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Canberra: a city for the future?
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Canberra: A City for the Future? 1st Canberra eine Stadt der Zukunft? Canberra - ville de demain?
Ernst LUFFLER,
Canberra*
Abstract: Present development and future planniq of Canberra, the Australian National Capital, is described as an axample of modern town pianniq emphasisiq the spatW and functional organisation of the urban area Canberra is a rapidly growiq city and is beiq eapanded by the creation of new dispersed satellite towns which are groupd around inner Canberra in three growth corridors The towns are structured into a hierarchical order of centers and provide a lye rm of services and facilities as well as a concentntlon of empkyment opponunltlrr Although the towns are wlf-supponiq to a gmat degree, they remain integral parts of the mrwupolis with tho City center pmvidim the greatas raqe of services and facilltles, as well as eft@OyfIIMt. One of the maln pfablms f&n@ the Capital is the inefficiency of public mnspon and accordlqly the swoq reliance on private motor vehkks, which will be difficult to overcome ff present popuktion densities are not substantially im. Zusammnfasnaq: Die houtige und zukiinftlge Planuq Canberraa, dn Huprndt Australkns, wird ab etn Beispkl modsmu SDdtpIanuq beschrieben, die dk raumlkhe und funktion&e Cikderuq des Stadqebkts in den Vordm MU. Unberra, line sehr msch wacbsende St&, wird durch dk Scbaffuq daenualiskrtw SatoJlitatstUta,db um Inner Conbrrrw In drei Wachsamnkorridomn uwofdnt shd, uwotmc Ok Stldte sind in lin hkrarchkcha System van GemeinschaWzentten SgNedert und bietm ah m Anaabl von wbtschaftlkhen, kultureikn, und frekeitiichen Ein rkhtuqen sowie ArbeitspUtze. Obwohi dk St&r&e bis tu einem gewbsen Gnd selbst%ndi~ rind, bkRmn sb lln intqrlerter Restandteil dar Metropole, und das Zentrum von inner Conbarr wird such weiterhin das Ir(wlte und vklfXltigst.e Angebot an Einrichtungen und Arbeitsm~lichkriten wfweisan. Eina der Hauptpmblome CaMernssinddbaufgrunddergroRen Entfemuqen und dcr Stiqen Bev&keruqsdichte uruuDqlkben und unwirtschaftlkhen Mfemlkhen Verkrhrsmittel und dk daraus resultlerende starkr Abh%qbkelt der Personenbef6rdmrq durch Privatfahneqe. Es dlirfte rich als schwieri# erwrirn dksen Zustand zu Yndern, ohne dk BevNkeru~lchte entscheidend LU vef@&em. R6s~rn6: D&eloppnnent pr&ent et plan de la future Canberra, capitak rutknale luetralknne, donnh comme example de planniq urbain, souqnant I’organisatlon spatiale et fonctionelie do la r&on urbaine. Canberra est une viiie i crok sance rapide; elk s’yrandit par la crduion de citCI satellites disper&s autour de lnnrr Conberm en 3 corridors. La cit& sont structu&s selon I’ordre d’lmportance des Centres et offmnt un grand choii de wrvkn et facilit6s, ainsi qu’um concentntion d’occaskns de travail. Bkn que ks cl& soient largement ind&ndan&s elles restent UM partk int(lrale de la metropole, avcc Ie centre de la Cite offrant It plus grand choix de services, de facilitis et d’emplois. L’un da princig aux probl&mn qw la Capkale devn r6soudre est cr& pu l’imuffisance dn transports publics et I’usa~e maximum des v6hicula pri& cc probleme se rdvikn insoluble si la den&s de populations pr6sentes ne sent pas accrues substantir’. t-
Introduction In a recent paper published in this journal, TiElZE (1970) listed five major demands of an urban community at the end of this century and pointed out that at present there is no city or town in the world which could fulfil these demands. This is probably correct if we apply TlElZE’s criteria very strictly, however in the writer’s opinion, Canberra, the Australian Capital City, is very close to fulfilling
these demands. The purpore of this paper is therefore to draw attention to the recent development and future pianning of this city as an example of modern town planning with an open outlook to futore urban requirements. The writer is of course well aware that the planning and develop ment of Canberra are greatly facilitated by its single function as an administrative center and by the availability of space, and that therefore the planning experience in this part of the world cannot be directly applied to the overcrowded cities and towns of Europe. Nevertheless the
*
Dr. Ernst LGFFLER, Division of Land Research, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, P. 0. Box 1666, Canberra City. 2601, Australia.
general spatial model is certainly of relevance and indeed there are some similarities between the structural model of Canberra and TIETZE’s structural model of a future city.
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Before describing the present state and future development of Canberra, a brief account of Canberra’s historical deveiopment follows. For more detailed information on the historical development and the general geographical situation the reader is referred to WHITE (1954), REiNER (196Of, LlNGE (1961 f, The Mional Capital Development Commission (1965) and the Kational Capital Development Commission (1970). Throughout the paper I have drawn heavily on the two latter publications.
Historic
Devclopmtnt
of Chnbcrra
_‘.,e other planned capitals such as Washington, Ottawa or Brasilia, Canberra owes its existence to the necessity of finding a relatively neutral place for the Federal Capital in a Federation of States which were ambitiously competing against one another. It was thus not national enthusiasm that ted to the creation of Canberra but haggfingprovincialism particularly between the two most influential cities, Sydney and Melbourne, neither of which would allow the other to be crowned as the Federal Capital. A compromise was eventually reached and incorporated into the Act to Constitute the Commonwealth of Austraiia: the seat of government rho&! be in Common wealth territory, not less than 100 square miles (260 km’) in area situated within the State of New South Wales not less than 100 miles (160 km) from Sydney. However the problem was far from solved and it took another eight years of interstatial quarreiling until finally the site for Canberra was selected from 40 original suggestions.In 1909 the state of New South Wales ceded 911 square miles (2368 km’) of land to the Commonwealth as the Australian Capital Territory (ACT.). In 1911 an international competition for the design of the new capital, which should house an initial 25,000 {with a possible extension to 75,000) inhabitants, was launched. The design of a Chicago architect, Walter Burley Griffin, was awarded first prize and it must be said that by today’s standards it was clearly the best design. Griffin, a foliower of the Chicago school of architects, envisageda h~oni~s integration of landscape,buildings and avenues. Dominating his plan was an artificial central lake and the Parliamentary triangle (Figs. 8,9) into which the most important Government buildings were to be placed. The surrounding residential areas had a geometric street pattern, circuiar and radial in shape, all fitting well into the general topography. Griffin’s plan was not without critics and there were several attempts to make maior changesto this plan. However when between t 913 and 1920 Griffin personally took charge of the d~elopment he made sure that the main framework of his plan was established on the ground. Work on the Capital progressedat a relatively slow rate during the 192Os, the major achievement being the completion of
Table 1 Canberra’s
populationincrease overtha last 30 years
Canberns BevBlkeru~uwachs j&Ire
wtulrend dar verganganan 30
Accroissemrnt de la copulation de Canberra au tours des 30 demibms an&es Year (ending june 30)
PetVMU
1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1972
12000 13250 22075 30712 50237 85690 130248 156100
Source: Commomaalth BUN lian Capital Territory Stat&&al
Avcmpc yearly
increut (WI 2.7 8.6 7.2
a.7 11.8 8.7 10.0 of Census and Statistics, AunraSummary, 1972, Canberra
the provisiii House of Parliament which is still being used today. The world wide depression during the 1930s and World War II dowed down the development even more and during this period very little construction took place. After the war building activity resumed but made very slow progress.The population however grew considerably and reached 22,000 in 1950 (Table 1). There was an acute shortage of office and residential buildings and a large number of prefabricated buildings were erected. Growing concern about the future of Canberra eventually led to a Senate Select Committee enquiry into the development of the Capital City. The Committee recommended the establishment of a National Capital Development Commission (N.C.D.C.) the duty of which was “to undertake and carry out the planning, development and construction of the City of Canberra as the National Capitat of the Commonwealth”. The ~~iishment of the N.C.D.C. in 1958 marks a turning point in the development of Canberra. Planning and development was for the first time put into the hands of an expert planning commission with a firm set of objectives. One of the first tasks of the N.C.D.C. was the design and completion of the central lake, the dominant feature in Griffin’s plan. The major problem however faced by the N.C.D.C. was the fact that Canberra had grown past the 25,000 inhabitants it was originally planned for and was fast approaching the 75,000 limit which was originally given as the possible absolute maximum (Table 1). A new plan for a larger Canberra was urgently needed. The choices were either to intensify densities of existing centers and to continue to extend the fringes of Canberra- the standard growth pattern of most cities- or to limit the extent of
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existing centers and set up new urban districts in the sur-
are serviced and the road network completed before the
rounding rural areas. This second option was adopted and
building activity starts.
from this the concept of the “New Canberra” emerged.
The Spatial Concept of New Canberra Population, Work Force, Land-Tenure
Once the decision was reached to decentralize Canberra
Before elaborating on this, it is necessary to briefly men-
and to expand it through the construction of new towns
tion Canberra’s special population and workforce structure insofar as they determine planning requirements,
the main problem was how to arrange these towns spatial-
and the land tenure situation which is so important for successful town planning.
Due to Canberra’s dominant
function as a national administrative center and its youthfulness, its population and workforce structure differ considerably from those of other cities, The population is increasing at
a very high rate (Table 1; average over the
last 10 years 10 percent against the national average of 2.8 percent) mainly of course due to the rapid expansion of the Public Service. Of this increase 75 percent is by net migration which results in an immediate need for housing, serviced land, offices, schools and shopping facilities. The population has a high proportion of young people and therefore there is a particular danand on eduction facilities at
all levels. On the other hand special housing and
facilities for older people are less urgent.
ly. The main options for growth were concentric develop ment, linear development along preferred axes or dispersed development. Certain conditions and restrictions were imposed by topographic features such as the rugged mountain range to the west of Canberra. Six alternative growth plans were devised and evaluated by three computer models (1) a retail market potential model, (2) a tnvel demand and traffic assignment model and (3) an employment distribution model (The National Capital Development Commission 1970). The most favourable plan which emerged from these studies was a concept in which towns were grouped around Inner Canberra in three corridors, a southern, a northwestern and a northeastern corridor extending from the center in an approximate
Y-shape
(Fig. 1). Also incorporated in the plan is the present town of Queanbeyan; situated some 10 km southeast of Canberra across the border in New South Wales. Although
The majority of Canberra’s workforce is employed by the Commonwealth in the Public Service (38 percent) and
not under Commonwealth
authority
its development will
be closely linked with the development of Canberra. The
other government supported organizations such as the
towns were to be linked by a major public transport
Commonwult
system and four major freeways, two running north south
Scientific and Industrial Research Organi-
along the eastern and western fringes of the towns and
zation and the Australian National University (25 percent). The remaining 37 percent are employed by private business
two roughly northwest to southeast. Large open areas
and industry, with the largest single group being the build-
were to separate the towns and would remain permanent
ing and construction workforce (13 percent). This is a reflection of the high level of activity in this sector.
of half a million with a possible extension to one million.
nature reserves. The plan caters for an initial population The yet unresolved political problem which affects the
The majority of Canberrans have thus secure and well
viability of this plan is the fact that the two northern
paid (above national average) jobs. This and the generous
most towns would be outside A.C.T. territory in the state
government housing finance result in a heavy demand for
of New South Wales and it is by no means certain that New South Wales is prepared to surrender the area to the
housing with the traditional
Australian preference for de-
tached single family houses.
A.C.T. However at present and for the near future (up to
As Tieue
the 500,000 inhabitants level) the development is restricted to Canberra and the three towns of Woden-Weston
points out, individual land ownership in urban
areas and subsequent land speculation are incompatible with successful town planning and development. Canberra planners have the unusual advantage that Canberra’s land tenure is a leasehold system. All land necessary for private, commercial and industrial development is held by the Commonwealth or can be resumed by the Commonwealth. No crown land is allowed to revert to freehold. Up to now the Commonwealth
owns 83 percent of the A.C.T. The
land is offered at public auctions normally for a 99 year lease-hold, which can be renewed without the lesee having to bid again. The Commonwealth however determines for each lease the purpose for which the land can be used. It also fixes a minimum cost for the buildings to be erected and thus ensures that certain standards are met. The sites
Creek (originally planned as two separate towns but now combined to one town complex) Belconnen and Tuggeranong. Woden-Weston Creek is near its completion (Fig. 2) and Belconnen is close to the half-way mark. Construction of the town of Tuggeranong commenced in the second half of 1972 and by 1975/76 most of the development will be centered there.
Towns and Suburbs The internal structure of the towns (Fig. 3) which will encompass 20-30 suburbs and house 100,000-l SO,000 people is mainly based on criteria of convenience of
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t
rZArmI
TOWN CgNtgRS
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there is a three level hierarchy of centers, with the small suburban center at the lowest level, a larger group center combining servicesfor 3 to 8 suburbs at the intermediate level and the town center at the upper level (Fig. 4). The suburb or neighbourhood (Fig. 5) accomodates35004000 people, most of them living in single famity houses on blocks ranging from 6750 to 1080 m2 in area. A limited amount of higher density housing is available in the vicinity of the surburban shoppingcenter. The surburban center provides only for essential servicesand generally consists of a number of small shops for the daily shopp ing needs such as a food store, butchery, miikbar, pharmacy, newspaperagent, a car service station, a small post office, a surgery and junior educational institutions (preschool and infant-primary school). The shops and schools are within walking distance from every surburban house. Three to eight suburbs form a group which sharesservices . and facilities of a higher order. The group center (Figs. 2,6) consists of a number of single and double storey buildings arranged as a small pedestrian mall and surrounded by parking facilities. It contains a large supermarket, a variety of specialized food stores and clothing shops, banks, a large post offi, a licensed hotel, some commercial and professional offices, a library, and a joint church center. Sporting facilities such as a football oval, swimming pool, tennis and squash courts are located near by. Higher density housing is situated near the Center and is more extensive than in the suburbs. Each group has at least one but mostly two or three high schools which are conveniently located near the group center or between suburbs. The town center is the focal point of the town with several high, multi-storey buildings sharply breaking the predominantly
Fig. 1 l
l
l
The spatial concept of New Gnberra with dispersed satellite towns grouped around inner Gnberra in three corridors forming an approximate Y plus the New South WaJes town of Queanbeyan (after N.C.D.C. 1970). Das rZumliche Schema des Neuen Gnberra mit seinen Satellitcnstidten, die urn Inner Gnberra Y-fdrmig in drei Korridoren angeordnet sind sowie die in New South Wales getegene Stadt Queanbeyan (nach N.C.D.C. 1970). Le concept du Nouveau Gnberra avec une dispersion de villes satellites autour du Gnberra original, group&s en trois corridors formant approximativement un Y, plus la ville de Queanbeyan en New South Wales (d’aprks N.C.D.C. 1970).
horizontal dimension of the surrounding
suburbs (Figs. 2, 7). It is set up as an attractive pedestrian mall with a very large shopping center of some 3700-
7400 m2 retail space catering for all but the very specialized demands, one or two hotels, restaurants, cafes, government and private offices, banks, a large post office, - a theatre and a library. A hospital and high order educational facilities are located near by. Close to the mall and also part of the town center are extensive recreational and sporting facilities similar to those of the group center but on a larger scale. The town center also serves as suburban shopping center for the neighbouring higher density housing area and as group center for the adjacent suburbs. The town center not only provides a great variety of services but also employment on a relatively large scale in an effort to disperse employment and reduce the pres-
ty of shopping centers, easy and safe accessto schools
sure on inner Canberra. The Woden-Weston Creek town center will have jobs for about 10,000 people, 6000 of which will be employed by the government. Belconnen
and efficient, safe and convenient road system providing easy accessto the centers of employment. Within a town
town center will employ 23,000 persons, 10,000 in Commonwealth offices (Table 2).
services for the urban user such as accessibiiity and viabili-
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Fig. 2 Creek looking south over the various suburbs with low density housing and sWwXurcd road system. In the center is the Yafra Glen expressway the major arterial connecting the town with Inner Canberra. Center left shows the group center of Curtin with shopping center, hotel, parish center, schools and sporting facilities partly surrounded by high density accommodation. In the background the skyline of the Woden town center and aE the horizon the site of the future town of fuggeranong.
l Aerial photograph of the new town of W~e~Wes~n
*
Luftaufnahme dcr neuen Stadt Woden-Weston Creek nach Sbden blickend mit der typischcn Anordnung van Stadtteilen und dem wohl strukturierten StraBensystem. In der Bildmitte die Yarra-Glen SchnellstraSe, die die Hauptverbindung twischen Woden-Weston Creek und inner Canberra darstellt. Bildmittc links rcigt sin Gruppenrsntrum mit Einkaufsztntrum, Hotel, Gemeinschaftskirche, Schulen, Sportanlagen und umgebendan Wohnblocks. Im Hintergrund die Skyline dcr Woden Stadt Zentrums und am Horizont das Gclgnde der zukbnftlgen Stadt Tuggeranong.
e Photographic aerienne de 1a nouwllt
cid de WodemWeston Creek en direction Sod, montrant I’arrangoment des quartim et la Lfructure du sysrtme routier. Au centre la route de Yarra Glen, principale art&e reliant la citt au Canberra original. Au milieu B gauche le centre de Curtin avec magasins, h&et, Lcolts et terrains de span, entour en partie par da habitations a haute densitf de population. A I’arriere plan la sifhouette du centre de la citt de Woden. La plaine a I’horizon montre I’tmplacement de la future citf de Tuggeranong.
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22
fig. 3 * Structural and functional plan of the town of Wode~West~fl * Strukturelle und funktiontie
Creek {Partly after N.CD.C
Giiedcrung dtr Sateltitenstadt Wren-Weston
pamphlets.
Creek (a. T. nach N.C.D.C. Eroschiire).
* Plan structural et fonctionnel de la title’ de Wodcn-Weston Creek (en partir d’apris un pamphlet du N.C.D.C.).
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0
200
400
6OOm
‘OWN
Fig. J l Structural and functional plan of the suburb of Higgins, BelCOnnen,
and the road structure. l Struktureller
und funktionaler Plan des Stadtteils, Higgins, Belconnen und Stragengliederung.
l Plan structural et fonctionnel des quartiers de Higgins, Belconnen
et systZme routier.
Fig. 4 @ Diagrammatic model of the hierarchy of Centers in the Canberra metropolis. Centers in black (after N.C.D.C. 1970). l Schema der Hierarchic der Zentrcn in der Metropole von Canberra.
Zentren in Schwarz (nach N.C.D.C. l Modile diagrammatique
1970).
de I’ordre de grandeur des centres urbains composant Canberra. Les centres sont en noir (d’apr6s N.C.D.C. 1970).
Although the towns will thus be self-contained, to a targe degree they will remain an integral and essential part of the metropolis and Inner Canberra will clearly remain at the top level of the hierarchy. It provides and will continue to provide not only all the services and facilities of the town center but also specialized services and facilities (commercial, medical, cultural and educational) and above all employment for the majority of Canberra’s workforce (60 percent of the available jobs).
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inner Canberra
lARKINO
1 5upumorkmt
8
Mlle
avadona
2 Jmlordmpt.ntora 3Ihopr 4 offior d ebope 5 kst offto
9bes-p 10 Ikctrielty
6 Library 7 Church
13 Club@
Wcetotkn
11 eordomantor 12 5qwshcowtr
Fig. 6 l Functional plan of Dickson shopping center (after N.C.D.C l Funktionrler
Ptan des Dickson Einkaufszentrumr
1970).
(nach N.C.D.C.
1970). 0 Plan foncrionnel du trhopping centro N.C.D.C. 1970).
de Dickson (d’apras
Due to the rapid expansion of Canberra over the last decade, Griffin’s plan of Inner Canberra had to be modified and enlarged, however, his basic concept has been preserved. The core area is the Parliamentary Triangle, the corners of which are marked by Capital Hill in the south, City Hill in the north and a complex of defence buildings at Russell in the north-east (Figs. 8, 9). The two dominating axes of the triangle, the Commonwealth and Kings Avenues and their lake spanning bridges, were completed in the early sixties and have given the City a unity it was previously lacking (LINGE 1961). In the core of the triangle the impression of emptiness, an objection often raised against early Canberra as a whole, still prevails (Fig. S), the only larger buildings being the provisional Houseof Parliament, the National Library, and two buildingshousing government departments. The areaclearly needs “filling in” to stressand clarify this central design feature. It was realized early that it was impossible and also undesirable to concentrale the majority of government offices south of the lake inside the triangle as envisaged by Griffin. Instead it was considered necessaryto decentralize the government departments and thus disperse employment opportunities. At present most of the government offices are located within Inner Canberra southeast and northeast of the Parliamentary Triangle, along the northern shore of Lake Buttey Griffin, in the City, and in North Canberra (Fig. 9). Three large government departments were transferred to the newly built offii in the Woden-Weston Creek town canter, forming the start for a more effective dispersalof employment. A major public service employment center will also be provided by the Belconnen Town center where construction is underway. The commercial core of Canberra, the City center, or Civic as locally called, is located north and northeast of City Hill and here much of the development has taken place in the last decade.
laDI=
L
Present Population c(1972)
Population at half million
Ultimate Population capacity
Number of Jobs available at half million level*
0 Present and fuwn population and employment distribution
Inner Canberra Woden Weston Creek
79,750 51,900
100,000 87,000
120,000 90,000
117,000 16,000
0 Heutige und zukiinftige Btviilkcrungsund Arbeitsktifuwneilung
Belconnen Tu~ennong Gungahlin
24,400
110,000 110,000 93,000
120,000 170,000 110,000
29,000 22,000 8,000
156,050
500,000
610,000
192,000
Canberra
l
Comparable present data are not yet available; the last Census data are from 1966 and do not allow meaningful comparison as virtually the whole workforce was still concentrated in Inner Canberra
Source: Present Population as for Table 1, other fiiures N.C.D.C. 1970.
0 Population pr&ente et future et distribution d’emploi
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Fig. 7 l Air photo of the largely completed Wodcn town center looking north. The main buildings in the ccntcr of the photo arc from bottom to top:
two square interconnected shopping malls, a private enterprise office building (under construction), an L-shaped building housing post office, banks and private cntcrprix offices partly surrounding the town square, and high rising buildings all housing government offices. In the very foreground left some buildings of the industrial area and in the background a recreational area with wal, sports clubs and swimming pool, The open areas outside the ring road surrounding the town center are largely rcscrvcd for higher dcnsitv housing. l Luftaufnahmc
dcs zum gro6tcn Tcil fertiggcstciiten Woden Stadt Zentrums nach Nordcn biickend. Die wichtiptcn Gcbgude in dcr Bildmittc sind von untcn nach oben: zwci ctwa quadratischc miteinandcr vcrbundenc Kaufhailcn (shopping mails), dahintcr tin mchrstiickigas B&ogcbiudc (im Bau) fur nicht iiffcntliche Untemehmcn (Versichcrungcn, und frcic Bcrufc wie Ante, Anwgltc u.2.) dahintcr tin L-fiirmigcs Gebgudc in weichcm Post und Bankcn untcrgcbracht sind und dahintcr vicr Hochhguscr und einigc kieincre Gebgudc, die dlc Rcgicrungs;imtcr bchcrbergcn. im Vordcrgrund links cinigc Gcb4udc dcs klcincn lndustriczcntrums und im Hintergrund Frcizcit- und Sportanlagcn. Die nicht bcbautcn Gcbictc au6erhalb dcr Ringstrat3c sind grii5tcntcils fijr Wohnbiocks rcscrvicrt.
0 Photo aericnnc du ccntrc de la cite de Wodcn, direction nord. Lcs bitimcnts principaux au ccntre de la photo sont, de has en haut: dcux halles commcrciaics, un bitiment de bureaux d’cntcrprises privees (en construction), un bitimcnt en forme de L comprcnant un bureau de post% des banqucs et dcs bureaux d’cntrcprises privies entourant particilcmcnt la place civiquc, et d’autrcs edifices plus ii&s contenant dcs bureaux du gouvcrnemcnt. Au tout premier plan i gauche, dcs constructions de la rigion indunriclic et a I’arricrc unc etcndut de n’creation avcc ovalc, clubs sportifs et piscine. Lcs terrains vagucs cn dchors de I’anncau routicr cntourant it ccntrc de la cite sent riscrv6s en grandc partic i dcs logements pour une population plus concentric.
26
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Fig. 8 0 Air photo of Inner Canberra looking south from the City Center, over City Hill and Lake Burley Griffin towards the Parliamentary Triangle. In the foreground left, retail core flanked by modern, mostly multi-storey buildings, housing private and government offices and some civic and cultural institutions. The older buildings in the center foreground represent the original City Center (until about 1950) and the area will be redeveloped. The Pariiamentary Triangle Ranked by Commonwealth (right) and Kings (left) avenues with their lake spanning bridges, contains from the righc Treasurey, National Library, provisional House of Parliament and Administration buildings. In the background the long estabiished suburbs of South Canberra and to the far left the industrial area of Fyshwick. *
Luftbild von Inner Canberra nach Siiden schauend von der City iiber City Hill und Lake Burley Griffin auf du Parlamentsdreieck. Im Vordergrund links Einkaufxentrum (Eintelhandel) mit vorhernchend rwaisrtickigen Biirogebauden fliinkiert von modernen, meist viejstockigen Biirogebluden, die Regierungsgmter, nicht iiffentlichc Unternehmen (v. a. Versicherungen. und freie Berufe wie pirate, Anwglte u.3.) stidtische und kulturelle Einrichtungen, bchcrbergen. Die glteren GebPude in der Bildmitte stellen du ehemalige Stadtttntrum dar (his etwa 1950) und warden bald modemen GebXuden weichen. Das Parlamentsdreieck, wtlches von Commonweaith (rechts) und Kings (links) Avenues und Briicken flankiert wird, enthilt (von rechts) Finanrministerium, Nationale Bibliothek, provisorisches Parlamentsgebaude und Verwaltungsgebaude. Im Hintergrund erscheinen die ilteren Stadtteile von Sii Canberra und links das lndustriegebtet von Fyshwrck.
* Photo airrenne de la crtd originale de Canberra, prise au Sud du Centre par dessus City Hill et le lac Burley Griffin en direction du Triangle Parlementaire. Au premier plan ;i gauche le centre de commerce en detail. Le long des magasins de chaque c&i sent des bftiments modemes i pfusieurs &ages logeant des bureaux privis et gouvernementaux, et des institutions civtques et culturelles. Les bitiments plus vieux au premier phn au centre reprisentent te centre original fjusque I950 environs} qui sera red+veloppe. Le Triangle Parlementaire est flanque de Commonwealth Avenue i droita et Kings Avenue a gauche avec leurs pants erqambant le Iac. Les batiments dans le Triangle sent (de droite i gauche) lo Trtsor, la Bibliotheque Nationale, la Parlement provisoire et I’Administration. A I’arridre plan sent les quartrers plus ancienr du sud de Canberra et tout I gauche la region industrielle de Fyshwick.
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Fig. 9 l
Structural and functional plan of Inner Canberra.
l
Structurclla und funktionale GIL derungvon I nnar Canberra.
l
Plan stnrctural et fonctionncl de uInner Canberra, .
The City Center comprises an extensive retail core, flanking office concentration and a range of other uses such as civic, cultural, entertainment, hotels and of course parking (Fig. 8,9). The retail area includes a large airconditioned mail and a great number of general and specialid shops offering a wide range of national and international goods. It is now closed to traffic and is being redeveloped into a pedestrian plaza to make it a more attractive and lively shopping center.
Situated to the west of Civic is the Australian National University with its two main Institutes, the School of General Studies providing tertiary education for Canberra and its region, and the Institute of Advanced Studies with various ResearchSchools representing a national center for research. After the government, the University is one of the main employers of Canberra. Several Divisions of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, a center for applied research, are housed
28
Geoforum
13/73
north of the University. Other tertiary education institu-
car, 30 percent more than one and 75 percent of the work-
tions dispersed throughout Canberra include the Royal
force drives to work (50 percent drive themselves, 25 per-
Military College, the Canberra Technical College, the
cent are car passengers) and only 15 percent use public
Australian Forest School and several rcligous colleges.
transport, the remaining 10 percent walk. Canberra
North of the retail core is a small industrial area domi-
planners assume that a more efficient public transport
nated by service trades mainly associated with motor vehicle sales and services. The main industrial concentra-
will gradually take over a much larger share of the trans-
tion however is located southeast of Canberra at Fyshwick.
doubtful.
Industrial activity is largely mtricted
port. Whether this will indeed be the case must remain
to service trades,
building and construction enterprises and light manufacturing industries all supplying predominantly
the focal market.
Heavy industry is banned from Canberra.
Discussion The aim of town planning in Canberra is not restricted to
Y.?e suburban residential areas have remained, as envisaged
the planning of buildings but is mainly concerned with
by Griffin, low density garden suburbs. They are served by local shopping centers similar in structure to the sub-
the spatial and functional organization of the urban area
urban centers in the new towns, though generally somewhat larger as they were developed before the new con-
present and future Canberra thus live up to Tietze’s urban model of the future? The very low density of 30 person
in view of the needs of the urban community.
Does the
cept of centers was conceived. In South Canberra two
per ha guarantees that people live in quiet, pleasant sur-
centers (Manuka and Kingston) have had the function of
roundings with ampk private space. Housing is also of a relatively high standard. A range of varied and highly
group centers for several decades, and their centrality was particularly strong before the completion of Kings and
quahfied jobs is provided, however due to Canberra’s
Commonwealth
function there is a predominate of administrative, research
bridges when curbern
virtually consisted
of two separate towns. In North Canberra the City Center
and academic jobs while there is only a limited range of
was the only higher order Center until 1965 when the
jobs in the industrial sector. In spite of the great extent
Dickson shopping center was established to serve as a
of the metropolis, the well-structured road network allows
group center for the northern suburbs. It was the first
and will continue to allow people to reach their jobs with-
group center designed by the N.C.D.C.
with the concept
of dispersed centers in mind. In area Inner Gnberra has reached its ultimate size and all the residential land has been occupied. Future develop ment will therefore concentrate on the construction of “monumental”
buildings in the Parliamentary Triangle,
and expansion and some redevelopment of the City Center to further strengthen its position as the Center of the National Metropolis, and some redevelopment of residential areas like the construction of high density housing in the proximity of the City Center.
Traffic
and Transport
As already pointed out the towns and the cenval areas will be closely linked by a well-structured road network of four major multi-lane freeways and a series of double lane arterial and subarterial roads (Fig. 4). The roadsystem is also hierarchical with the freeways being the major links between twons, the arterial, and subarterials the major links within the town (Fig. 1, 2, 3) and the distributor, collector and access roads providing convenient movement and access within the suburb (Figs. 2, 5). There will also be a major public transport system including an express bus service between the main centers. At present the transport is heavily dependant on private motor vehicles, 90 percent of Canberra’s households own one
in half an hour or less even from outer suburbs providing they use private motor vehicles. The time distance to the shopping areas is also very low, the suburban center can be reached by foot in 15 minutes or less and the town center by car in less than 15 minutes. Inner Canberra is within 30 minutes time distance by motor transport. The same applies
to cultural, educational, medical and re-
creational as well as sporting requirements. Long distance transport facilities are not yet well-developed but work is in progress. Independence and distance from next door neighbours within the immediate environment is certainly guaranteed, in particular as it is traditional in the Australian urban life. Canberra thus seems to meet most of the requirements of an urban community which is expressed in the fact that public opinion surveys show that the great majority of Canberrans regard the physical quality of life as good to very good, and onlv a small minority is not satisfied. However, Canberra is not without problems. While most cities suffer from the lack of space, Canberra ’ suffers” from the abundance of space which allows planners to extend the metropolis over enormous areas. At present the distance between the northernmost and southernmost suburbs is about 20 km and at the 500,000 population level this*will be in the order of 40 km. There is clearly the danger that the unity and coherence of the metropolis distintegrates and the often raised criticism against Canberra of being an agglomeration of “suburbs in search
Geoforum
29
13/73
may regain some validity. The great extent and the very
planting of trees and shrubs (provided free by the government) which add a third dimension to the predominantly
for a City” which has been overcome in the last decade, low population density necessarily lead to shortcomings
horizontal structure of the suburbs. A greater variety of
in the public transport sector. At present public transport (bus services) is very inefficient and inconvenient so
greatly add to the attraction of the suburbs without de-
people are more or less compelled to use private motor
stroying their character as garden suburbs.
vehicles. The well-structured
buildings, in particular medium density houses, would
road system which is being
continuously expanded, can be expected to cope with the traffic for some time to come, although some traffic
Conclusion
congestions already occur at peak hour traffic. The limit-
Canberra is not a spectacular city. It is modest in size and
ing factor is however, parking, and the construction of multi-storey parking buildings will only be a short term
does not impress the visitor with a great number of dis-
solution because of the rapidly increasing population,
and
tinguished works of architecture. This has never been the intention of its original planner. Canberra’s attraction lies
thus the number of motor cars. There is an urgent need to encourage and attract more people to use public trans-
in its successful spatial design where the landscape is the
port, but this can only be achieved if it is provided cheap
been continued adapting the requirements of modern ur-
dominent element of the city structure. This cornept has
ly and efficiently.
ban life by the creation of the new dispersed towns and
This is realized and a major public transport system
centers, and it is this aspect of space design and its char-
planned, but in view of the great distances to be covered
acter as a garden city which will earn Canberra its place
and the low population density which is not expected to
among the capitals of the world.
change, it must be questioned whether public transport can in fact run efficiently.
While there may be good con-
nections between the town centers and the city, the transport within the towns md between towns is likely to remain slow and inconvenient as today. A long term solution to this problem would be to increase the population density and compact the settlement struc-
The danger of “mushrooming”
should however not be
overlooked, not only because the whole structure tends to disintegrate in the vastness of space, but also because excessive distances and low population density are incompatible with efficient and viable public transport on which we may well seriously depend in the not too distant future.
ture. A density of 60 persons per ha as proposed by TieQe is certainly more likely to guarantee a viable public transport than the density of 30 persons per ha in Canberra, and people must therefore be attracted to live in higher density housing. Although limited amounts are provided
Acknowledgement Figures 2,7,8
have been made available by courtesy of
the Australian News and Information
Bureau, Canberra.
near the centers, it is mostly of poor quality and serves generally only as a temporary residence until people a~ quire a house. There is thus a great need for comfortable, high standard medium and high density housing which can be used as an alternative residence to the single family house. Some steps are undertaken in this direction but on a very small scale and not with the aim to increase population densities but merely to provide more variety in accommodation.
RefLINGE, G. J. R. (1961): Canberra after 50 years. Georp. Rev; $1, pp. 467466. National CapiW Development Gommtssfon(1965): Conberm. Sydney.
7% fururn
National Capital Development Commissbon (1970): Conbmm?. Canbarn
Tomorrows
Another more aesthetic problem connected with the low
REINER,
residential density is the facelessness of some suburbs with
TIETZE, W. (1970): Currant tas&s of settlanwnt goography in view of total urbanization. Geofonrm, 3, pp. 39-46.
their long flights of single storey houses forming an endless sea of rooftops (Fig. 2). This is partly overcome by
WHITE,
E. (1960):
Canberra. Geogr. Rdsch. 12, pp. 72-75.
Ii. L. (Ed.) (1954):
Cunbrrrn, o Noflons Cupifol. Sydney.
13/73
Canberra: A City for the Future? 1st Canberra eine Stadt der Zukunft? Canberra - ville de demain?
Ernst LUFFLER,
Canberra*
Abstract: Present development and future planniq of Canberra, the Australian National Capital, is described as an axample of modern town pianniq emphasisiq the spatW and functional organisation of the urban area Canberra is a rapidly growiq city and is beiq eapanded by the creation of new dispersed satellite towns which are groupd around inner Canberra in three growth corridors The towns are structured into a hierarchical order of centers and provide a lye rm of services and facilities as well as a concentntlon of empkyment opponunltlrr Although the towns are wlf-supponiq to a gmat degree, they remain integral parts of the mrwupolis with tho City center pmvidim the greatas raqe of services and facilltles, as well as eft@OyfIIMt. One of the maln pfablms f&n@ the Capital is the inefficiency of public mnspon and accordlqly the swoq reliance on private motor vehkks, which will be difficult to overcome ff present popuktion densities are not substantially im. Zusammnfasnaq: Die houtige und zukiinftlge Planuq Canberraa, dn Huprndt Australkns, wird ab etn Beispkl modsmu SDdtpIanuq beschrieben, die dk raumlkhe und funktion&e Cikderuq des Stadqebkts in den Vordm MU. Unberra, line sehr msch wacbsende St&, wird durch dk Scbaffuq daenualiskrtw SatoJlitatstUta,db um Inner Conbrrrw In drei Wachsamnkorridomn uwofdnt shd, uwotmc Ok Stldte sind in lin hkrarchkcha System van GemeinschaWzentten SgNedert und bietm ah m Anaabl von wbtschaftlkhen, kultureikn, und frekeitiichen Ein rkhtuqen sowie ArbeitspUtze. Obwohi dk St&r&e bis tu einem gewbsen Gnd selbst%ndi~ rind, bkRmn sb lln intqrlerter Restandteil dar Metropole, und das Zentrum von inner Conbarr wird such weiterhin das Ir(wlte und vklfXltigst.e Angebot an Einrichtungen und Arbeitsm~lichkriten wfweisan. Eina der Hauptpmblome CaMernssinddbaufgrunddergroRen Entfemuqen und dcr Stiqen Bev&keruqsdichte uruuDqlkben und unwirtschaftlkhen Mfemlkhen Verkrhrsmittel und dk daraus resultlerende starkr Abh%qbkelt der Personenbef6rdmrq durch Privatfahneqe. Es dlirfte rich als schwieri# erwrirn dksen Zustand zu Yndern, ohne dk BevNkeru~lchte entscheidend LU vef@&em. R6s~rn6: D&eloppnnent pr&ent et plan de la future Canberra, capitak rutknale luetralknne, donnh comme example de planniq urbain, souqnant I’organisatlon spatiale et fonctionelie do la r&on urbaine. Canberra est une viiie i crok sance rapide; elk s’yrandit par la crduion de citCI satellites disper&s autour de lnnrr Conberm en 3 corridors. La cit& sont structu&s selon I’ordre d’lmportance des Centres et offmnt un grand choii de wrvkn et facilit6s, ainsi qu’um concentntion d’occaskns de travail. Bkn que ks cl& soient largement ind&ndan&s elles restent UM partk int(lrale de la metropole, avcc Ie centre de la Cite offrant It plus grand choix de services, de facilitis et d’emplois. L’un da princig aux probl&mn qw la Capkale devn r6soudre est cr& pu l’imuffisance dn transports publics et I’usa~e maximum des v6hicula pri& cc probleme se rdvikn insoluble si la den&s de populations pr6sentes ne sent pas accrues substantir’. t-
Introduction In a recent paper published in this journal, TiElZE (1970) listed five major demands of an urban community at the end of this century and pointed out that at present there is no city or town in the world which could fulfil these demands. This is probably correct if we apply TlElZE’s criteria very strictly, however in the writer’s opinion, Canberra, the Australian Capital City, is very close to fulfilling
these demands. The purpore of this paper is therefore to draw attention to the recent development and future pianning of this city as an example of modern town planning with an open outlook to futore urban requirements. The writer is of course well aware that the planning and develop ment of Canberra are greatly facilitated by its single function as an administrative center and by the availability of space, and that therefore the planning experience in this part of the world cannot be directly applied to the overcrowded cities and towns of Europe. Nevertheless the
*
Dr. Ernst LGFFLER, Division of Land Research, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, P. 0. Box 1666, Canberra City. 2601, Australia.
general spatial model is certainly of relevance and indeed there are some similarities between the structural model of Canberra and TIETZE’s structural model of a future city.
Geoforum 13/73
Before describing the present state and future development of Canberra, a brief account of Canberra’s historical deveiopment follows. For more detailed information on the historical development and the general geographical situation the reader is referred to WHITE (1954), REiNER (196Of, LlNGE (1961 f, The Mional Capital Development Commission (1965) and the Kational Capital Development Commission (1970). Throughout the paper I have drawn heavily on the two latter publications.
Historic
Devclopmtnt
of Chnbcrra
_‘.,e other planned capitals such as Washington, Ottawa or Brasilia, Canberra owes its existence to the necessity of finding a relatively neutral place for the Federal Capital in a Federation of States which were ambitiously competing against one another. It was thus not national enthusiasm that ted to the creation of Canberra but haggfingprovincialism particularly between the two most influential cities, Sydney and Melbourne, neither of which would allow the other to be crowned as the Federal Capital. A compromise was eventually reached and incorporated into the Act to Constitute the Commonwealth of Austraiia: the seat of government rho&! be in Common wealth territory, not less than 100 square miles (260 km’) in area situated within the State of New South Wales not less than 100 miles (160 km) from Sydney. However the problem was far from solved and it took another eight years of interstatial quarreiling until finally the site for Canberra was selected from 40 original suggestions.In 1909 the state of New South Wales ceded 911 square miles (2368 km’) of land to the Commonwealth as the Australian Capital Territory (ACT.). In 1911 an international competition for the design of the new capital, which should house an initial 25,000 {with a possible extension to 75,000) inhabitants, was launched. The design of a Chicago architect, Walter Burley Griffin, was awarded first prize and it must be said that by today’s standards it was clearly the best design. Griffin, a foliower of the Chicago school of architects, envisageda h~oni~s integration of landscape,buildings and avenues. Dominating his plan was an artificial central lake and the Parliamentary triangle (Figs. 8,9) into which the most important Government buildings were to be placed. The surrounding residential areas had a geometric street pattern, circuiar and radial in shape, all fitting well into the general topography. Griffin’s plan was not without critics and there were several attempts to make maior changesto this plan. However when between t 913 and 1920 Griffin personally took charge of the d~elopment he made sure that the main framework of his plan was established on the ground. Work on the Capital progressedat a relatively slow rate during the 192Os, the major achievement being the completion of
Table 1 Canberra’s
populationincrease overtha last 30 years
Canberns BevBlkeru~uwachs j&Ire
wtulrend dar verganganan 30
Accroissemrnt de la copulation de Canberra au tours des 30 demibms an&es Year (ending june 30)
PetVMU
1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1972
12000 13250 22075 30712 50237 85690 130248 156100
Source: Commomaalth BUN lian Capital Territory Stat&&al
Avcmpc yearly
increut (WI 2.7 8.6 7.2
a.7 11.8 8.7 10.0 of Census and Statistics, AunraSummary, 1972, Canberra
the provisiii House of Parliament which is still being used today. The world wide depression during the 1930s and World War II dowed down the development even more and during this period very little construction took place. After the war building activity resumed but made very slow progress.The population however grew considerably and reached 22,000 in 1950 (Table 1). There was an acute shortage of office and residential buildings and a large number of prefabricated buildings were erected. Growing concern about the future of Canberra eventually led to a Senate Select Committee enquiry into the development of the Capital City. The Committee recommended the establishment of a National Capital Development Commission (N.C.D.C.) the duty of which was “to undertake and carry out the planning, development and construction of the City of Canberra as the National Capitat of the Commonwealth”. The ~~iishment of the N.C.D.C. in 1958 marks a turning point in the development of Canberra. Planning and development was for the first time put into the hands of an expert planning commission with a firm set of objectives. One of the first tasks of the N.C.D.C. was the design and completion of the central lake, the dominant feature in Griffin’s plan. The major problem however faced by the N.C.D.C. was the fact that Canberra had grown past the 25,000 inhabitants it was originally planned for and was fast approaching the 75,000 limit which was originally given as the possible absolute maximum (Table 1). A new plan for a larger Canberra was urgently needed. The choices were either to intensify densities of existing centers and to continue to extend the fringes of Canberra- the standard growth pattern of most cities- or to limit the extent of
Geoforum
19
13/73
existing centers and set up new urban districts in the sur-
are serviced and the road network completed before the
rounding rural areas. This second option was adopted and
building activity starts.
from this the concept of the “New Canberra” emerged.
The Spatial Concept of New Canberra Population, Work Force, Land-Tenure
Once the decision was reached to decentralize Canberra
Before elaborating on this, it is necessary to briefly men-
and to expand it through the construction of new towns
tion Canberra’s special population and workforce structure insofar as they determine planning requirements,
the main problem was how to arrange these towns spatial-
and the land tenure situation which is so important for successful town planning.
Due to Canberra’s dominant
function as a national administrative center and its youthfulness, its population and workforce structure differ considerably from those of other cities, The population is increasing at
a very high rate (Table 1; average over the
last 10 years 10 percent against the national average of 2.8 percent) mainly of course due to the rapid expansion of the Public Service. Of this increase 75 percent is by net migration which results in an immediate need for housing, serviced land, offices, schools and shopping facilities. The population has a high proportion of young people and therefore there is a particular danand on eduction facilities at
all levels. On the other hand special housing and
facilities for older people are less urgent.
ly. The main options for growth were concentric develop ment, linear development along preferred axes or dispersed development. Certain conditions and restrictions were imposed by topographic features such as the rugged mountain range to the west of Canberra. Six alternative growth plans were devised and evaluated by three computer models (1) a retail market potential model, (2) a tnvel demand and traffic assignment model and (3) an employment distribution model (The National Capital Development Commission 1970). The most favourable plan which emerged from these studies was a concept in which towns were grouped around Inner Canberra in three corridors, a southern, a northwestern and a northeastern corridor extending from the center in an approximate
Y-shape
(Fig. 1). Also incorporated in the plan is the present town of Queanbeyan; situated some 10 km southeast of Canberra across the border in New South Wales. Although
The majority of Canberra’s workforce is employed by the Commonwealth in the Public Service (38 percent) and
not under Commonwealth
authority
its development will
be closely linked with the development of Canberra. The
other government supported organizations such as the
towns were to be linked by a major public transport
Commonwult
system and four major freeways, two running north south
Scientific and Industrial Research Organi-
along the eastern and western fringes of the towns and
zation and the Australian National University (25 percent). The remaining 37 percent are employed by private business
two roughly northwest to southeast. Large open areas
and industry, with the largest single group being the build-
were to separate the towns and would remain permanent
ing and construction workforce (13 percent). This is a reflection of the high level of activity in this sector.
of half a million with a possible extension to one million.
nature reserves. The plan caters for an initial population The yet unresolved political problem which affects the
The majority of Canberrans have thus secure and well
viability of this plan is the fact that the two northern
paid (above national average) jobs. This and the generous
most towns would be outside A.C.T. territory in the state
government housing finance result in a heavy demand for
of New South Wales and it is by no means certain that New South Wales is prepared to surrender the area to the
housing with the traditional
Australian preference for de-
tached single family houses.
A.C.T. However at present and for the near future (up to
As Tieue
the 500,000 inhabitants level) the development is restricted to Canberra and the three towns of Woden-Weston
points out, individual land ownership in urban
areas and subsequent land speculation are incompatible with successful town planning and development. Canberra planners have the unusual advantage that Canberra’s land tenure is a leasehold system. All land necessary for private, commercial and industrial development is held by the Commonwealth or can be resumed by the Commonwealth. No crown land is allowed to revert to freehold. Up to now the Commonwealth
owns 83 percent of the A.C.T. The
land is offered at public auctions normally for a 99 year lease-hold, which can be renewed without the lesee having to bid again. The Commonwealth however determines for each lease the purpose for which the land can be used. It also fixes a minimum cost for the buildings to be erected and thus ensures that certain standards are met. The sites
Creek (originally planned as two separate towns but now combined to one town complex) Belconnen and Tuggeranong. Woden-Weston Creek is near its completion (Fig. 2) and Belconnen is close to the half-way mark. Construction of the town of Tuggeranong commenced in the second half of 1972 and by 1975/76 most of the development will be centered there.
Towns and Suburbs The internal structure of the towns (Fig. 3) which will encompass 20-30 suburbs and house 100,000-l SO,000 people is mainly based on criteria of convenience of
20
Geoforum
N
k-i-9
SUTTON
t
rZArmI
TOWN CgNtgRS
13/73
there is a three level hierarchy of centers, with the small suburban center at the lowest level, a larger group center combining servicesfor 3 to 8 suburbs at the intermediate level and the town center at the upper level (Fig. 4). The suburb or neighbourhood (Fig. 5) accomodates35004000 people, most of them living in single famity houses on blocks ranging from 6750 to 1080 m2 in area. A limited amount of higher density housing is available in the vicinity of the surburban shoppingcenter. The surburban center provides only for essential servicesand generally consists of a number of small shops for the daily shopp ing needs such as a food store, butchery, miikbar, pharmacy, newspaperagent, a car service station, a small post office, a surgery and junior educational institutions (preschool and infant-primary school). The shops and schools are within walking distance from every surburban house. Three to eight suburbs form a group which sharesservices . and facilities of a higher order. The group center (Figs. 2,6) consists of a number of single and double storey buildings arranged as a small pedestrian mall and surrounded by parking facilities. It contains a large supermarket, a variety of specialized food stores and clothing shops, banks, a large post offi, a licensed hotel, some commercial and professional offices, a library, and a joint church center. Sporting facilities such as a football oval, swimming pool, tennis and squash courts are located near by. Higher density housing is situated near the Center and is more extensive than in the suburbs. Each group has at least one but mostly two or three high schools which are conveniently located near the group center or between suburbs. The town center is the focal point of the town with several high, multi-storey buildings sharply breaking the predominantly
Fig. 1 l
l
l
The spatial concept of New Gnberra with dispersed satellite towns grouped around inner Gnberra in three corridors forming an approximate Y plus the New South WaJes town of Queanbeyan (after N.C.D.C. 1970). Das rZumliche Schema des Neuen Gnberra mit seinen Satellitcnstidten, die urn Inner Gnberra Y-fdrmig in drei Korridoren angeordnet sind sowie die in New South Wales getegene Stadt Queanbeyan (nach N.C.D.C. 1970). Le concept du Nouveau Gnberra avec une dispersion de villes satellites autour du Gnberra original, group&s en trois corridors formant approximativement un Y, plus la ville de Queanbeyan en New South Wales (d’aprks N.C.D.C. 1970).
horizontal dimension of the surrounding
suburbs (Figs. 2, 7). It is set up as an attractive pedestrian mall with a very large shopping center of some 3700-
7400 m2 retail space catering for all but the very specialized demands, one or two hotels, restaurants, cafes, government and private offices, banks, a large post office, - a theatre and a library. A hospital and high order educational facilities are located near by. Close to the mall and also part of the town center are extensive recreational and sporting facilities similar to those of the group center but on a larger scale. The town center also serves as suburban shopping center for the neighbouring higher density housing area and as group center for the adjacent suburbs. The town center not only provides a great variety of services but also employment on a relatively large scale in an effort to disperse employment and reduce the pres-
ty of shopping centers, easy and safe accessto schools
sure on inner Canberra. The Woden-Weston Creek town center will have jobs for about 10,000 people, 6000 of which will be employed by the government. Belconnen
and efficient, safe and convenient road system providing easy accessto the centers of employment. Within a town
town center will employ 23,000 persons, 10,000 in Commonwealth offices (Table 2).
services for the urban user such as accessibiiity and viabili-
Geoforum f 3173
27
Fig. 2 Creek looking south over the various suburbs with low density housing and sWwXurcd road system. In the center is the Yafra Glen expressway the major arterial connecting the town with Inner Canberra. Center left shows the group center of Curtin with shopping center, hotel, parish center, schools and sporting facilities partly surrounded by high density accommodation. In the background the skyline of the Woden town center and aE the horizon the site of the future town of fuggeranong.
l Aerial photograph of the new town of W~e~Wes~n
*
Luftaufnahme dcr neuen Stadt Woden-Weston Creek nach Sbden blickend mit der typischcn Anordnung van Stadtteilen und dem wohl strukturierten StraBensystem. In der Bildmitte die Yarra-Glen SchnellstraSe, die die Hauptverbindung twischen Woden-Weston Creek und inner Canberra darstellt. Bildmittc links rcigt sin Gruppenrsntrum mit Einkaufsztntrum, Hotel, Gemeinschaftskirche, Schulen, Sportanlagen und umgebendan Wohnblocks. Im Hintergrund die Skyline dcr Woden Stadt Zentrums und am Horizont das Gclgnde der zukbnftlgen Stadt Tuggeranong.
e Photographic aerienne de 1a nouwllt
cid de WodemWeston Creek en direction Sod, montrant I’arrangoment des quartim et la Lfructure du sysrtme routier. Au centre la route de Yarra Glen, principale art&e reliant la citt au Canberra original. Au milieu B gauche le centre de Curtin avec magasins, h&et, Lcolts et terrains de span, entour en partie par da habitations a haute densitf de population. A I’arriere plan la sifhouette du centre de la citt de Woden. La plaine a I’horizon montre I’tmplacement de la future citf de Tuggeranong.
Geoforum 13/73
22
fig. 3 * Structural and functional plan of the town of Wode~West~fl * Strukturelle und funktiontie
Creek {Partly after N.CD.C
Giiedcrung dtr Sateltitenstadt Wren-Weston
pamphlets.
Creek (a. T. nach N.C.D.C. Eroschiire).
* Plan structural et fonctionnel de la title’ de Wodcn-Weston Creek (en partir d’apris un pamphlet du N.C.D.C.).
Geoforum
23
13/73
0
200
400
6OOm
‘OWN
Fig. J l Structural and functional plan of the suburb of Higgins, BelCOnnen,
and the road structure. l Struktureller
und funktionaler Plan des Stadtteils, Higgins, Belconnen und Stragengliederung.
l Plan structural et fonctionnel des quartiers de Higgins, Belconnen
et systZme routier.
Fig. 4 @ Diagrammatic model of the hierarchy of Centers in the Canberra metropolis. Centers in black (after N.C.D.C. 1970). l Schema der Hierarchic der Zentrcn in der Metropole von Canberra.
Zentren in Schwarz (nach N.C.D.C. l Modile diagrammatique
1970).
de I’ordre de grandeur des centres urbains composant Canberra. Les centres sont en noir (d’apr6s N.C.D.C. 1970).
Although the towns will thus be self-contained, to a targe degree they will remain an integral and essential part of the metropolis and Inner Canberra will clearly remain at the top level of the hierarchy. It provides and will continue to provide not only all the services and facilities of the town center but also specialized services and facilities (commercial, medical, cultural and educational) and above all employment for the majority of Canberra’s workforce (60 percent of the available jobs).
24
Geoforum 13/73
inner Canberra
lARKINO
1 5upumorkmt
8
Mlle
avadona
2 Jmlordmpt.ntora 3Ihopr 4 offior d ebope 5 kst offto
9bes-p 10 Ikctrielty
6 Library 7 Church
13 Club@
Wcetotkn
11 eordomantor 12 5qwshcowtr
Fig. 6 l Functional plan of Dickson shopping center (after N.C.D.C l Funktionrler
Ptan des Dickson Einkaufszentrumr
1970).
(nach N.C.D.C.
1970). 0 Plan foncrionnel du trhopping centro N.C.D.C. 1970).
de Dickson (d’apras
Due to the rapid expansion of Canberra over the last decade, Griffin’s plan of Inner Canberra had to be modified and enlarged, however, his basic concept has been preserved. The core area is the Parliamentary Triangle, the corners of which are marked by Capital Hill in the south, City Hill in the north and a complex of defence buildings at Russell in the north-east (Figs. 8, 9). The two dominating axes of the triangle, the Commonwealth and Kings Avenues and their lake spanning bridges, were completed in the early sixties and have given the City a unity it was previously lacking (LINGE 1961). In the core of the triangle the impression of emptiness, an objection often raised against early Canberra as a whole, still prevails (Fig. S), the only larger buildings being the provisional Houseof Parliament, the National Library, and two buildingshousing government departments. The areaclearly needs “filling in” to stressand clarify this central design feature. It was realized early that it was impossible and also undesirable to concentrale the majority of government offices south of the lake inside the triangle as envisaged by Griffin. Instead it was considered necessaryto decentralize the government departments and thus disperse employment opportunities. At present most of the government offices are located within Inner Canberra southeast and northeast of the Parliamentary Triangle, along the northern shore of Lake Buttey Griffin, in the City, and in North Canberra (Fig. 9). Three large government departments were transferred to the newly built offii in the Woden-Weston Creek town canter, forming the start for a more effective dispersalof employment. A major public service employment center will also be provided by the Belconnen Town center where construction is underway. The commercial core of Canberra, the City center, or Civic as locally called, is located north and northeast of City Hill and here much of the development has taken place in the last decade.
laDI=
L
Present Population c(1972)
Population at half million
Ultimate Population capacity
Number of Jobs available at half million level*
0 Present and fuwn population and employment distribution
Inner Canberra Woden Weston Creek
79,750 51,900
100,000 87,000
120,000 90,000
117,000 16,000
0 Heutige und zukiinftige Btviilkcrungsund Arbeitsktifuwneilung
Belconnen Tu~ennong Gungahlin
24,400
110,000 110,000 93,000
120,000 170,000 110,000
29,000 22,000 8,000
156,050
500,000
610,000
192,000
Canberra
l
Comparable present data are not yet available; the last Census data are from 1966 and do not allow meaningful comparison as virtually the whole workforce was still concentrated in Inner Canberra
Source: Present Population as for Table 1, other fiiures N.C.D.C. 1970.
0 Population pr&ente et future et distribution d’emploi
Geoforum
13173
Fig. 7 l Air photo of the largely completed Wodcn town center looking north. The main buildings in the ccntcr of the photo arc from bottom to top:
two square interconnected shopping malls, a private enterprise office building (under construction), an L-shaped building housing post office, banks and private cntcrprix offices partly surrounding the town square, and high rising buildings all housing government offices. In the very foreground left some buildings of the industrial area and in the background a recreational area with wal, sports clubs and swimming pool, The open areas outside the ring road surrounding the town center are largely rcscrvcd for higher dcnsitv housing. l Luftaufnahmc
dcs zum gro6tcn Tcil fertiggcstciiten Woden Stadt Zentrums nach Nordcn biickend. Die wichtiptcn Gcbgude in dcr Bildmittc sind von untcn nach oben: zwci ctwa quadratischc miteinandcr vcrbundenc Kaufhailcn (shopping mails), dahintcr tin mchrstiickigas B&ogcbiudc (im Bau) fur nicht iiffcntliche Untemehmcn (Versichcrungcn, und frcic Bcrufc wie Ante, Anwgltc u.2.) dahintcr tin L-fiirmigcs Gebgudc in weichcm Post und Bankcn untcrgcbracht sind und dahintcr vicr Hochhguscr und einigc kieincre Gebgudc, die dlc Rcgicrungs;imtcr bchcrbergcn. im Vordcrgrund links cinigc Gcb4udc dcs klcincn lndustriczcntrums und im Hintergrund Frcizcit- und Sportanlagcn. Die nicht bcbautcn Gcbictc au6erhalb dcr Ringstrat3c sind grii5tcntcils fijr Wohnbiocks rcscrvicrt.
0 Photo aericnnc du ccntrc de la cite de Wodcn, direction nord. Lcs bitimcnts principaux au ccntre de la photo sont, de has en haut: dcux halles commcrciaics, un bitiment de bureaux d’cntcrprises privees (en construction), un bitimcnt en forme de L comprcnant un bureau de post% des banqucs et dcs bureaux d’cntrcprises privies entourant particilcmcnt la place civiquc, et d’autrcs edifices plus ii&s contenant dcs bureaux du gouvcrnemcnt. Au tout premier plan i gauche, dcs constructions de la rigion indunriclic et a I’arricrc unc etcndut de n’creation avcc ovalc, clubs sportifs et piscine. Lcs terrains vagucs cn dchors de I’anncau routicr cntourant it ccntrc de la cite sent riscrv6s en grandc partic i dcs logements pour une population plus concentric.
26
Geoforum 13/73
Fig. 8 0 Air photo of Inner Canberra looking south from the City Center, over City Hill and Lake Burley Griffin towards the Parliamentary Triangle. In the foreground left, retail core flanked by modern, mostly multi-storey buildings, housing private and government offices and some civic and cultural institutions. The older buildings in the center foreground represent the original City Center (until about 1950) and the area will be redeveloped. The Pariiamentary Triangle Ranked by Commonwealth (right) and Kings (left) avenues with their lake spanning bridges, contains from the righc Treasurey, National Library, provisional House of Parliament and Administration buildings. In the background the long estabiished suburbs of South Canberra and to the far left the industrial area of Fyshwick. *
Luftbild von Inner Canberra nach Siiden schauend von der City iiber City Hill und Lake Burley Griffin auf du Parlamentsdreieck. Im Vordergrund links Einkaufxentrum (Eintelhandel) mit vorhernchend rwaisrtickigen Biirogebauden fliinkiert von modernen, meist viejstockigen Biirogebluden, die Regierungsgmter, nicht iiffentlichc Unternehmen (v. a. Versicherungen. und freie Berufe wie pirate, Anwglte u.3.) stidtische und kulturelle Einrichtungen, bchcrbergen. Die glteren GebPude in der Bildmitte stellen du ehemalige Stadtttntrum dar (his etwa 1950) und warden bald modemen GebXuden weichen. Das Parlamentsdreieck, wtlches von Commonweaith (rechts) und Kings (links) Avenues und Briicken flankiert wird, enthilt (von rechts) Finanrministerium, Nationale Bibliothek, provisorisches Parlamentsgebaude und Verwaltungsgebaude. Im Hintergrund erscheinen die ilteren Stadtteile von Sii Canberra und links das lndustriegebtet von Fyshwrck.
* Photo airrenne de la crtd originale de Canberra, prise au Sud du Centre par dessus City Hill et le lac Burley Griffin en direction du Triangle Parlementaire. Au premier plan ;i gauche le centre de commerce en detail. Le long des magasins de chaque c&i sent des bftiments modemes i pfusieurs &ages logeant des bureaux privis et gouvernementaux, et des institutions civtques et culturelles. Les bitiments plus vieux au premier phn au centre reprisentent te centre original fjusque I950 environs} qui sera red+veloppe. Le Triangle Parlementaire est flanque de Commonwealth Avenue i droita et Kings Avenue a gauche avec leurs pants erqambant le Iac. Les batiments dans le Triangle sent (de droite i gauche) lo Trtsor, la Bibliotheque Nationale, la Parlement provisoire et I’Administration. A I’arridre plan sent les quartrers plus ancienr du sud de Canberra et tout I gauche la region industrielle de Fyshwick.
27
Geoforum 13/73
Fig. 9 l
Structural and functional plan of Inner Canberra.
l
Structurclla und funktionale GIL derungvon I nnar Canberra.
l
Plan stnrctural et fonctionncl de uInner Canberra, .
The City Center comprises an extensive retail core, flanking office concentration and a range of other uses such as civic, cultural, entertainment, hotels and of course parking (Fig. 8,9). The retail area includes a large airconditioned mail and a great number of general and specialid shops offering a wide range of national and international goods. It is now closed to traffic and is being redeveloped into a pedestrian plaza to make it a more attractive and lively shopping center.
Situated to the west of Civic is the Australian National University with its two main Institutes, the School of General Studies providing tertiary education for Canberra and its region, and the Institute of Advanced Studies with various ResearchSchools representing a national center for research. After the government, the University is one of the main employers of Canberra. Several Divisions of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, a center for applied research, are housed
28
Geoforum
13/73
north of the University. Other tertiary education institu-
car, 30 percent more than one and 75 percent of the work-
tions dispersed throughout Canberra include the Royal
force drives to work (50 percent drive themselves, 25 per-
Military College, the Canberra Technical College, the
cent are car passengers) and only 15 percent use public
Australian Forest School and several rcligous colleges.
transport, the remaining 10 percent walk. Canberra
North of the retail core is a small industrial area domi-
planners assume that a more efficient public transport
nated by service trades mainly associated with motor vehicle sales and services. The main industrial concentra-
will gradually take over a much larger share of the trans-
tion however is located southeast of Canberra at Fyshwick.
doubtful.
Industrial activity is largely mtricted
port. Whether this will indeed be the case must remain
to service trades,
building and construction enterprises and light manufacturing industries all supplying predominantly
the focal market.
Heavy industry is banned from Canberra.
Discussion The aim of town planning in Canberra is not restricted to
Y.?e suburban residential areas have remained, as envisaged
the planning of buildings but is mainly concerned with
by Griffin, low density garden suburbs. They are served by local shopping centers similar in structure to the sub-
the spatial and functional organization of the urban area
urban centers in the new towns, though generally somewhat larger as they were developed before the new con-
present and future Canberra thus live up to Tietze’s urban model of the future? The very low density of 30 person
in view of the needs of the urban community.
Does the
cept of centers was conceived. In South Canberra two
per ha guarantees that people live in quiet, pleasant sur-
centers (Manuka and Kingston) have had the function of
roundings with ampk private space. Housing is also of a relatively high standard. A range of varied and highly
group centers for several decades, and their centrality was particularly strong before the completion of Kings and
quahfied jobs is provided, however due to Canberra’s
Commonwealth
function there is a predominate of administrative, research
bridges when curbern
virtually consisted
of two separate towns. In North Canberra the City Center
and academic jobs while there is only a limited range of
was the only higher order Center until 1965 when the
jobs in the industrial sector. In spite of the great extent
Dickson shopping center was established to serve as a
of the metropolis, the well-structured road network allows
group center for the northern suburbs. It was the first
and will continue to allow people to reach their jobs with-
group center designed by the N.C.D.C.
with the concept
of dispersed centers in mind. In area Inner Gnberra has reached its ultimate size and all the residential land has been occupied. Future develop ment will therefore concentrate on the construction of “monumental”
buildings in the Parliamentary Triangle,
and expansion and some redevelopment of the City Center to further strengthen its position as the Center of the National Metropolis, and some redevelopment of residential areas like the construction of high density housing in the proximity of the City Center.
Traffic
and Transport
As already pointed out the towns and the cenval areas will be closely linked by a well-structured road network of four major multi-lane freeways and a series of double lane arterial and subarterial roads (Fig. 4). The roadsystem is also hierarchical with the freeways being the major links between twons, the arterial, and subarterials the major links within the town (Fig. 1, 2, 3) and the distributor, collector and access roads providing convenient movement and access within the suburb (Figs. 2, 5). There will also be a major public transport system including an express bus service between the main centers. At present the transport is heavily dependant on private motor vehicles, 90 percent of Canberra’s households own one
in half an hour or less even from outer suburbs providing they use private motor vehicles. The time distance to the shopping areas is also very low, the suburban center can be reached by foot in 15 minutes or less and the town center by car in less than 15 minutes. Inner Canberra is within 30 minutes time distance by motor transport. The same applies
to cultural, educational, medical and re-
creational as well as sporting requirements. Long distance transport facilities are not yet well-developed but work is in progress. Independence and distance from next door neighbours within the immediate environment is certainly guaranteed, in particular as it is traditional in the Australian urban life. Canberra thus seems to meet most of the requirements of an urban community which is expressed in the fact that public opinion surveys show that the great majority of Canberrans regard the physical quality of life as good to very good, and onlv a small minority is not satisfied. However, Canberra is not without problems. While most cities suffer from the lack of space, Canberra ’ suffers” from the abundance of space which allows planners to extend the metropolis over enormous areas. At present the distance between the northernmost and southernmost suburbs is about 20 km and at the 500,000 population level this*will be in the order of 40 km. There is clearly the danger that the unity and coherence of the metropolis distintegrates and the often raised criticism against Canberra of being an agglomeration of “suburbs in search
Geoforum
29
13/73
may regain some validity. The great extent and the very
planting of trees and shrubs (provided free by the government) which add a third dimension to the predominantly
for a City” which has been overcome in the last decade, low population density necessarily lead to shortcomings
horizontal structure of the suburbs. A greater variety of
in the public transport sector. At present public transport (bus services) is very inefficient and inconvenient so
greatly add to the attraction of the suburbs without de-
people are more or less compelled to use private motor
stroying their character as garden suburbs.
vehicles. The well-structured
buildings, in particular medium density houses, would
road system which is being
continuously expanded, can be expected to cope with the traffic for some time to come, although some traffic
Conclusion
congestions already occur at peak hour traffic. The limit-
Canberra is not a spectacular city. It is modest in size and
ing factor is however, parking, and the construction of multi-storey parking buildings will only be a short term
does not impress the visitor with a great number of dis-
solution because of the rapidly increasing population,
and
tinguished works of architecture. This has never been the intention of its original planner. Canberra’s attraction lies
thus the number of motor cars. There is an urgent need to encourage and attract more people to use public trans-
in its successful spatial design where the landscape is the
port, but this can only be achieved if it is provided cheap
been continued adapting the requirements of modern ur-
dominent element of the city structure. This cornept has
ly and efficiently.
ban life by the creation of the new dispersed towns and
This is realized and a major public transport system
centers, and it is this aspect of space design and its char-
planned, but in view of the great distances to be covered
acter as a garden city which will earn Canberra its place
and the low population density which is not expected to
among the capitals of the world.
change, it must be questioned whether public transport can in fact run efficiently.
While there may be good con-
nections between the town centers and the city, the transport within the towns md between towns is likely to remain slow and inconvenient as today. A long term solution to this problem would be to increase the population density and compact the settlement struc-
The danger of “mushrooming”
should however not be
overlooked, not only because the whole structure tends to disintegrate in the vastness of space, but also because excessive distances and low population density are incompatible with efficient and viable public transport on which we may well seriously depend in the not too distant future.
ture. A density of 60 persons per ha as proposed by TieQe is certainly more likely to guarantee a viable public transport than the density of 30 persons per ha in Canberra, and people must therefore be attracted to live in higher density housing. Although limited amounts are provided
Acknowledgement Figures 2,7,8
have been made available by courtesy of
the Australian News and Information
Bureau, Canberra.
near the centers, it is mostly of poor quality and serves generally only as a temporary residence until people a~ quire a house. There is thus a great need for comfortable, high standard medium and high density housing which can be used as an alternative residence to the single family house. Some steps are undertaken in this direction but on a very small scale and not with the aim to increase population densities but merely to provide more variety in accommodation.
RefLINGE, G. J. R. (1961): Canberra after 50 years. Georp. Rev; $1, pp. 467466. National CapiW Development Gommtssfon(1965): Conberm. Sydney.
7% fururn
National Capital Development Commissbon (1970): Conbmm?. Canbarn
Tomorrows
Another more aesthetic problem connected with the low
REINER,
residential density is the facelessness of some suburbs with
TIETZE, W. (1970): Currant tas&s of settlanwnt goography in view of total urbanization. Geofonrm, 3, pp. 39-46.
their long flights of single storey houses forming an endless sea of rooftops (Fig. 2). This is partly overcome by
WHITE,
E. (1960):
Canberra. Geogr. Rdsch. 12, pp. 72-75.
Ii. L. (Ed.) (1954):
Cunbrrrn, o Noflons Cupifol. Sydney.