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Candies and Sweets: Sugar and Chocolate Confectionery
Candies and Sweets: Sugar and Chocolate Confectionery MA Godshall, Consultant, New Orleans, LA, USA ã 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Candies and Sweets: Sugar and Chocolate Confectionery
Ingredients
Candies and sweets, collectively known as confections, are defined as foods whose main characteristic is sweetness. It is typically understood that a candy is a rather small, defined food item. Confectionery products are divided into two categories:
The single most important ingredient in confectionery is sugar. Along with sweetness, sugar provides structure, bulk, and preservative properties in candies. Sugar confectionery is made from a mixture of sucrose and glucose syrup in various proportions. Chocolate production uses only sucrose. Molasses, brown sugar, and honey are used for specific flavor effects in various confections. Demerara sugar is a special type of goldenbrown sugar made from cane juice used in some high-cocoacontent chocolate bars. Sugar, chemically known as sucrose, is a disaccharide made up of one molecule of glucose and one of fructose. Unlike most other monosaccharides and disaccharides, sucrose is a nonreducing sugar, which confers a high degree of stability, so it can be cooked to a high temperature without breaking down or undergoing browning reactions. Under temperate storage conditions, sucrose does not pick up moisture and can remain stable for years. Sucrose sets the standard for sweetness and functionality in candy making, and all other sweeteners are compared with it. The two commercial sources of sucrose are cane sugar and beet sugar, with cane sugar representing 78–80% of world sugar production. Production methods differ between cane sugar and beet sugar, but the sucrose from each is chemically identical. Sugar refineries produce several types of sugars:
Sugar confectionery: Sugar is the main ingredient. Chocolate confectionery: Chocolate is the characterizing ingredient, either as entirely made up of chocolate or as a coating or inclusion.
Patterns of Consumption Globally, sugar confectionery accounts for about 39% of candy consumption and chocolate confectionery about 61%. This ratio can vary widely among countries. Confectionery consumption is increasing in countries with a growing middle class, such as Brazil and India, and in countries with traditionally low sugar consumption, such as China and Japan. As populations become more prosperous, chocolate consumption tends to increase. In more developed countries, confectionery consumption shows little growth from year to year and has declined in some nations. Table 1 shows candy consumption for a few countries on a yearly and daily basis. Northern and Western European countries are the highest consumers of chocolate confectionery in the world. In 2013, the global confectionery market was estimated to be worth $171 billion, with chocolate representing $110 billion. US candy sales for the same period were $33.9 billion. In Asia and Latin America, sugar confectionery tends to predominate. In parts of Asia, less sweet confections are preferred. In Japan, candy must be aesthetically pleasing. Kit Kat bars are wildly popular in Japan, and there is a tradition of constantly introducing new and unusual flavors, such as wasabi, green tea, soy sauce, miso, and sweet potato. Throughout Asia, gummy candies with fruit flavors are preferred. The Nordic countries are among the top global consumers of confectionery. Sweden has a high consumption of sugar confectionery and Switzerland has the highest chocolate consumption. In a number of countries (India, China, and Mexico), candies are thought of as mainly for gift-giving occasions or for children. With cultural changes caused by globalization, candy consumption begins to be considered for everyday snacking. Chocolate was traditionally considered an expensive luxury, but with smaller sizes and lower prices, consumption has increased rapidly in Asia and Latin America. Large spikes in confectionery consumption occur during Easter, Halloween, and Valentine’s Day, when confectionary is traditionally gifted. Each holiday has its own set of traditional treats.
Encyclopedia of Food and Health
Sugar and Other Nutritive Sweeteners
• • • • •
Granulated white sugars, with a range of defined crystal sizes obtained by screening Confectioners’ sugars of various particle sizes and cornstarch content Brown sugars of various grades – light, medium, dark, agglomerated, and liquid Liquid sugars of various concentrations of dissolved sucrose that may contain invert sugar Specialty sugars, which have added ingredients or may be colored
Within these categories is a wide range of products. Since there are no standard definitions, the names companies use for the same product can be different. Screened sugars have been sieved to give specific crystal size ranges. The smaller crystals dissolve more readily and are preferred for confectionery. Coarser crystals, called sanding sugar or decorating sugar, can be used for dusting the surface of jellies and other confections to give surface sparkle and a mild crunch. Sugar used in confectionery must be highly refined and of the highest quality. Confectioners’ sugar is produced by pulverizing white sugar and then screening it to 75 or 45 mm size. To prevent caking, 3% cornstarch is added. Some is also available without cornstarch. Confectioners’ sugar is recommended for fondant production.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384947-2.00679-6
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Table 1
Candies and Sweets: Sugar and Chocolate Confectionery
Sugar and chocolate confectionery consumption per capita per year and per capita per day kg per capita per year
g per capita per day
Country
Sugar
Chocolate
Total
Sugar
Chocolate
Total
Japan Brazil France The United Kingdom Germany The United States Denmark
1.73 1.83 3.50 5.26 5.95 6.15 8.64
2.23 2.16 6.50 10.29 11.60 5.46 7.65
3.96 3.99 10.00 15.55 17.55 11.61 16.29
4.74 5.01 9.59 14.41 16.27 16.85 23.67
6.11 5.92 17.81 28.19 31.78 14.96 20.96
10.85 10.93 27.40 42.60 48.05 31.81 44.63
Invert sugar is a mixture of glucose and fructose produced by acid or enzymatic hydrolysis of liquid sucrose. Glucose syrup is the other essential ingredient in sugar confectionery production. Its most important function is to control or prevent crystallization in hard candy production; it also provides humectancy, helps maintain texture, and stabilizes the product. Glucose syrups are about 40–50% as sweet as sucrose. Glucose syrups are produced from cornstarch (the United States) or wheat starch (Europe) by acid or enzymatic hydrolysis, which produces different grades. Standard glucose syrup, also called confectionery syrup, is 42 DE syrup. DE stands for ‘dextrose equivalent’ and is a measure of the degree of hydrolysis and the amount of reducing sugar present. The two types of 42 DE syrup used in confectionery are glucose syrup and high-maltose syrup.
Labeling sugars On labels in the United States, the quantity, in grams, of all carbohydrates is listed and then broken out as dietary fiber and ‘sugars.’ Sugars include all nutritive sweeteners, including corn syrups, sugar, lactose, and brown sugar. The different types of sweeteners are listed separately in the ingredients list.
Sugar-Free Candies: Sugar Alcohols Candies labeled ‘sugar-free’ contain sugar alcohols or artificial sweeteners or a combination of both. Sugar alcohols, also known as polyols, are carbohydrates, but they are not sugars. Sugar alcohols include erythritol, xylitol, glycerol (glycerin), hydrogenated starch hydrolysates (HSH; polyglycitol), isomalt (isomaltitol), lactitol, maltitol, mannitol, and sorbitol. Xylitol is about as sweet as sucrose and maltitol about 90% as sweet. The other sugar alcohols are 40–60% as sweet as sucrose. Some sugar alcohols – xylitol, erythritol, and mannitol – have a pronounced cooling effect, similar to mint. Isomalt and maltitol have a less cooling effect. Sugar alcohols are noncariogenic (do not promote tooth decay). They contain 2–3 calories per gram. Erythritol has only 0.2 cal g1. They do not raise blood glucose, so they are suitable for diabetics. However, they have a laxative effect if consumed in excess.
Other Ingredients Acidulants provide the tart flavors in sour candies, enhance fruit flavors, and provide preservative properties. Common
acidulants include citric acid, potassium citrate, malic acid, fumaric acid, lactic acid, calcium lactate, sodium citrate, tartaric acid, and ascorbic acid. Different acids can be blended to obtain a desired level of sourness and taste duration. Confectionery fats contribute to the tenderness, structure, and texture in candy. Cocoa butter, the fat in chocolate, is considered the ‘gold standard’ of confectionery fats. Its sharp melting curve, close to body temperature, allows it to melt in the mouth, and the proper alignment of its fat crystals provides the desirable snap of chocolate when it is broken. Because of its expense, cocoa butter is not used in other types of confectionery; other fats are used instead, including butter and vegetable fats, the most important of which are coconut oil and palm kernel oil, usually in a partially hydrogenated form, designed to have similar properties to cocoa butter. Other fats include partially hydrogenated soybean and cottonseed oils and fully hydrogenated palm kernel oil and coconut oil. The FDA has recently proposed revoking the GRAS (generally recognized as safe) status of partially hydrogenated oils, which presents a challenge to confectioners to find alternatives that provide the same functions in candies. Many hard candies and jelly/ gummy candies do not contain any fat. Dairy: A wide range of dairy products are used in confectionery – fluid whole milk, skim milk, cream, evaporated milk, sweetened condensed milk, evaporated milk, milk protein concentrates, butter, anhydrous milk fat, whey, a range of milk powders, and lactose (milk sugar). Milk is a significant ingredient in milk chocolate, fudge, caramel, toffee, and pralines. Milk used in chocolate must be in dry form, as water will prevent chocolate from flowing properly and ruins its texture. Emulsifiers have many important functions in confectionery: viscosity reduction, lubrication, control of sugar crystallization, aid in dispersion of ingredients, stabilization of structure, and prevention of sticking. The most widely used emulsifier is lecithin, derived from soy. Commercial lecithin is a mixture of phosphatides and sterols. Other emulsifiers include polyglycerol polyricinoleate, sorbitan esters, polysorbates, mono- and diglycerides of lactic and tartaric acids, sucrose esters, and propylene glycol monoesters. In chocolate confectionery, emulsifiers prevent the separation of cocoa butter from cocoa solids and slow the development of bloom. Flavors: Sometimes, an ingredient’s flavor profile is very complex, with many different chemicals contributing to the odor, such as coffee and chocolate flavors. Sometimes, one chemical characterizes a flavor, for example, benzaldehyde in almonds, eugenol in cloves, and vanillin in vanilla. If only the
Candies and Sweets: Sugar and Chocolate Confectionery
characterizing chemical is used, as in less expensive candies, the flavor profile may be one-dimensional; other flavor compounds present, for example, in vanilla extract, round out and add complexity to the flavor. Some flavors are developed during cooking or roasting. Sugar heated with proteins or bicarbonate will produce an array of pleasant flavors that are described as ‘browned,’ brown sugar, or caramelized, in a reaction known as the Maillard reaction. Dairy ingredients provide milky, creamy, and buttery flavors; heating produces cooked cream, browned butter, and butterscotch flavors. The complex flavor of chocolate is developed through a series of processes, from fermentation of the cocoa beans to roasting the nibs and conching. Flavors used in confectionery can be artificial or natural or a combination of both and must be able to withstand the candy making process. The FDA maintains a list of flavor compounds that are GRAS. Over 3000 compounds have been listed to date. Food coloring: The most common colorants used in confectionery are artificial colors that are either oil- or water-soluble. There is a growing trend toward using natural colorants, but these are more expensive and tend to be heat-sensitive and fade. Fruits are used as inclusions in many candies, the most popular being raisins. Other fruit products used in confectionery include dried fruits, pastes, juice, and juice concentrates. Glazes, coatings, and polishing agents; antistick and release agents: Coatings and glazes improve the appearance and stability of candies, providing gloss, increased shelf life, adhesion of sugar crystals to encapsulate acidulants on the surface of jelly candies, fat barrier, moisture resistance, and antistick properties. The common confectionery glazes are carnauba wax, shellac, beeswax, and gum arabic. Shellac is extracted from the Laccifer lacca insect. Carnauba wax is extracted from the leaves of a Brazilian tree, Copernicia prunifera. Beeswax is secreted by bees. Gum arabic is used to give chocolates a brilliant shine. A less common coating is made from a corn protein, known as zein, which provides a vegetable-based glaze that competes with shellac. Gelling agents provide body, texture, and structure to chewy, jelly-type candies. The gelling agents used in candy making are gelatin, pectin, modified starches, and egg albumin (egg whites). Gelatin, derived from cows or pigs, is widely used in gummy candies, fruit jellies, and gumdrops. Egg whites produce a structured foam and are used as a gelling or whipping agent to provide a characteristic flavor and an airy, open texture in marshmallows, nougat, and divinity. Pectin and modified starches are used as vegetable substitutes for gelatin and egg whites. Each gelling agent confers different properties to a candy, and they are often used in combination to achieve desired effects. Nuts, seeds, and coconut: The tree nuts used in candy making are almonds, pecans, walnuts, hazelnuts, and pistachios, available whole, broken, and finely chopped or as meal, flour, butter, or paste. Peanuts and peanut butter are among the most popular candy ingredients. While peanuts function like tree nuts, they are a legume. Nuts are roasted or pasteurized before use in confectionery for both flavor development and microbiological safety. Seeds used in confectionery include
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sesame and sunflower. Spice seeds such as fennel, caraway, and anise are used sparingly for flavor. Halva, an ancient confection popular in the Middle East, is made from sesame seed paste. Marzipan is made from almond paste. Botanically, coconuts (Cocos nucifera) are classified as a fruit. The coconut is made up of a fibrous outer husk and a hard inner shell. When immature, coconut water fills the shell; as the coconut matures, the coconut kernel or ‘meat’ is formed as a pure white layer on the inner surface of the shell. In mature coconuts, the water is absorbed and the meat is about one-half inch thick. This meat is the source of coconut oil. The meat (full fat or partially defatted) is dried and shredded or powdered for use in candies. Coconut candy is very popular in Latin America, where it is known as cocada. Preservatives are used to prevent rancidity in fats and oils. The most common preservative is tert-butylhydroquinone. Safe usage has been set to an upper limit of 0.02% of the fat and oil contents by the FDA and the European Food Safety Authority. Another common preservative is citric acid. Not all commercial confectionery products contain preservatives. Salt is used to enhance sweet flavor and to round out and blend complex flavors. Sodium levels are required on labels and are in the range of 10–45 mg per serving (equivalent to 25–114 mg of sodium chloride). Salt flavor in confectionery is popular in chocolate and caramel. Salt sprinkled on the surface of chocolate and caramel confections enhances flavor and provides a subtle crunch. Sea salt is often used because it adds a certain cachet to the confection and is perceived to have a different taste than regular salt. Asian ingredients not found in Western-style confectionery are red bean paste, glutinous rice flour, and rice malt syrup. Red bean paste is made from cooked, mashed, and sweetened adzuki beans. Rice malt is considered to be healthy.
Methods of Production The production of candy depends on boiling sugar and corn syrup in various proportions in water or milk to specific temperatures, sugar concentrations, and moisture contents and controlling the crystallization of the sugar. Within these constraints, a wide range of confections are produced. The two general categories of sugar confectionery include soft-boiled and hard-boiled (hard candy) production. Soft-boiled confections have a higher moisture content and a creamy texture. Hard candies can be hard and dense, brittle, or crispy and crunchy. The process of crystallizing sugar in soft-boiled confections, such as fudge and pralines, is known as graining. Sugar cooked and solidified to the point where crystals are no longer present, as in brittles and hard candy, is considered to be in a glassy state. Water content in sugar confectionery is typically low, ranging from 1.5% to 6.5%. Hard candies have the lowest moisture content. Candies with higher water content include jellies, marshmallows, fondants, and creams. In both commercial and home cooking, a series of cooking stages are used as a shorthand way to determine when the sugar mixture has reached the proper temperature and sugar concentration to produce the desired texture. For home cooking, a small dollop of the cooked syrup is dropped into cool water, and the form the quickly cooled syrup takes is an indicator of
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Table 2
Candies and Sweets: Sugar and Chocolate Confectionery
Temperature ranges for boiling sugar confections
Type of confection
Cooking stage
Degrees C
Degrees F
Sugar conc %
Syrup Fudge, pralines, fondant Caramels Nougat, gummies, divinity, marshmallows Taffy, butterscotch Lollipops, toffee, brittles, hard candy
Thread Soft ball Firm ball Hard ball Soft crack Hard crack
101–112 112–116 117–120 121–131 132–143 149–154
215–233 234–240 242–248 250–268 270–290 300–310
80 85 87 92 95 99
the cooking stage. It is both a visual and tactile test. Table 2 shows the various cooking stages for different types of candies.
Fondant and Frappe´ Fondants and frappe´s form the base of many confectionery recipes. Fondant is prepared from a mixture of sucrose and corn syrup concentrated with cooking to about 86–90% solids and 10–14% moisture and worked until smooth and pliable. It is a soft to firm white mass consisting of microscopic sugar crystals (20 mm) dispersed in a saturated sugar solution. The corn syrup helps to keep the fondant hydrated and prevents the crystals from growing larger. Fondant is a confection in its own right such as filling in chocolate candies with or without added flavors and colors, as well as an ingredient in other confections, to add grain to caramels, fudge, and nougats and to make creams. Frappe´ is a mixture of egg whites or dry egg albumin and sugar whipped into boiled corn syrup. Frappe´ is an aerating ingredient added to fondants and creams to lighten their texture and to make nougats. Nougat can be hard or soft. Soft nougat is a common filling in many popular candy bars, such as Three Musketeers, Baby Ruth, and Milky Way.
Panning Panning is the process in which a confectionery center is coated with a sugar or chocolate shell. The centers are placed in a round, tilted pan, called a drage´e pan, with an opening for adding ingredients and air for drying. The pan is filled with syrup and rotated until the centers are evenly coated and the syrup dries. The process can be repeated several times depending on the nature of the desired shell. Sugar is added to aid drying. Soft panning refers to shells that are soft, such as for jelly beans. Hard panning refers to shells that are hard; M&M’s and Jordan Almonds are examples. Examples of chocolate panning include malted milk balls, nuts, and raisins. Another process for coating confectionery with chocolate is called enrobing, which is akin to dipping the center into molten chocolate to cover it. Today, enrobing machines carry out the process.
Aeration of Hard Candies Aeration is the process of injecting air into a hard-boiled candy mass. It is an important process for lightening the texture of hard candies and providing crispiness. Aeration is done in one of four ways.
Pulling is the most common method. The candy mass is repeatedly stretched and folded to incorporate air bubbles, producing a silky, fibrous appearance. Taffy is an example. Adding bicarbonate releases carbon dioxide, which puffs up the mass, resulting in a porous, low-density, crispy candy. Vacuum expansion produces a low-density honeycomb structure. In the vacuum process, pulled candy pieces are placed under vacuum causing the incorporated air bubbles to expand rapidly. Lastly, there is continuous cooking with air injection, which produces a consistent product.
Production of Chocolate and Chocolate Confectionery Chocolate production is a complex and lengthy process. After harvesting ripe cocoa pods, the beans and surrounding pulp are removed and fermented, during which time the beans turn brown, the pulp disappears, and flavor precursors develop. The beans are dried, often in the sun but sometimes in kilns, and transported to the factory where chocolate is produced. The dry beans are cleaned, roasted, and winnowed. Roasting continues the development of the chocolate flavor. Winnowing causes the roasted shells to crack, and the nib (kernel) inside is removed. The nibs are ground and liquefied to produce chocolate liquor, which is composed of cocoa solids and cocoa butter. Cocoa solids and cocoa butter are separated and blended in the required proportions with sugar and milk powder (for milk chocolate). The chocolate mixture is put into a machine called a conche. During the conching process, the chocolate mass is continually ground and scraped from the sides to create a smooth consistent texture and to reduce particles to a size that can no longer be sensed on the tongue. Conching produces frictional heat that helps to develop, blend, and mellow the chocolate flavor. After conching, chocolate is tempered by repeated, controlled heating and cooling cycles to produce the desired crystal structure of the cocoa butter fat. The fat molecules in cocoa butter can crystallize into six different polymorphic crystal forms: I, II, III, IV, V, and VI. Each form has a different melting point, stability, gloss, and hardness. Only one form, known as V crystal, gives the desired texture, shiny appearance, melt in the mouth sensation, smoothness, snap when broken, and keeping qualities. When cocoa butter is allowed to cool naturally, it produces a mixture of crystal forms and lacks the desired qualities. Proper tempering allows the melted chocolate to cool very slowly, producing the highest proportion of V crystal. Crystal forms I–IV have lower melting points, so a continued process of melting these without melting V crystals, with subsequent slow cooling, eventually produces a majority
Candies and Sweets: Sugar and Chocolate Confectionery
of V crystal. Crystal form VI has an even higher melting point; it forms from V crystal after several months of storage at room temperature, which then causes a drop-off in quality and the phenomenon known as fat bloom. There are many types of chocolate ranging from dark, bittersweet, semisweet, and milk. The United States and other countries have standards of identity for chocolate types. The typical milk chocolate bar contains 25–30% cocoa, while a sweet dark chocolate bar contains 30–40%. In recent years, chocolate bars with up to 85% cocoa content have come on the market due to perceived healthy qualities of dark chocolate. Ganache is a mixture of heavy cream and semisweet chocolate used as the basis of the truffle center. Couverture chocolate is a very high-quality chocolate with added cocoa butter that is used by professionals for dipping, coating, and molding. Compound coating or confectionery coating (compound chocolate) is made from a combination of cocoa, vegetable fat, and sweeteners and is used to enrobe some candy bars. Since it contains no cocoa butter, it does not need to be tempered. It is a lower-cost alternative to chocolate coatings. According to FDA regulations, if a product contains no cocoa butter, it cannot be called ‘chocolate’ on the label but may be referred to as ‘chocolate-flavored.’ White chocolate contains no chocolate solids other than cocoa butter. According to the FDA, it must contain at least 20% cocoa butter, at least 14% total milk solids, and no more than 55% nutritive carbohydrate sweeteners. White confectionery chips that are sometimes erroneously referred to as ‘white chocolate’ have substituted vegetable fats for cocoa butter and are considerably less expensive.
Shelf Life of Confectionery Shelf life refers to the amount of time a food product will retain its quality prior to consumption. ‘Best before’ dates on labels are intended to inform the consumer of the shelf life of a product. This label does not indicate that the candy is no longer safe to eat after that date, just that the quality may not be up to standard. Candy quality can deteriorate in several ways. The sugar in a hard-grained confection, such as toffee, can crystallize, making it grainy. Moisture can migrate out of a candy to the surface, making it sticky. In layered candies, there can be bleed-through from one layer to the other, affecting texture, taste, and color. Chocolate can develop white spots on the surface, known as bloom or fat bloom, which looks like mold but is actually an indication that the cocoa butter crystals are converting to less stable forms and leaching onto the surface of the chocolate. It could mean that the chocolate was not properly tempered, but this also happens when chocolate is stored for a long time. Formation of bloom is speeded up if the chocolate is subjected to fluctuating temperatures. The texture of the chocolate can be adversely affected, becoming dry and crumbly. These are all quality issues; the candy is still safe to eat.
Health Effects The main health concerns about consuming confectionery are contributing too much added sugar and calories to the diet and
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the risk of dental caries. Consuming a small amount of candy in a well-balanced diet is acceptable. However, diabetics must watch their sugar intake. For some individuals, there are concerns about allergens and gluten content. Sugar is known to lead to dental caries/cavities when dental hygiene is not optimal. Candy manufacturers have responded to concerns about obesity by decreasing serving sizes and developing smaller bars and packages, often called ‘fun size’ or ‘snack size.’ Miniaturized ‘bite size’ candy bars are also coming to market. The National Confectioners Association recommends a daily consumption of candy not exceeding 50–100 calories a day. The data in Table 1 show that Americans’ average daily consumption is less than 32 g, but this amount exceeds 100 calories. In attempts to have a more favorable label (known as a ‘clean label’) and a healthier product, confectioners are exploring ways to reduce or substitute fat, salt, and sugar. In 2012, Nestle´ announced it would remove all artificial colors, flavors, and preservatives in all their confectionery products sold in the United Kingdom.
Functional Confectionery and Healthy Ingredients in Nuts and Chocolate A functional ingredient is one that confers a health benefit when added to a food. Examples include vitamins, probiotics, omega-3, resveratrol, taurine (for energy), and fiber. A small but growing confectionery niche has added functional ingredients, sometimes blurring the boundary between food and food supplements. Consumers are eager to find foods that will solve their health problems. Nuts and chocolate have been shown to possess numerous healthy constituents. A growing body of research shows that chocolate has many benefits for cardiovascular and cognitive health, due to the presence of antioxidant compounds, such as flavanols, polyphenols, and proanthocyanidins. While polyphenols constitute 12–18% of the dry weight of whole cocoa beans, it has been shown that the various chocolate processing states, such as fermentation, roasting, and alkalization, contribute to some loss of these compounds. Research is still needed on which specific ingredients are the most important and what the effective dose is to achieve a benefit. Nuts are rich in antioxidants and good fats.
Health Effects of Selected Ingredients Allergens. According to the FDA, major food allergens include milk, eggs, tree nuts, wheat, peanuts, and soybeans, all common ingredients in candies. Allergens must be listed on the label. Artificial dyes. A recent study from Purdue University found that some candies had 29–33 mg of artificial dyes, which is of concern because levels in this range can affect behavior in a small percentage of children. Black licorice. Glycyrrhizin, the sweet agent in licorice, is alleged to have many health benefits but is also known to cause high blood pressure and arrhythmia if consumed in large quantities and can cause potassium levels to fall. The FDA has warned against heavy consumption of black licorice but has not set a daily limit and lists it as GRAS, with usage
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Candies and Sweets: Sugar and Chocolate Confectionery
Figure 1 Sugar confectionery in Seville, Spain.
amounts for certain foods: up to 16% glycyrrhizin in hard candy and 3.1% in soft candy. Caffeine. Caffeine, as much as 50 mg, is added to a few candies, such as some jelly beans, marshmallows, and chocolate bars, for its energy-imparting qualities. In May 2013, the FDA announced it will investigate the safety of caffeine being added to food products, especially its effect on children. Gluten. Gluten will be present in a candy if the starch used as a gelling agent comes from wheat. Candies with barley malt and any confectionery with wafers or cookies included will also contain gluten. In August 2014, the FDA issued a final rule to define the term ‘gluten-free’ for voluntary use in the labeling of foods. For a food to be labeled gluten-free, it must contain 20 ppm of gluten or less. The Hershey Company provides a list of all their gluten-free confectionery on their website. Zein. Zein, a prolamin protein derived from corn gluten meal, is gluten-free and safe for those with celiac disease or gluten intolerance. The term ‘corn gluten’ causes confusion, and many people think that zein is a gluten protein. There is no gluten in corn, and, according to Wikipedia, the term arose colloquially. Zein is preferred by vegans and others who object to the use of shellac, an insect product, in confectionery glazes, but the consumer has little knowledge or control over this. Kidney-friendly candy. People with chronic kidney disease or on dialysis need to restrict their intake of phosphorus, potassium, and salt, which are found in some confections. Phosphorous and potassium are not required on labels. The DaVita company has a list of permissible candies on their website. Metallic drage´es. Drage´es are small hard spheres of sugar, about 4 mm diameter, coated with a colored or metallic glaze, used for decorating cakes and cookies. There is concern about the metallic content, especially of the silver ones, and although claimed to be safe by the manufacturers, the state of California banned them in 2003. The FDA declares that drage´es are nonedible and require jars to carry labels saying ‘for decoration only.’ Salt. Most commercial candies contain salt, and the amount of sodium per serving is required on the label. Confectionery
sodium levels are in the range of 10–45 mg per serving, with some confections as high as 100–145 per serving. This amount of sodium constitutes from 0% to 6% of the % daily value. Not all sodium in commercial candies comes from sodium chloride (table salt). Other sources of sodium include sodium salts of acidulants. Sugar alcohols. Sugar alcohols can cause a laxative effect if too much is consumed, and foods are required to have a warning label to that effect. However, excessive consumption of sugar alcohols can cause a laxative effect, and the maximum safe daily amounts are in the range of 20–50 g depending on the sugar alcohol. The FDA mandates that foods with 20 g or more of mannitol and 50 g or more of sorbitol must carry the warning label ‘Excess consumption may have a laxative effect.’ Vegan considerations. Many candies are not vegan because of the presence of milk, egg, or gelatin. Confectioner’s glaze made from shellac is an animal product from insects. Beeswax may also be considered nonvegan.
Perspective on Confectionery in Food and Health By mixing sugar with a few other ingredients, an almost infinite variety of candies and confections can be created. They are colorful, pretty, and tasty. Candy and confections are small packets of food, meant to provide pleasure and to be eaten in moderation. Behavioral studies suggest that pleasurable foods can help to achieve and sustain a healthy diet. Chocolate, in particular, is associated with producing a sense of well-being, which is attributed to the many natural compounds it possesses. However, even though many ingredients in candies are healthy or have healthy ingredients, the amount present in a piece of candy or chocolate is far too small to have an effect, and moderate consumption is key to maintaining a healthy diet (Figure 1).
See also: Aerated Foods; Antioxidants: Role on Health and Prevention; Caramel: Properties and Analysis; Cocoa: Composition and Health Effects; Cocoa: Production, Chemistry, and Use; Food Allergies:
Candies and Sweets: Sugar and Chocolate Confectionery
Occurrence and Analysis; Functional Foods; Glucose: Properties and Analysis; Maillard Reaction; Nuts: Health Effects; Phenolic Compounds: Bioavailability and Health Effects; Sugar Alcohols.
Further Reading 2013 CAOBISCO Statistical Report. http://caobisco.eu/public. FDA, Black Licorice: Trick or Treat?. http://www.fda.gov/ Hard Candy Production, ca. 1996, MC Publishing Company, 40 pp. Jackson EB (ed.) (1999) Sugar confectionery manufacture, 2nd ed. Aspen Publishers, 400 pp. Minifie BW (1989) Chocolate, cocoa & confectionery: science and technology. New York: Springer, 904 pp. Talbot G (2008) Applications of fats in confectionery. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing, 220 pp. The Manufacturing Confectioner magazine, MCPublishing Co; every issue contains statistics and technical articles about candy production. Weyland M and Hartel R (2008) Emulsifiers in confectionery. In: Hasenhuettl GL and Hartel RW (eds.) Food emulsifiers and their applications, pp. 285–305. Springer, Chapter 10.
Relevant Websites http://eastxmidwest.wordpress.com/2013/03/10/asian-candy-fruit-chews-melon-redbean-paste/ – Asian Candy Blog.
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http://www.foodproductdesign.com/articles/1997/09/candy-creations-with-starch-andits-derivatives.aspx – Candy Creations with Starch and Its Derivatives. Candy Types http://baking911.com/learn/baked-goods/candy/types – Kidney-Friendly Candy for Dialysis Patients. http://candy.about.com/ – General Guide to Candy Varieties. http://www.candyfavorites.com/shop/history-truth-candy.php – Myths about candy. http://www.candyusa.com/ – National Confectioners Association. http://www.cbsnews.com/pictures/worlds-weirdest-kit-kat-candy-bars/27/ – Kit Kat weird flavors. http://www.davita.com/education/article.cfm?educationMainFolder¼diet-andnutrition&category¼lifestyle&articleTitle¼kidney-friendly-candy-for-dialysispatients&articleID¼5341 – Kidney Friendly Candy – DaVita Company. http://food.japan-talk.com/food/new/18-Japanese-desserts-the-Emperor-might-eat – Japanese confections with beautiful pictures. http://www.foodtimeline.org/foodcandy.html – Timeline for Candy. http://www.thehersheycompany.com/nutrition-and-wellbeing/nutrition-information/ special-dietary-needs/gluten-Free-products.aspx – Hershey Company list of all their gluten-free confectionery. http://thestoryofchocolate.com/what/content.cfm? ItemNumber¼3307&navItemNumber¼3253&navItemNumber¼4563 – Health and Chocolate – the story of chocolate. http://www.thenibble.com/reviews/main/chocolate/glossaryc.asp – Chocolate Glossary.
Candies and Sweets: Sugar and Chocolate Confectionery
Ingredients
Candies and sweets, collectively known as confections, are defined as foods whose main characteristic is sweetness. It is typically understood that a candy is a rather small, defined food item. Confectionery products are divided into two categories:
The single most important ingredient in confectionery is sugar. Along with sweetness, sugar provides structure, bulk, and preservative properties in candies. Sugar confectionery is made from a mixture of sucrose and glucose syrup in various proportions. Chocolate production uses only sucrose. Molasses, brown sugar, and honey are used for specific flavor effects in various confections. Demerara sugar is a special type of goldenbrown sugar made from cane juice used in some high-cocoacontent chocolate bars. Sugar, chemically known as sucrose, is a disaccharide made up of one molecule of glucose and one of fructose. Unlike most other monosaccharides and disaccharides, sucrose is a nonreducing sugar, which confers a high degree of stability, so it can be cooked to a high temperature without breaking down or undergoing browning reactions. Under temperate storage conditions, sucrose does not pick up moisture and can remain stable for years. Sucrose sets the standard for sweetness and functionality in candy making, and all other sweeteners are compared with it. The two commercial sources of sucrose are cane sugar and beet sugar, with cane sugar representing 78–80% of world sugar production. Production methods differ between cane sugar and beet sugar, but the sucrose from each is chemically identical. Sugar refineries produce several types of sugars:
Sugar confectionery: Sugar is the main ingredient. Chocolate confectionery: Chocolate is the characterizing ingredient, either as entirely made up of chocolate or as a coating or inclusion.
Patterns of Consumption Globally, sugar confectionery accounts for about 39% of candy consumption and chocolate confectionery about 61%. This ratio can vary widely among countries. Confectionery consumption is increasing in countries with a growing middle class, such as Brazil and India, and in countries with traditionally low sugar consumption, such as China and Japan. As populations become more prosperous, chocolate consumption tends to increase. In more developed countries, confectionery consumption shows little growth from year to year and has declined in some nations. Table 1 shows candy consumption for a few countries on a yearly and daily basis. Northern and Western European countries are the highest consumers of chocolate confectionery in the world. In 2013, the global confectionery market was estimated to be worth $171 billion, with chocolate representing $110 billion. US candy sales for the same period were $33.9 billion. In Asia and Latin America, sugar confectionery tends to predominate. In parts of Asia, less sweet confections are preferred. In Japan, candy must be aesthetically pleasing. Kit Kat bars are wildly popular in Japan, and there is a tradition of constantly introducing new and unusual flavors, such as wasabi, green tea, soy sauce, miso, and sweet potato. Throughout Asia, gummy candies with fruit flavors are preferred. The Nordic countries are among the top global consumers of confectionery. Sweden has a high consumption of sugar confectionery and Switzerland has the highest chocolate consumption. In a number of countries (India, China, and Mexico), candies are thought of as mainly for gift-giving occasions or for children. With cultural changes caused by globalization, candy consumption begins to be considered for everyday snacking. Chocolate was traditionally considered an expensive luxury, but with smaller sizes and lower prices, consumption has increased rapidly in Asia and Latin America. Large spikes in confectionery consumption occur during Easter, Halloween, and Valentine’s Day, when confectionary is traditionally gifted. Each holiday has its own set of traditional treats.
Encyclopedia of Food and Health
Sugar and Other Nutritive Sweeteners
• • • • •
Granulated white sugars, with a range of defined crystal sizes obtained by screening Confectioners’ sugars of various particle sizes and cornstarch content Brown sugars of various grades – light, medium, dark, agglomerated, and liquid Liquid sugars of various concentrations of dissolved sucrose that may contain invert sugar Specialty sugars, which have added ingredients or may be colored
Within these categories is a wide range of products. Since there are no standard definitions, the names companies use for the same product can be different. Screened sugars have been sieved to give specific crystal size ranges. The smaller crystals dissolve more readily and are preferred for confectionery. Coarser crystals, called sanding sugar or decorating sugar, can be used for dusting the surface of jellies and other confections to give surface sparkle and a mild crunch. Sugar used in confectionery must be highly refined and of the highest quality. Confectioners’ sugar is produced by pulverizing white sugar and then screening it to 75 or 45 mm size. To prevent caking, 3% cornstarch is added. Some is also available without cornstarch. Confectioners’ sugar is recommended for fondant production.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384947-2.00679-6
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Table 1
Candies and Sweets: Sugar and Chocolate Confectionery
Sugar and chocolate confectionery consumption per capita per year and per capita per day kg per capita per year
g per capita per day
Country
Sugar
Chocolate
Total
Sugar
Chocolate
Total
Japan Brazil France The United Kingdom Germany The United States Denmark
1.73 1.83 3.50 5.26 5.95 6.15 8.64
2.23 2.16 6.50 10.29 11.60 5.46 7.65
3.96 3.99 10.00 15.55 17.55 11.61 16.29
4.74 5.01 9.59 14.41 16.27 16.85 23.67
6.11 5.92 17.81 28.19 31.78 14.96 20.96
10.85 10.93 27.40 42.60 48.05 31.81 44.63
Invert sugar is a mixture of glucose and fructose produced by acid or enzymatic hydrolysis of liquid sucrose. Glucose syrup is the other essential ingredient in sugar confectionery production. Its most important function is to control or prevent crystallization in hard candy production; it also provides humectancy, helps maintain texture, and stabilizes the product. Glucose syrups are about 40–50% as sweet as sucrose. Glucose syrups are produced from cornstarch (the United States) or wheat starch (Europe) by acid or enzymatic hydrolysis, which produces different grades. Standard glucose syrup, also called confectionery syrup, is 42 DE syrup. DE stands for ‘dextrose equivalent’ and is a measure of the degree of hydrolysis and the amount of reducing sugar present. The two types of 42 DE syrup used in confectionery are glucose syrup and high-maltose syrup.
Labeling sugars On labels in the United States, the quantity, in grams, of all carbohydrates is listed and then broken out as dietary fiber and ‘sugars.’ Sugars include all nutritive sweeteners, including corn syrups, sugar, lactose, and brown sugar. The different types of sweeteners are listed separately in the ingredients list.
Sugar-Free Candies: Sugar Alcohols Candies labeled ‘sugar-free’ contain sugar alcohols or artificial sweeteners or a combination of both. Sugar alcohols, also known as polyols, are carbohydrates, but they are not sugars. Sugar alcohols include erythritol, xylitol, glycerol (glycerin), hydrogenated starch hydrolysates (HSH; polyglycitol), isomalt (isomaltitol), lactitol, maltitol, mannitol, and sorbitol. Xylitol is about as sweet as sucrose and maltitol about 90% as sweet. The other sugar alcohols are 40–60% as sweet as sucrose. Some sugar alcohols – xylitol, erythritol, and mannitol – have a pronounced cooling effect, similar to mint. Isomalt and maltitol have a less cooling effect. Sugar alcohols are noncariogenic (do not promote tooth decay). They contain 2–3 calories per gram. Erythritol has only 0.2 cal g1. They do not raise blood glucose, so they are suitable for diabetics. However, they have a laxative effect if consumed in excess.
Other Ingredients Acidulants provide the tart flavors in sour candies, enhance fruit flavors, and provide preservative properties. Common
acidulants include citric acid, potassium citrate, malic acid, fumaric acid, lactic acid, calcium lactate, sodium citrate, tartaric acid, and ascorbic acid. Different acids can be blended to obtain a desired level of sourness and taste duration. Confectionery fats contribute to the tenderness, structure, and texture in candy. Cocoa butter, the fat in chocolate, is considered the ‘gold standard’ of confectionery fats. Its sharp melting curve, close to body temperature, allows it to melt in the mouth, and the proper alignment of its fat crystals provides the desirable snap of chocolate when it is broken. Because of its expense, cocoa butter is not used in other types of confectionery; other fats are used instead, including butter and vegetable fats, the most important of which are coconut oil and palm kernel oil, usually in a partially hydrogenated form, designed to have similar properties to cocoa butter. Other fats include partially hydrogenated soybean and cottonseed oils and fully hydrogenated palm kernel oil and coconut oil. The FDA has recently proposed revoking the GRAS (generally recognized as safe) status of partially hydrogenated oils, which presents a challenge to confectioners to find alternatives that provide the same functions in candies. Many hard candies and jelly/ gummy candies do not contain any fat. Dairy: A wide range of dairy products are used in confectionery – fluid whole milk, skim milk, cream, evaporated milk, sweetened condensed milk, evaporated milk, milk protein concentrates, butter, anhydrous milk fat, whey, a range of milk powders, and lactose (milk sugar). Milk is a significant ingredient in milk chocolate, fudge, caramel, toffee, and pralines. Milk used in chocolate must be in dry form, as water will prevent chocolate from flowing properly and ruins its texture. Emulsifiers have many important functions in confectionery: viscosity reduction, lubrication, control of sugar crystallization, aid in dispersion of ingredients, stabilization of structure, and prevention of sticking. The most widely used emulsifier is lecithin, derived from soy. Commercial lecithin is a mixture of phosphatides and sterols. Other emulsifiers include polyglycerol polyricinoleate, sorbitan esters, polysorbates, mono- and diglycerides of lactic and tartaric acids, sucrose esters, and propylene glycol monoesters. In chocolate confectionery, emulsifiers prevent the separation of cocoa butter from cocoa solids and slow the development of bloom. Flavors: Sometimes, an ingredient’s flavor profile is very complex, with many different chemicals contributing to the odor, such as coffee and chocolate flavors. Sometimes, one chemical characterizes a flavor, for example, benzaldehyde in almonds, eugenol in cloves, and vanillin in vanilla. If only the
Candies and Sweets: Sugar and Chocolate Confectionery
characterizing chemical is used, as in less expensive candies, the flavor profile may be one-dimensional; other flavor compounds present, for example, in vanilla extract, round out and add complexity to the flavor. Some flavors are developed during cooking or roasting. Sugar heated with proteins or bicarbonate will produce an array of pleasant flavors that are described as ‘browned,’ brown sugar, or caramelized, in a reaction known as the Maillard reaction. Dairy ingredients provide milky, creamy, and buttery flavors; heating produces cooked cream, browned butter, and butterscotch flavors. The complex flavor of chocolate is developed through a series of processes, from fermentation of the cocoa beans to roasting the nibs and conching. Flavors used in confectionery can be artificial or natural or a combination of both and must be able to withstand the candy making process. The FDA maintains a list of flavor compounds that are GRAS. Over 3000 compounds have been listed to date. Food coloring: The most common colorants used in confectionery are artificial colors that are either oil- or water-soluble. There is a growing trend toward using natural colorants, but these are more expensive and tend to be heat-sensitive and fade. Fruits are used as inclusions in many candies, the most popular being raisins. Other fruit products used in confectionery include dried fruits, pastes, juice, and juice concentrates. Glazes, coatings, and polishing agents; antistick and release agents: Coatings and glazes improve the appearance and stability of candies, providing gloss, increased shelf life, adhesion of sugar crystals to encapsulate acidulants on the surface of jelly candies, fat barrier, moisture resistance, and antistick properties. The common confectionery glazes are carnauba wax, shellac, beeswax, and gum arabic. Shellac is extracted from the Laccifer lacca insect. Carnauba wax is extracted from the leaves of a Brazilian tree, Copernicia prunifera. Beeswax is secreted by bees. Gum arabic is used to give chocolates a brilliant shine. A less common coating is made from a corn protein, known as zein, which provides a vegetable-based glaze that competes with shellac. Gelling agents provide body, texture, and structure to chewy, jelly-type candies. The gelling agents used in candy making are gelatin, pectin, modified starches, and egg albumin (egg whites). Gelatin, derived from cows or pigs, is widely used in gummy candies, fruit jellies, and gumdrops. Egg whites produce a structured foam and are used as a gelling or whipping agent to provide a characteristic flavor and an airy, open texture in marshmallows, nougat, and divinity. Pectin and modified starches are used as vegetable substitutes for gelatin and egg whites. Each gelling agent confers different properties to a candy, and they are often used in combination to achieve desired effects. Nuts, seeds, and coconut: The tree nuts used in candy making are almonds, pecans, walnuts, hazelnuts, and pistachios, available whole, broken, and finely chopped or as meal, flour, butter, or paste. Peanuts and peanut butter are among the most popular candy ingredients. While peanuts function like tree nuts, they are a legume. Nuts are roasted or pasteurized before use in confectionery for both flavor development and microbiological safety. Seeds used in confectionery include
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sesame and sunflower. Spice seeds such as fennel, caraway, and anise are used sparingly for flavor. Halva, an ancient confection popular in the Middle East, is made from sesame seed paste. Marzipan is made from almond paste. Botanically, coconuts (Cocos nucifera) are classified as a fruit. The coconut is made up of a fibrous outer husk and a hard inner shell. When immature, coconut water fills the shell; as the coconut matures, the coconut kernel or ‘meat’ is formed as a pure white layer on the inner surface of the shell. In mature coconuts, the water is absorbed and the meat is about one-half inch thick. This meat is the source of coconut oil. The meat (full fat or partially defatted) is dried and shredded or powdered for use in candies. Coconut candy is very popular in Latin America, where it is known as cocada. Preservatives are used to prevent rancidity in fats and oils. The most common preservative is tert-butylhydroquinone. Safe usage has been set to an upper limit of 0.02% of the fat and oil contents by the FDA and the European Food Safety Authority. Another common preservative is citric acid. Not all commercial confectionery products contain preservatives. Salt is used to enhance sweet flavor and to round out and blend complex flavors. Sodium levels are required on labels and are in the range of 10–45 mg per serving (equivalent to 25–114 mg of sodium chloride). Salt flavor in confectionery is popular in chocolate and caramel. Salt sprinkled on the surface of chocolate and caramel confections enhances flavor and provides a subtle crunch. Sea salt is often used because it adds a certain cachet to the confection and is perceived to have a different taste than regular salt. Asian ingredients not found in Western-style confectionery are red bean paste, glutinous rice flour, and rice malt syrup. Red bean paste is made from cooked, mashed, and sweetened adzuki beans. Rice malt is considered to be healthy.
Methods of Production The production of candy depends on boiling sugar and corn syrup in various proportions in water or milk to specific temperatures, sugar concentrations, and moisture contents and controlling the crystallization of the sugar. Within these constraints, a wide range of confections are produced. The two general categories of sugar confectionery include soft-boiled and hard-boiled (hard candy) production. Soft-boiled confections have a higher moisture content and a creamy texture. Hard candies can be hard and dense, brittle, or crispy and crunchy. The process of crystallizing sugar in soft-boiled confections, such as fudge and pralines, is known as graining. Sugar cooked and solidified to the point where crystals are no longer present, as in brittles and hard candy, is considered to be in a glassy state. Water content in sugar confectionery is typically low, ranging from 1.5% to 6.5%. Hard candies have the lowest moisture content. Candies with higher water content include jellies, marshmallows, fondants, and creams. In both commercial and home cooking, a series of cooking stages are used as a shorthand way to determine when the sugar mixture has reached the proper temperature and sugar concentration to produce the desired texture. For home cooking, a small dollop of the cooked syrup is dropped into cool water, and the form the quickly cooled syrup takes is an indicator of
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Table 2
Candies and Sweets: Sugar and Chocolate Confectionery
Temperature ranges for boiling sugar confections
Type of confection
Cooking stage
Degrees C
Degrees F
Sugar conc %
Syrup Fudge, pralines, fondant Caramels Nougat, gummies, divinity, marshmallows Taffy, butterscotch Lollipops, toffee, brittles, hard candy
Thread Soft ball Firm ball Hard ball Soft crack Hard crack
101–112 112–116 117–120 121–131 132–143 149–154
215–233 234–240 242–248 250–268 270–290 300–310
80 85 87 92 95 99
the cooking stage. It is both a visual and tactile test. Table 2 shows the various cooking stages for different types of candies.
Fondant and Frappe´ Fondants and frappe´s form the base of many confectionery recipes. Fondant is prepared from a mixture of sucrose and corn syrup concentrated with cooking to about 86–90% solids and 10–14% moisture and worked until smooth and pliable. It is a soft to firm white mass consisting of microscopic sugar crystals (20 mm) dispersed in a saturated sugar solution. The corn syrup helps to keep the fondant hydrated and prevents the crystals from growing larger. Fondant is a confection in its own right such as filling in chocolate candies with or without added flavors and colors, as well as an ingredient in other confections, to add grain to caramels, fudge, and nougats and to make creams. Frappe´ is a mixture of egg whites or dry egg albumin and sugar whipped into boiled corn syrup. Frappe´ is an aerating ingredient added to fondants and creams to lighten their texture and to make nougats. Nougat can be hard or soft. Soft nougat is a common filling in many popular candy bars, such as Three Musketeers, Baby Ruth, and Milky Way.
Panning Panning is the process in which a confectionery center is coated with a sugar or chocolate shell. The centers are placed in a round, tilted pan, called a drage´e pan, with an opening for adding ingredients and air for drying. The pan is filled with syrup and rotated until the centers are evenly coated and the syrup dries. The process can be repeated several times depending on the nature of the desired shell. Sugar is added to aid drying. Soft panning refers to shells that are soft, such as for jelly beans. Hard panning refers to shells that are hard; M&M’s and Jordan Almonds are examples. Examples of chocolate panning include malted milk balls, nuts, and raisins. Another process for coating confectionery with chocolate is called enrobing, which is akin to dipping the center into molten chocolate to cover it. Today, enrobing machines carry out the process.
Aeration of Hard Candies Aeration is the process of injecting air into a hard-boiled candy mass. It is an important process for lightening the texture of hard candies and providing crispiness. Aeration is done in one of four ways.
Pulling is the most common method. The candy mass is repeatedly stretched and folded to incorporate air bubbles, producing a silky, fibrous appearance. Taffy is an example. Adding bicarbonate releases carbon dioxide, which puffs up the mass, resulting in a porous, low-density, crispy candy. Vacuum expansion produces a low-density honeycomb structure. In the vacuum process, pulled candy pieces are placed under vacuum causing the incorporated air bubbles to expand rapidly. Lastly, there is continuous cooking with air injection, which produces a consistent product.
Production of Chocolate and Chocolate Confectionery Chocolate production is a complex and lengthy process. After harvesting ripe cocoa pods, the beans and surrounding pulp are removed and fermented, during which time the beans turn brown, the pulp disappears, and flavor precursors develop. The beans are dried, often in the sun but sometimes in kilns, and transported to the factory where chocolate is produced. The dry beans are cleaned, roasted, and winnowed. Roasting continues the development of the chocolate flavor. Winnowing causes the roasted shells to crack, and the nib (kernel) inside is removed. The nibs are ground and liquefied to produce chocolate liquor, which is composed of cocoa solids and cocoa butter. Cocoa solids and cocoa butter are separated and blended in the required proportions with sugar and milk powder (for milk chocolate). The chocolate mixture is put into a machine called a conche. During the conching process, the chocolate mass is continually ground and scraped from the sides to create a smooth consistent texture and to reduce particles to a size that can no longer be sensed on the tongue. Conching produces frictional heat that helps to develop, blend, and mellow the chocolate flavor. After conching, chocolate is tempered by repeated, controlled heating and cooling cycles to produce the desired crystal structure of the cocoa butter fat. The fat molecules in cocoa butter can crystallize into six different polymorphic crystal forms: I, II, III, IV, V, and VI. Each form has a different melting point, stability, gloss, and hardness. Only one form, known as V crystal, gives the desired texture, shiny appearance, melt in the mouth sensation, smoothness, snap when broken, and keeping qualities. When cocoa butter is allowed to cool naturally, it produces a mixture of crystal forms and lacks the desired qualities. Proper tempering allows the melted chocolate to cool very slowly, producing the highest proportion of V crystal. Crystal forms I–IV have lower melting points, so a continued process of melting these without melting V crystals, with subsequent slow cooling, eventually produces a majority
Candies and Sweets: Sugar and Chocolate Confectionery
of V crystal. Crystal form VI has an even higher melting point; it forms from V crystal after several months of storage at room temperature, which then causes a drop-off in quality and the phenomenon known as fat bloom. There are many types of chocolate ranging from dark, bittersweet, semisweet, and milk. The United States and other countries have standards of identity for chocolate types. The typical milk chocolate bar contains 25–30% cocoa, while a sweet dark chocolate bar contains 30–40%. In recent years, chocolate bars with up to 85% cocoa content have come on the market due to perceived healthy qualities of dark chocolate. Ganache is a mixture of heavy cream and semisweet chocolate used as the basis of the truffle center. Couverture chocolate is a very high-quality chocolate with added cocoa butter that is used by professionals for dipping, coating, and molding. Compound coating or confectionery coating (compound chocolate) is made from a combination of cocoa, vegetable fat, and sweeteners and is used to enrobe some candy bars. Since it contains no cocoa butter, it does not need to be tempered. It is a lower-cost alternative to chocolate coatings. According to FDA regulations, if a product contains no cocoa butter, it cannot be called ‘chocolate’ on the label but may be referred to as ‘chocolate-flavored.’ White chocolate contains no chocolate solids other than cocoa butter. According to the FDA, it must contain at least 20% cocoa butter, at least 14% total milk solids, and no more than 55% nutritive carbohydrate sweeteners. White confectionery chips that are sometimes erroneously referred to as ‘white chocolate’ have substituted vegetable fats for cocoa butter and are considerably less expensive.
Shelf Life of Confectionery Shelf life refers to the amount of time a food product will retain its quality prior to consumption. ‘Best before’ dates on labels are intended to inform the consumer of the shelf life of a product. This label does not indicate that the candy is no longer safe to eat after that date, just that the quality may not be up to standard. Candy quality can deteriorate in several ways. The sugar in a hard-grained confection, such as toffee, can crystallize, making it grainy. Moisture can migrate out of a candy to the surface, making it sticky. In layered candies, there can be bleed-through from one layer to the other, affecting texture, taste, and color. Chocolate can develop white spots on the surface, known as bloom or fat bloom, which looks like mold but is actually an indication that the cocoa butter crystals are converting to less stable forms and leaching onto the surface of the chocolate. It could mean that the chocolate was not properly tempered, but this also happens when chocolate is stored for a long time. Formation of bloom is speeded up if the chocolate is subjected to fluctuating temperatures. The texture of the chocolate can be adversely affected, becoming dry and crumbly. These are all quality issues; the candy is still safe to eat.
Health Effects The main health concerns about consuming confectionery are contributing too much added sugar and calories to the diet and
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the risk of dental caries. Consuming a small amount of candy in a well-balanced diet is acceptable. However, diabetics must watch their sugar intake. For some individuals, there are concerns about allergens and gluten content. Sugar is known to lead to dental caries/cavities when dental hygiene is not optimal. Candy manufacturers have responded to concerns about obesity by decreasing serving sizes and developing smaller bars and packages, often called ‘fun size’ or ‘snack size.’ Miniaturized ‘bite size’ candy bars are also coming to market. The National Confectioners Association recommends a daily consumption of candy not exceeding 50–100 calories a day. The data in Table 1 show that Americans’ average daily consumption is less than 32 g, but this amount exceeds 100 calories. In attempts to have a more favorable label (known as a ‘clean label’) and a healthier product, confectioners are exploring ways to reduce or substitute fat, salt, and sugar. In 2012, Nestle´ announced it would remove all artificial colors, flavors, and preservatives in all their confectionery products sold in the United Kingdom.
Functional Confectionery and Healthy Ingredients in Nuts and Chocolate A functional ingredient is one that confers a health benefit when added to a food. Examples include vitamins, probiotics, omega-3, resveratrol, taurine (for energy), and fiber. A small but growing confectionery niche has added functional ingredients, sometimes blurring the boundary between food and food supplements. Consumers are eager to find foods that will solve their health problems. Nuts and chocolate have been shown to possess numerous healthy constituents. A growing body of research shows that chocolate has many benefits for cardiovascular and cognitive health, due to the presence of antioxidant compounds, such as flavanols, polyphenols, and proanthocyanidins. While polyphenols constitute 12–18% of the dry weight of whole cocoa beans, it has been shown that the various chocolate processing states, such as fermentation, roasting, and alkalization, contribute to some loss of these compounds. Research is still needed on which specific ingredients are the most important and what the effective dose is to achieve a benefit. Nuts are rich in antioxidants and good fats.
Health Effects of Selected Ingredients Allergens. According to the FDA, major food allergens include milk, eggs, tree nuts, wheat, peanuts, and soybeans, all common ingredients in candies. Allergens must be listed on the label. Artificial dyes. A recent study from Purdue University found that some candies had 29–33 mg of artificial dyes, which is of concern because levels in this range can affect behavior in a small percentage of children. Black licorice. Glycyrrhizin, the sweet agent in licorice, is alleged to have many health benefits but is also known to cause high blood pressure and arrhythmia if consumed in large quantities and can cause potassium levels to fall. The FDA has warned against heavy consumption of black licorice but has not set a daily limit and lists it as GRAS, with usage
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Candies and Sweets: Sugar and Chocolate Confectionery
Figure 1 Sugar confectionery in Seville, Spain.
amounts for certain foods: up to 16% glycyrrhizin in hard candy and 3.1% in soft candy. Caffeine. Caffeine, as much as 50 mg, is added to a few candies, such as some jelly beans, marshmallows, and chocolate bars, for its energy-imparting qualities. In May 2013, the FDA announced it will investigate the safety of caffeine being added to food products, especially its effect on children. Gluten. Gluten will be present in a candy if the starch used as a gelling agent comes from wheat. Candies with barley malt and any confectionery with wafers or cookies included will also contain gluten. In August 2014, the FDA issued a final rule to define the term ‘gluten-free’ for voluntary use in the labeling of foods. For a food to be labeled gluten-free, it must contain 20 ppm of gluten or less. The Hershey Company provides a list of all their gluten-free confectionery on their website. Zein. Zein, a prolamin protein derived from corn gluten meal, is gluten-free and safe for those with celiac disease or gluten intolerance. The term ‘corn gluten’ causes confusion, and many people think that zein is a gluten protein. There is no gluten in corn, and, according to Wikipedia, the term arose colloquially. Zein is preferred by vegans and others who object to the use of shellac, an insect product, in confectionery glazes, but the consumer has little knowledge or control over this. Kidney-friendly candy. People with chronic kidney disease or on dialysis need to restrict their intake of phosphorus, potassium, and salt, which are found in some confections. Phosphorous and potassium are not required on labels. The DaVita company has a list of permissible candies on their website. Metallic drage´es. Drage´es are small hard spheres of sugar, about 4 mm diameter, coated with a colored or metallic glaze, used for decorating cakes and cookies. There is concern about the metallic content, especially of the silver ones, and although claimed to be safe by the manufacturers, the state of California banned them in 2003. The FDA declares that drage´es are nonedible and require jars to carry labels saying ‘for decoration only.’ Salt. Most commercial candies contain salt, and the amount of sodium per serving is required on the label. Confectionery
sodium levels are in the range of 10–45 mg per serving, with some confections as high as 100–145 per serving. This amount of sodium constitutes from 0% to 6% of the % daily value. Not all sodium in commercial candies comes from sodium chloride (table salt). Other sources of sodium include sodium salts of acidulants. Sugar alcohols. Sugar alcohols can cause a laxative effect if too much is consumed, and foods are required to have a warning label to that effect. However, excessive consumption of sugar alcohols can cause a laxative effect, and the maximum safe daily amounts are in the range of 20–50 g depending on the sugar alcohol. The FDA mandates that foods with 20 g or more of mannitol and 50 g or more of sorbitol must carry the warning label ‘Excess consumption may have a laxative effect.’ Vegan considerations. Many candies are not vegan because of the presence of milk, egg, or gelatin. Confectioner’s glaze made from shellac is an animal product from insects. Beeswax may also be considered nonvegan.
Perspective on Confectionery in Food and Health By mixing sugar with a few other ingredients, an almost infinite variety of candies and confections can be created. They are colorful, pretty, and tasty. Candy and confections are small packets of food, meant to provide pleasure and to be eaten in moderation. Behavioral studies suggest that pleasurable foods can help to achieve and sustain a healthy diet. Chocolate, in particular, is associated with producing a sense of well-being, which is attributed to the many natural compounds it possesses. However, even though many ingredients in candies are healthy or have healthy ingredients, the amount present in a piece of candy or chocolate is far too small to have an effect, and moderate consumption is key to maintaining a healthy diet (Figure 1).
See also: Aerated Foods; Antioxidants: Role on Health and Prevention; Caramel: Properties and Analysis; Cocoa: Composition and Health Effects; Cocoa: Production, Chemistry, and Use; Food Allergies:
Candies and Sweets: Sugar and Chocolate Confectionery
Occurrence and Analysis; Functional Foods; Glucose: Properties and Analysis; Maillard Reaction; Nuts: Health Effects; Phenolic Compounds: Bioavailability and Health Effects; Sugar Alcohols.
Further Reading 2013 CAOBISCO Statistical Report. http://caobisco.eu/public. FDA, Black Licorice: Trick or Treat?. http://www.fda.gov/ Hard Candy Production, ca. 1996, MC Publishing Company, 40 pp. Jackson EB (ed.) (1999) Sugar confectionery manufacture, 2nd ed. Aspen Publishers, 400 pp. Minifie BW (1989) Chocolate, cocoa & confectionery: science and technology. New York: Springer, 904 pp. Talbot G (2008) Applications of fats in confectionery. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing, 220 pp. The Manufacturing Confectioner magazine, MCPublishing Co; every issue contains statistics and technical articles about candy production. Weyland M and Hartel R (2008) Emulsifiers in confectionery. In: Hasenhuettl GL and Hartel RW (eds.) Food emulsifiers and their applications, pp. 285–305. Springer, Chapter 10.
Relevant Websites http://eastxmidwest.wordpress.com/2013/03/10/asian-candy-fruit-chews-melon-redbean-paste/ – Asian Candy Blog.
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http://www.foodproductdesign.com/articles/1997/09/candy-creations-with-starch-andits-derivatives.aspx – Candy Creations with Starch and Its Derivatives. Candy Types http://baking911.com/learn/baked-goods/candy/types – Kidney-Friendly Candy for Dialysis Patients. http://candy.about.com/ – General Guide to Candy Varieties. http://www.candyfavorites.com/shop/history-truth-candy.php – Myths about candy. http://www.candyusa.com/ – National Confectioners Association. http://www.cbsnews.com/pictures/worlds-weirdest-kit-kat-candy-bars/27/ – Kit Kat weird flavors. http://www.davita.com/education/article.cfm?educationMainFolder¼diet-andnutrition&category¼lifestyle&articleTitle¼kidney-friendly-candy-for-dialysispatients&articleID¼5341 – Kidney Friendly Candy – DaVita Company. http://food.japan-talk.com/food/new/18-Japanese-desserts-the-Emperor-might-eat – Japanese confections with beautiful pictures. http://www.foodtimeline.org/foodcandy.html – Timeline for Candy. http://www.thehersheycompany.com/nutrition-and-wellbeing/nutrition-information/ special-dietary-needs/gluten-Free-products.aspx – Hershey Company list of all their gluten-free confectionery. http://thestoryofchocolate.com/what/content.cfm? ItemNumber¼3307&navItemNumber¼3253&navItemNumber¼4563 – Health and Chocolate – the story of chocolate. http://www.thenibble.com/reviews/main/chocolate/glossaryc.asp – Chocolate Glossary.