or the adoption of stricter legislation in the field of environmental protection. Height of external costs is higher if haulier operates the older vehicle. It is confirmed by the data in Table 9. The cost of emissions and the cost of the tolls are lower if the haulier operates generational newer vehicles with higher emission class. For this reason, operators of vehicle fleets are forced to change vehicles for newer types. Current emission calculators allow you to calculate only the emission values expressed in tonnes, kilograms or grams. However, from the analysis it was found that the use of three different calculators provide different results. Hence the need to unite emission factors like the united emission factor for CO2. Design methodology to unify the emission factors should be based on emission results directly in the operation of the vehicle where the evaluation device is located within the vehicle during driving. Such equipment include device from company HORIBA Automotive Test Systems, labeled GS-ONE OBS Unit Type HDV. Finally, it would be appropriate and useful to propose a further additional feature which is able to values of emissions that represent external costs, re-calculate on the financial statement. More detailed examination of the negative impact of transport on the environment will be devoted to my dissertation thesis Declaring the impact of transport services in road transport on the environment. The work will include a detailed analysis of the emission calculators and their emission factors. Research will draft methodology for new emission calculator along with additional features on the internalisation of external costs. References [1] KOREŇOVÁ, L.: Doprava a jej vplyv na životné prostredie v Slovenskej republike k roku 2009. 2010 [2] KIŠŠA, M.: Návrh kalkulátora spotreby energie a emisií skleníkových plynov podľa normy STN EN 16258:2013, (diplomová práca), Školiteľ: doc. Ing. Vladimír Konečný, PhD., Žilinská univerzita v Žiline, Fakulta prevádzky ekonomiky dopravy a spojov, Katedra cestnej a mestskej dopravy, 2014 [3] [11]STN TNI CEN/TR 14310 Služby nákladnej dopravy. Vyhlasovanie a podávanie správ o environmentálnom správaní v sieťach nákladnej dopravy, 2003 [12]GNAP, J., KONEČNÝ, V. Výpočet produkcie emisií z nákladnej dopravy. Zborník príspevkov. - Bratislava ; Žilina: Zväz logistiky a zasielateľstva SR ; Žilinská univerzita v Žiline, 2010. - ISBN 978-80-554-0276-5.
ScienceDirect Procedia Engineering 192 (2017) 677 – 682
TRANSCOM 2017: International scientific conference on sustainable, modern and safe transport
Calculation of emissions from transport services and their use for the internalisation of external costs in road transport František Petroa,*, Vladimír Konečnýa a
University of Zilina, Faculty of Operation and Economics of Transport and Communications, Department of Road and Urban Transport, Univerzitna 1, 010 26 Zilina, Slovakia
Abstract Impact of transport operations on the environment is an important criterion of quality services. Requirements for environmental acceptability has recently escalated, manufacturing and trading companies require the carriers to declare the impact of their activities on the environment. Area of concern are the emission factors used for calculating emissions and their unification. For this reason it was accepted norm STN EN 16258, which deals with the methodology of calculation and declaration of energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions from transport services. Existing emission calculators do not allow the calculation of the external costs of transport services in the area of transport services impacts on the environment. Article deals with the design and application of the calculator of external costs of transport services as an extension, respectively another important function, emission calculator for field of transport services. © 2017 2017The TheAuthors. Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license © Published by Elsevier Ltd. This Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of TRANSCOM 2017: International scientific conference on (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-review responsibility of the scientific committee of TRANSCOM 2017: International scientific conference on sustainable, sustainable,under modern and safe transport. modern and safe transport Keywords: environment; emissions; emission calculator; external costs; internalisation.
1. Introduction Transport plays an important role in social and economic development of the state. But on the other hand, in relation to the environment is a source of emissions, noise and vibration, it puts pressure on space and causes health and safety risks. Nowadays, ordinary consignee of the goods has no overview of how much energy is consumed and emissions produced while until his shipment arrives practically until the "door". Also increases the total transport capacity by the carrier, so it is possible to conclude that the transport of goods is a growing concern. It is gradually putting pressure on carriers to operate vehicles that are environmentally friendly. Impact on the environment are among the quality criteria set out in the STN EN 13816 Transport, Logistics and Services, Public transport, Definition, targeting and * Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected]
1877-7058 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of TRANSCOM 2017: International scientific conference on sustainable, modern and safe transport
doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2017.06.117
678
František Petro and Vladimír Konečný / Procedia Engineering 192 (2017) 677 – 682
measurement of quality of service. Increasingly, suppliers of services required to declare impact of their activities on the environment and through the issuing of documents containing specific amounts of pollutant emissions from traffic, especially carbon dioxide (CO2) as the most widespread greenhouse gas. 1.1. Impact of transport operations on the environment Traffic operation has a negative effect on all elements of the environment (air, water, soil, fauna and flora). Most affected, however, the air and the influence of the combustion of hydrocarbon fuels in internal combustion engines of vehicles, of formation of toxic and carcinogenic substances (CO, NOx, SO2, heavy metals and particulates), and substances which contribute to the global warming of the atmosphere of the Earth (CO 2, N2O, CH4). Production development in transport emissions in the Slovak Republic has in recent years declining, as can be seen in Table 1. It is caused with the growing positive impact of new generation vehicles with the environmental and energy parameters more suitable and more specific legislation in the field of ecologisation (emission limits). The total production of basic pollutants from traffic has a major share of road transport. Shares of the other modes of transport in the production of emissions is very small. Individual car transport to the production of CO accounts for 76,11 %, road transport 19,24 %, road public passenger transport 1,33 %. [1,4] Table 1. Overview of the total emissions produced in the Slovak Republic for each year Total transport emissions 1995 2000 2005 2010 (thous. tonnes) CO 156,743 121,909 108,688 49,307 CO2 4 377,592 4 319,283 6 394,860 6 997,699 NOx 45,452 38,297 41,828 45,548 VOC 34,116 26,145 20,089 7,758 SO2 2,490 0,857 0,236 0,254 TPM 2,648 2,374 2,821 1,571 PM10 2,187 PM2,5 -
2013 41,937 6 191,304 35,735 7,132 0,074 1,030 1,551 1,302
2014
2015
36,961 5 780,233 32,055 6,443 0,047 0,900 1,389 1,154
37,285 5 933,670 32,041 6,438 0,047 0,860 1,361 1,121 Source: [4]
In addition to stricter environmental legislation, which obliges hauliers change fleets, there's also another cost item, which is very important when doing business in road freight transport and that is the toll. Amount of the toll is determined in each country according to other parameters, but essentially depends on the distance traveled, the type of roads, the number of axles, the type of vehicle and the emission class. Therefore, the toll is for that reason more convenient for transport companies procure newer vehicles because the higher the emission class of a given vehicle, it will lead to lower costs for tolls. 2. Methods for calculating the greenhouse gas emissions Different approaches to calculate energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from traffic have led to the need to standardize their methodologies. In 2012 was the European standard EN 16258 Methodology for calculation and declaration of energy consumption and GHG emissions of transport services (freight and passengers) approved by the European Committee for Standardisation (CEN). This standard has been taken over in september 2013 by slovak standardization system in the slovak language under the name STN EN 16258: 2013. The methodology of calculation and declaration of energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions from transport services (freight and passenger traffic). The purpuse of this standard is to make it widely applicable across the transport sector and accessible to a very diverse user group. The use of standards provides a common approach to the calculation and declaration of energy consumption and emissions for transport services, irrespective of the difficulty of transportation technology and transportation process. The standard ensures that the declarations have greater consistency and transparency, and that the energy consumed and emissions produced correspond to the load, respectively occupancy of vehicles. Standard specifies requirements and methodology for the calculation and reporting of energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from transport services. However, in the calculations of energy consumption and emissions associated with vehicles it takes into account energy consumption and related emissions and energy processes for fuels and / or electricity used vehicles (including for example the production and distribution of fuel). This ensures that the standard assumes the implementation calculations and in declaring the users of transport services approach "well-to-wheel". [5]
František Petro and Vladimír Konečný / Procedia Engineering 192 (2017) 677 – 682
Well-to-Wheel (WtW) is an approach to monitor energy consumption and emission production from production of energy to its final consumptions. It consists of two parts: x Well-to-Tank (WtT) - energy consumption and emission production during energy production x Tank-to-Wheel (TtW) - energy consumption and emission production during vehicle operation [5]
Fig. 1. The life cycle of a vehicle
In freight transport, there is also a standard that deals with the structure and content of the declaration of the freight transport on the environment. This is a standard STN TNI CEN / TR 14310 Freight Services. The promulgation and reporting of environmental performance in freight transport network (includes CEN / TR 14310: 2003). The aim of the standard is to provide guidance for preparing (creating) environmental declarations and reports. It contains recommendations on the content and structure of the documentation and evaluation of the impact of freight on the environment. The standard provides guidance on the structure declaration, it does not give advice on the procedure for calculating the emissions (or methodology about emission factors). Standard applies to road freight, rail freight transport and maritime transport. It does not apply to air freight or procedure to applied for passenger transport. Standard includes general recommendations relating to these modes of transport and specific recommendations for each one of them. 2.1 Analysis of emission calculators Emissions calculator is a software-computer equipment, with which we can calculate the emissions for specific transportation. The software can either be self-installable, part of another program or Internet application. It simplifies the work of a dispatcher, respectively worker of the transportation company in declaring the emissions produced by the vehicle. These three emission calculators have been analyzed: Map & Guide, NTMCalc Basic 4.0 and EcoTransit. a) Map & Guide It is a software tool from a reputable company PVT, which is aimed to total transportation planning, routes planning, calculate social legislation, calculate tolls and vehicle emissions. The program used to calculate emissions with a fixed number of particles determined by spent fuel at individual rides, the amount is determined in grams per kilometer. [6] b) NTMCalc Basic 4.0 NTM is a non-profit organization founded in 1993 to create a common base of values on how to calculate the environmental impact for all the different modes of transport, including transport of goods and passengers. [7] c) EcoTransit EcoTransit identifies the environmental impacts of freight transport in terms of direct energy consumption and emissions when operating vehicles for the transportation of products. In addition, the calculation covers the indirect energy consumption and emissions associated with the production, transport and distribution of energy required for operation of the vehicle. [8]
679
680
František Petro and Vladimír Konečný / Procedia Engineering 192 (2017) 677 – 682 Table 2. Analysis of strengths and weaknesses of emission calculators Parameters Map & Guide Choice of means of transport? Yes The calculation of direct and indirect No emissions? Free availability? Yes (registration required) Knowledge of emission factors? Yes Design declaration? No Internalization of emissions? No
NTMCalc Basic 4.0 Yes
EcoTransit Yes
No
Yes
Yes No Yes No
Yes No Yes No Source: elaborated by authors
Results of the analysis of emission calculators are reported in Table 2. It is important to note that neither of used emissions calculator does not include a function that would calculated emissions expressed in monetary terms. Regarding the availability of emission factors, only software Map & Guide has available emission factors by which they calculate the emissions produced on a given route. Calculators NTMCalc Basic 4.0 and Map & Guide are only trial versions of the software, therefore have limited possibilities to more precisely specifying the transport session. 3. The internalisation of external costs External costs of transport are the costs associated with the negative effects of transport activities on the environment and human life, they are costs associated with deleting their effects. In particular, the pollution of air, water and soil disturbance of ecosystems, noise pollution, traffic accidents (of the damage not covered by insurance), takes up space and overloading capacity. Categories of external costs are accident costs, air pollution costs (emissions), noise costs, congestion costs. [3, 9] The internalisation of external costs is an objectification costs and subsequently attributed to the those entities that cause them and are responsible for. Internalization is a tool to convert external effects of transport in monetary terms to those that actually cause these effects. The instruments include the internalisation of tolls, motor vehicle tax and the tax on mineral oils. An important document is the guide Handbook on External Cost of Transport. It is featured from studies and provides best practices and methodologies for valuation of the different categories of costs. It contains the amount of financial charges depending on the country, through which a transportation is conducted and the type of emissions, as in Table 5, and depending on the type of vehicle and the emission class, as in Table 7. [3, 9] 3.1 Calculation of emissions and internalisation of external costs in transportation from Žilina to Hamburg The objectivity of the results of the emissions is compiled by the model of a case study with the following information: x Articulated vehicle - articulated vehicle consisting of a tractor with 2 axles and a maximum permissible axle load with 18 600 kg of semi-trailer with 3 axles and a maximum permissible axle load 24,000 kg. x Emission class EURO V. Table 3. Comparison of emissions per emission calculators CO2 total [kg] Map & Guide 879,87 NTMCalc Basic 4.0 1 962,97 EcoTransit 2 130
CO2e [kg] 896,79 1 945,16 2 210
N2O [g] 56,67 74,71 6 090
CH4 [g] 2,13 1 820,83 Source: elaborated by authors
After entering the input values to the three emission calculators and the subsequent calculation, the output value are shown in Table 3. It is seen that the values are different in each case. The biggest differences are in the case of N2O between NTMCalc Basic 4.0 and EcoTransit calculator. Due to ignorance of the emission factors of these two calculators, we will take into account the results of the calculator Map & Guide. According to the guide Handbook on External Cost of Transport it is possible to quantify the emissions of two ways. In the first method, the costs of emissions are quantify specificly for each type of emissions in € / tonne and the second method, the costs are generally calculated in €c / vkm. In table 4 below, is stated amount of emissions produced during transportation Žilina - Hamburg, via software the Map & Guide. The emissions are expressed in tonnes. Furthermore, based on the amount of actual emissions will impose costs on emissions. [9]
681
František Petro and Vladimír Konečný / Procedia Engineering 192 (2017) 677 – 682 Table 4. Produced emissions in tonnes, transportation from Žilina to Hamburg CO2 CO2e NOx 0,87987 0,89679 0,003564
N2O 0,00005667
CH4 0,00000213 Source: [6]
3.2. Method of calculating the costs of emissions This method of calculating the cost of emissions is based on the cost on emissions and the amount of emissions produced during the transportation. Table 5 shows the prices for emissions in countries through which our transportation leads, and the calculations will take the resulting average value. Table 5. Costs for individual emissions in € / tonne Country Slovakia Czech republic Poland Germany average
Rural 54 030 43 028 47 491 48 583 48 283
PM2,5 Suburban 79 270 68 427 74 215 73 221 73 783
Urban 226 510 215 667 221 455 220 461 221 023
NOx
NMVOC
SO2
CO2
21 491 15 788 13 434 17 039 16 938
1 709 1 648 1 678 1 858 1 723
17 134 14 112 14 435 14 513 15 049
4,81
Source: [9]
Cost for emissions were calculated on the basis of prices for individual emissions in € / tonne, multiplied by the quantity of produced tons of various pollutants in the transport. The sum of the cost of emissions is the sum of the partial cost of emissions for a particular pollutant, see Table 6. Table 6. The total cost of the emissions in €, transportation from Žilina to Hamburg, 1. method Cost of the emissions [€] CO2 NOx 4,23 60,37
∑ in € 64,6 Source: elaborated by authors
3.3 Method of calculating the costs of emissions The second method of calculating the cost of emissions takes into account the distance traveled during transportation and costs are determined depending on the category of vehicle, emission class, and the area through which the transportation is conducted. Table 7. Cost for emissions in €c / vkm Vehicle category EURO class EURO 0 EURO I EURO II > 32 t EURO III EURO IV EURO V EURO VI
Urban 39,2 29,8 23,7 19,9 10,9 8,5 2,1
Suburban 25,1 18,1 17 13,9 8,7 6,3 0,9
Rural 17,7 12,5 12,5 10,1 6,8 3,4 0,5
Motorway 14,8 10,5 10,6 8,4 5,8 2,3 0,4 Source: [9]
In determining the amount of the cost of emissions are taken into account in terms of area, the motorway at 80% and 20% of the suburban area, as most transportation going down the highway and the rest passed through suburban areas. Urban areas were not taken into account as road freight transport vehicles are less likely to go straight through urban areas, while more prevented. The costs were obtained by multiplying the cost of emissions and the number of kilometers traveled particular vehicle over a certain area, see Table 8. Table 8. The total cost of the emissions in €, transportation from Žilina to Hamburg, 2. method Area Mileage [km] motorway 786,35 suburban 196,59 ∑ 982,94
Costs of emissions [€/vkm] 18,09 12,39 30,48 Source: elaborated by authors
682
František Petro and Vladimír Konečný / Procedia Engineering 192 (2017) 677 – 682
The resulting amount in the cost of emissions is the amount of € 30.48. Here you can see a marked difference between the two ways of calculating the cost of emissions because the price in this method is lower by € 34.12 for transport, compared to the first method. For comparison, the amount of external costs according to the emission classes of a vehicle, which was used for transport, the calculation was made for an articulated vehicle with the same parameters but with the EURO III emission limit. Again, based on data from the calculator Map & Guide. The resulting comparison is in Table 9. Table 9. A comparison of the total cost of € emissions, transportation from Žilina to Hamburg 1. 2.
method method
Emission limit EURO III
Emission limit EURO V
difference
126,19 € 93,38 €
64,6 € 30,48 €
61,59 € 62,9 € Source: elaborated by authors
4. Conclusion Demand for road freight transport continues to increase, resulting in increased pollution of exhaust gases. Reduce the production of emissions you can either make better technological design of internal combustion engine or the adoption of stricter legislation in the field of environmental protection. Height of external costs is higher if haulier operates the older vehicle. It is confirmed by the data in Table 9. The cost of emissions and the cost of the tolls are lower if the haulier operates generational newer vehicles with higher emission class. For this reason, operators of vehicle fleets are forced to change vehicles for newer types. Current emission calculators allow you to calculate only the emission values expressed in tonnes, kilograms or grams. However, from the analysis it was found that the use of three different calculators provide different results. Hence the need to unite emission factors like the united emission factor for CO2. Design methodology to unify the emission factors should be based on emission results directly in the operation of the vehicle where the evaluation device is located within the vehicle during driving. Such equipment include device from company HORIBA Automotive Test Systems, labeled GS-ONE OBS Unit Type HDV. Finally, it would be appropriate and useful to propose a further additional feature which is able to values of emissions that represent external costs, re-calculate on the financial statement. More detailed examination of the negative impact of transport on the environment will be devoted to my dissertation thesis Declaring the impact of transport services in road transport on the environment. The work will include a detailed analysis of the emission calculators and their emission factors. Research will draft methodology for new emission calculator along with additional features on the internalisation of external costs. References [1] KOREŇOVÁ, L.: Doprava a jej vplyv na životné prostredie v Slovenskej republike k roku 2009. 2010 [2] KIŠŠA, M.: Návrh kalkulátora spotreby energie a emisií skleníkových plynov podľa normy STN EN 16258:2013, (diplomová práca), Školiteľ: doc. Ing. Vladimír Konečný, PhD., Žilinská univerzita v Žiline, Fakulta prevádzky ekonomiky dopravy a spojov, Katedra cestnej a mestskej dopravy, 2014 [3]