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Career paths in a changing world
Careerpaths in a changing world by M CAMPBELL
I
n the study of the effects of new technology on organizations, it has usually been assumed that data processing personnel are the agents of change and that it is the users who are affected by the changes, resist the changes and who, therefore, need to adapt their ideas, training and education. This assumption may have once been valid. However, times are rapidly changing. The technology now being introduced means that data processing personnel will experience major changes in their roles and, therefore, begin to resist change. The
The continuing developmentof computer technology means an uncertain future for today’s DP staff
I
department. IGywds:
data processing, job spetifiation, organization, DP management.
6
OOfl~84~83/0~
changes
Technology
User personnel
-
to date.
effects of the changes will depend to a large extent on which technology is adopted by an organization, the size of the org~~tion and the history of data processing in that organization.
Changes in technology At present the major areas of change are the increasing inroads into organizations of microcomputers, either free standing or utilizing communication technology, and database techniques. These technologies highlight the issue of the cent~~tion or decenTechnology
M Campbell is a lecturer in data processing management in the de artment of computer studies at Glasgow Co Plege of Technology.
The effect of technology to date has been that computer-based systems and their associated data processing personnel have combined to cause changes in user areas (see Figure 1). I
Figure I. Eflect of D P technology
use of~i~~~~t~s and database techniquesmay alter the structureof thedata processingfunctionand the careersof the DP personnel who work within it. The paper examines future effects oftechnologyupon data processing departmentsin small, medium and large organizationsin terms of the roles, responsibilitiesand skills of the vati DP personnel inwived and in terms of the organizational structureof the DP
Effects of technology to date
t +
Abstract: ~~s~e~
tralization of data processing. Where microcomputers allow forms of decent~tion or of distributed processing, database techniques imply a degree of centralization for optimum benefit. This article is only concerned with this issue where it affects data processing careers; the core of any resistance or acceptance policy.
These changes have often had a traumatic effect on both user persormel and on the effectiveness of the installed system. Many systems have failed due to lack of predicting the effects on users. Much research has centred on this reason for failure and many books and articles have been written proposing closer user affiliation with systems analysis and design. As a result, many users have now become very sophisticated and demanding of their systems, often to the extent of wanting to control their system technology via microcomchanges -
DP personnel
Figure 2. Future effect of DP technology.
$03.00 @ 1983 Butterworth & Co (Publishers) Ltd.
data processing
policy puters. Thkus, the current changes in technology are more likely to affect data processing personnel than users. Effects of technology The effects of newer technology will vary with the technology employed. Where microcomputers are introduced these are liable to be userdriven, in some cases reducing the links between users and data processing personnel, thereby changing the roles and responsibilities of data processing personnel (see Figure 2). Where database techniques are introduced these may necessitate specialization of a nature which again roles and change the could responsibilities of data processing personnel. History of data processing organization
in an
The effects on data processing personnel of changes in technology will vary with the type of organization
and the history of data processing in the organization. Perhaps more than any other data processing is department, affected by the individual responsible for it. His or her ideas, background and experience will have dominated the growth and style of the department and can dominate its future and, thus, the future prospects of its staff. It is, therefore, important to consider the past record of a department.
all; the small, first-time user. These organizations have few preconceived ideas about the structure of a data processing department. They can create their own structure from scratch along with their microcomputer installation. They may not see the need for a department as such, nor for some of the accepted functions or job titles. New technology could have wide ranging effects on current and future data processing personnel, their training and aspirations.
Small data processing department Small data processing departments fall into two groups. The first of these are those who have a history of ADP or EDP, with experience of punch card systems, visible record computers and mini or microcomputers. This group will probably operate their data processing department with individuals having overlapping roles. The effects of new technology on such a department could be minimal. In the second of the two groups are those who have no history of EDP at
Medium-sized data processing department The medium-sized data processing department usually has a history going back to the 1970s when the major expansion of mainframe computing took place. The department is usually defined by function; systems, programming and operations. Apart from the number of personnel, its history is mirrored in that of the large data processing department.
Table 1. Effects of technology on DP personnel Effects on DP, personneH
Period
Personnel recruited
History of DP
pre195Os
School leavers F’ew graduates
Manual data processing boundaries
1950s
School leavers Few graduates
More widespread use of ADP equipment, e.g. punch cards, mark sensing
Division of labour for processing of data but all data and files still kept in and by individual departments
1960s
Numerate and literate allrounders Experienced business personnel Graduates of any discipline or profession
Introduction of EDP, creation of separate DP depts with DP personnel
All data processing carried out in and by data processing department. Data and files held centrally. Job functions in EPD blurred, concept of analyst/programmer popular. Many of today’s DP managers entered the profession in this period
1970s
Numerate or literate specialists Graduates of many disciplines mcluding computing
Expansion of mainframe EDP Major technological changes Age of specialist
All data processing carried out in and by data processing department. Extreme division of DP labour in some organizations, analysts, designers, programmers, program testers etc. Only centralized DP could utilize narrow specialists
1980s
Data processing and computer science graduates Graduates from other discipline if have postgraduate EDP qualification
Major technological changes, e.g. micros, cause even wider expansion of EDP especially to small companies
New technology permits choice of DP strategy viz centralization or distributed processing or decentralization. Choice of decentralization could complete cycle by putting DP back within departmental boundaries. Choice of strategy has far-reaching effects on training, education and career prospects of DP personnel
~0125 no 9
november
1983
within dept.
Occasional division of labour for calculation (using pool of comptometer operators) or for output (using pool of typists). All data and fries kept in and by individual departments
7
Large data processing department It is in the large and medium-sized instaiiations that the impact of new technology will be most felt by data processing staff. Historically, many large organizations had diversified data processing facilities, often geographically scattered, and in some cases using different manufacturers’ equipment. In the mid-sixties, when large scale (by the standards of the time) mainframe co~~tions became feasible for many companies, these companies decided to centralize their data processing functions and the age of the data processing specialist began. Many of today’s data processing managers entered EDP in the sixties, either from user management or as data processing trainees. They personaliy experienced the changes in job responsibiiities which occurred throughout that period. Irrespective of their original background, most of these DP managers would now classify themselves as data processing professionals as opposed to their original accountant/economist etc. qualification. They, therefore, have a vested interest in any changes which affect the size, structure and authority of a data processing department.
Current trends Small data processing department At the ‘smaii’ end of the market there has been proliferation of new users, due to the widespread use of ~cr~omputers. These instaiiations usualiy have no data processing history or expertise. The situation is similar to the prei950s function (see Table i), where the work is carried out by whoever is most interested in the results, supported by packaged programs. Where further development of systems is necessary, the future possible effects for data processing personnel, either in working for the smail user independently or as part of a software group on a freelance
8
basis, arises. Since such an organization has no formal data processing structure, resistance to change can only come from the user department and is therefore irrelevant to this article. Medium-sized data processing department In the medium-sized installation, database techniques are probably having more impact than microcomputes. Sophisticated users are more demanding in their requirements and data processing personnel are having to enhance their own expertise to keep up with technological changes, or are resisting the introduction of such changes. Large data processing depar~t In the large ~st~ations the effects of both microcomputers and database techniques are being experienced. Many users have installed microcomputers with, or without, the aid or knowledge of their data processing department. Often several different types have materialized within the same organization. This can affect both the future successful operation of company data processing and of data processing personnel prospects, either favourabiy or unfavourabiy, depending on the organization and its data processing strategy. Where the database is concerned, large departments have already appointed specific database personnel.
Data processing managers In most companies the role of the data processing manager brings its own problems. With the exception of organizations such as computer manufacturers and software houses, there are few examples of data processing managers progressing to high element positions; still fewer to board level. Those who do, may create even more problems in the face of new technology.
Problems for the future The impact of technological change now appears to be affecting the original agents of change; data processing personnel. This poses several problems for the future: What wiii be the effects on data processing career paths? Will management styles be affected by the changes? Wili the changes be affected by m~agement styles? How wiil the org~tion of the whole data processing effort be affected? Data processing career
paths
There are two possible, distinct career paths open to data processing personnel. With the smaller, firsttime user, there could be a role for the microspecialist. This would entail working very closely with users, e.g. writing, or purchasing, application software. It would also include a high percentage of user training in the use of packages, keyboard skiiis etc. In this type of environment there would be virtuaiiy no data processing department structure, therefore probably no career path. The only career movement would be to a user department or to another company. However, such a career could be very rewarding in itself, either to an established practitioner who wanted to stay in a particular geographic area or who liked the working environment of a smaiI company, or to a new practitioner who wanted to gain experience in ail aspects of data processing to broader his/her career base before moving on to a larger organization. In the larger organization career paths have probably been long established within the usual systems/ programming/operations functions. Changes in technology would only affect these career paths where there were changes in m~agement styles or the organization of the data processing function.
data processing
Effects of thecakes on munagenle?lt styles In the smaller organization the entrepreneur would probably need to delegate more of the responsibility for information processing, if only because he/she would be unlikely to have the time or expertise to handle the function alone. In the larger organization the effect on management style would depend on the type of change. Where microcomputers and distributed processing more delegation are introduced, might be necessary. Although this would provide more op~rt~ities for individual data processing personnel, it might reduce the central power of the data processing department, and its manager, as user departments take control of heir own systems. Where database techniques are introduced, management might be centralized with much more authority being vested in the data processing department and its manager. Indeed, the information resource might become so important that companies might at last recognize and acknowledge the importance of a good data processing manager. Effects of management styles on technological changes It is this element of change which is perhaps the most important and the least acknowledged in an organization. Again, much has been written about user opposition to change, yet resistance from data processing personnel may have a far more damaging effect, especially if it is not even recognized as such. Where i.t is the data processing management style to recruit high quality staff, to educate and train these staff to their full potential and then to delegate responsibilities to them, changes in technology will probably be welcomed, both by the staff themselves who are thereby keeping in the forefront of the technology, and by the manager who is being supported by high-level expertise.
~0125no 9 november
1983
Where the data processing management style is authoritarian, then the changes may be less welcome, and suppressed at whichever level the authoritarian style is found, be it at data processing manager level or among his/her subordinates. It is difficult for a manager to manage his/her department well and to keep up with all the new technology. The manager or supervisor who refuses to delegate is unlikely to find time to evaluate new technology let alone become experienced with it. Since he/she cannot gain this experience then, all too often, this experience is denied to his/her staff. Changes are often, therefore, either
Vanuatu
of ahedata ~r~es~~
effmt Most companies will need to review the way in which they organize data processing. The falling cost and large of hardware available, variety together with the increasing dependence of org~ations on easy access to ~fo~ation, must cause those responsible for data as a resource to rethink their roles. The traditional organization for data processing has usually been that of the pyramid (see Figure 3); the data processing manager at the apex and the three functions of systems, programming and operating broadening the operation towards the base.
PROCESSING
SYSTEMS
PROGRAMMING
OPERATIONS Computer
programmers
Data input
Systems programmers
Data
operators
control
cperators clerks
Figure 3. Traditional organization qf a UP department. totally ignored or stifled at an early The pyramid has been a convenient stage. Such an attitude can stem from organizationai structure since the a fear of being unable to assimilate the three functions had definable bountechnology or from a fear of loss of daries. However, changes in techcontrol if the organization of the data nology have made these boundaries processing function becomes changed much less obvious. by the technology, or even simply, a The shape of the data processing fear that if staff become more profi- function in the future is likely to cient they may pose a threat to the DP reflect individual companies’ attitudes manager’s authority. towards data as a resource. If a This attitude could seriously affect company recognizes the importance the optimum use of technology in the of data to their overall profit then it organization, whether that section is may well be that the data processing management, systems, programming, department will be organized in the operations or data preparation. Initisame way as any other service departally, this attitude could restrict ment. For example, the purchasing personnel mobility as staff would have department does not buy goods solely no up-to-date skills to offer a new for its own use; it acts in an advisory employer. However, this shortrole as an agent for the whole comsighted approach would not be long pany, e.g. choosing the best supplier term as one of the commonest reasons for a department’s needs and monitorstaff give for leaving organizations is ing the purchases, made by the various to gain experience in newer technodepartments to gain optimum benefit logies; good staff have a healthy fear for the company as a whole. The data of falling behind in their knowledge. processing department could also
9
Top management
I
,
I
Purchasing
Sales
and
and
DP
Figure 4. Departmentally-based
DP
Productlon
Personnel
and
and
DP
data processing.
1 Top man?ement
I
Database
Figure 5. Departmentally-based database.
admlnlstratlon
1
I
DP with a common link through a
operate in such a way, maintaining databases, advising departments on hardware and software, developing in-house systems as required, but always keeping the company objectives in mind. This approach would mean the data processing function remained as a separate pyramidshaped department. However, if a company decides that departments should individual operate independently for data processing purposes then two possibilities could arise. First as in the pre195Os, each department processes its own data in the way they might type their own letters, with no common database facilities. Second, the departments operate independently but contribute to a common database. The first alternative would produce an organization chart as shown in Figure 4, where departments communicate above the line but not across departmental boundaries. The second choice would produce an organization chart as shown in Figure 5, where departments communicate via a com-
10
DP
mon link. Both these alternatives run the risk of less than optimum company-wide systems but this may be acceptable if they result in closer user participation and faster local response times. Data processing
personnel
Whether technology causes an organization to move to centralized, decentralized or a hybrid solution it will be necessary to take stock of the data processing personnel currently employed, to define any new personnel requirements and to train or recruit to meet those requirements. It is a fallacy that a good programmer will automatically make a good manager, or vice versa. It is equally short-sighted to automatically promote staff on the strength of such attributes as length of service. Data processing departments need reliable ‘plodders’ but currently there is also a strong need for ‘high-fliers’, those with enquiring, almost mercurial, minds to introduce new ideas into an organization.
In a survey carried out in fifteen large organizations in Scotland, data processing managers were asked what skills and attributes they considered were needed by their systems analysts both at the present time and in the next five years. Under the heading technical skills, the ability xo analyse problem areas and define practical solutions was considered either important or essential in every organization; the understanding of programming was considered to be relatively less important in the future (see Table 2). Under the heading management and business skills, planning ability and communication skills were considered paramount by all organizations (see Table 3). Under the heading personal attributes, staff were needed who were innovative, enthusiastic, yet displayed a disciplined approach to their work and to the pressure involved. Human relations skills were heavily emphasised by all organizations. The emphasis under all three headings varied very little in different types of organizations. It did not seem to matter whether the organization was a financial institution or a public utility or a manufacturing company. What did emerge very strongly was that organizations were worried that the current emphasis on technical skills was underplaying the importance of planning and communication skills. More projects were said to have ‘failed’ through poor planning and communication than from systems and programming errors. It was expected that future entrants to the field would come predominatly from university and college computer courses. In the past such courses have not been noted for producing graduates trained in management skills. The content of these courses has been changing in recent years but it might be that the criteria for entry to such courses should be reviewed, for example, to make literacy in applicants as important as numeracy.
data processing
policy cessing department to recognize their own training needs and to plan accordingly, whether this means inhouse training, industry conferences or private study. If data processing personnel want to extend their sphere of influence then they must have prepared for it. There is a need for more research in this area to answer such questions as what types of personnel do different organizations need, how can an orga-
Whatever the initial education and training of data processing staff, it is necessary for them both to keep up to date in the field of data processing and to expand their general knowledge of business. There may be a role here for post-graduate course in such areas as accounting, production control, and personel management. While the company must play its part in staff training, it is up to the individual members of the data proTable 2. Technical Technical
skills required by systems analysts Not important
skill
Important/ Essential
Now 5 yrs Now 5 yrs (%) (%) (%) (%) Ability to investigate
93
100
93
100
93
100
7
100
93
present practices and systems
Ability to define alternative
/
approaches
Ability to analyse and present optimum
-
7 -
solutions
Ability to produce good, practical technical designs
-
Ability to produce good, practical file designs
13 _
27 _
87
73
100
100
-
20
100
80
13
93
87
Ability to produce good, practical systems test data Ability to produce good, practical, specifications
nonambiguous
Ability to produce good, practical, documentation for users
nonambiguous
Ability to produce good, practical,
output designs for users
Practical understanding considerations Up-to-date
of programming
7
techniques
and
knowledge of available hardware and software
Table 3. Management Technical
program
and business
20
87
80
7
47
93
53
27
20
73
80
skills required by systems
analysts
Not Important/ Important Essential Now 5 yrs Now 5 yrs % % ) (%) (%) _ _ 100 100
skill
&bnrwork
-
Ability to monitor and control plan Ability to le.ad staff, coordinate Ability to motivate of ideas
13
work of others
staff, inspire confidence
in practicability
-
loo
loo
7
7
93
93
7
7
93
93
Practical understanding
of business in general
7
7
93
93
Practical understanding organization operates
of the industry
7
13
93
87
67
67
33
33
67 _
73
33
27
_
100
100
-
100
100
_
100
100
in which the
Some understanding programming etc.
of statistical
Some understanding
of work study/measurement
Ability to communicate
techniques/linear
verbally in a one-to-one
Ability to communicate orally in a one-to-many e.g. project presentations, training lectures Ability to communicate instruction manuals
in writing,
~0125 no 9
1983
november
e.g. reports,
situation situation,
_
nization attract these, how can they assess prospective personnel, do they want to retain such staff for long periods and, if so, how can they keep staff motivated? Optimum reorganization of the data processing effort will require a global look at th.e company’s requirements, structure and policies. The data processing manager and his immediate subordinates will need to be of a very high professional quality; such quality should be recognized by the organization which should review its promotion policies to include these staff at the very highest levels of decision making. But, again, there is a need for more research to idenrify and evaluate such personnel - what are the effects on organizations of giving more rather than less power to data processing, how might such staff have manipulated changes in technology to promote their own interests rather than those of the organization? The main problem for data processing personnel in the future is that of their professional status within an organization. The status of the entire department dlepends on that accredited to the manager. As long as the data processing manager is seen as a machine minder or as a producer of printouts then the problem will remain. The data processing manager must become an information systems manager whose responsibilities lie not simply in processing data but in bringing his/her expertise into all aspects of company decision making. In organizations such as banks and insurance companies, where the main ‘product’ is information there are more likely to be opportunities for well-qualified staff to progress in this way. Other areas, such as manufacturing, have still to realize the valuable assets available to them in the form of their data processing personnel. 0 _~__
11
I
n the study of the effects of new technology on organizations, it has usually been assumed that data processing personnel are the agents of change and that it is the users who are affected by the changes, resist the changes and who, therefore, need to adapt their ideas, training and education. This assumption may have once been valid. However, times are rapidly changing. The technology now being introduced means that data processing personnel will experience major changes in their roles and, therefore, begin to resist change. The
The continuing developmentof computer technology means an uncertain future for today’s DP staff
I
department. IGywds:
data processing, job spetifiation, organization, DP management.
6
OOfl~84~83/0~
changes
Technology
User personnel
-
to date.
effects of the changes will depend to a large extent on which technology is adopted by an organization, the size of the org~~tion and the history of data processing in that organization.
Changes in technology At present the major areas of change are the increasing inroads into organizations of microcomputers, either free standing or utilizing communication technology, and database techniques. These technologies highlight the issue of the cent~~tion or decenTechnology
M Campbell is a lecturer in data processing management in the de artment of computer studies at Glasgow Co Plege of Technology.
The effect of technology to date has been that computer-based systems and their associated data processing personnel have combined to cause changes in user areas (see Figure 1). I
Figure I. Eflect of D P technology
use of~i~~~~t~s and database techniquesmay alter the structureof thedata processingfunctionand the careersof the DP personnel who work within it. The paper examines future effects oftechnologyupon data processing departmentsin small, medium and large organizationsin terms of the roles, responsibilitiesand skills of the vati DP personnel inwived and in terms of the organizational structureof the DP
Effects of technology to date
t +
Abstract: ~~s~e~
tralization of data processing. Where microcomputers allow forms of decent~tion or of distributed processing, database techniques imply a degree of centralization for optimum benefit. This article is only concerned with this issue where it affects data processing careers; the core of any resistance or acceptance policy.
These changes have often had a traumatic effect on both user persormel and on the effectiveness of the installed system. Many systems have failed due to lack of predicting the effects on users. Much research has centred on this reason for failure and many books and articles have been written proposing closer user affiliation with systems analysis and design. As a result, many users have now become very sophisticated and demanding of their systems, often to the extent of wanting to control their system technology via microcomchanges -
DP personnel
Figure 2. Future effect of DP technology.
$03.00 @ 1983 Butterworth & Co (Publishers) Ltd.
data processing
policy puters. Thkus, the current changes in technology are more likely to affect data processing personnel than users. Effects of technology The effects of newer technology will vary with the technology employed. Where microcomputers are introduced these are liable to be userdriven, in some cases reducing the links between users and data processing personnel, thereby changing the roles and responsibilities of data processing personnel (see Figure 2). Where database techniques are introduced these may necessitate specialization of a nature which again roles and change the could responsibilities of data processing personnel. History of data processing organization
in an
The effects on data processing personnel of changes in technology will vary with the type of organization
and the history of data processing in the organization. Perhaps more than any other data processing is department, affected by the individual responsible for it. His or her ideas, background and experience will have dominated the growth and style of the department and can dominate its future and, thus, the future prospects of its staff. It is, therefore, important to consider the past record of a department.
all; the small, first-time user. These organizations have few preconceived ideas about the structure of a data processing department. They can create their own structure from scratch along with their microcomputer installation. They may not see the need for a department as such, nor for some of the accepted functions or job titles. New technology could have wide ranging effects on current and future data processing personnel, their training and aspirations.
Small data processing department Small data processing departments fall into two groups. The first of these are those who have a history of ADP or EDP, with experience of punch card systems, visible record computers and mini or microcomputers. This group will probably operate their data processing department with individuals having overlapping roles. The effects of new technology on such a department could be minimal. In the second of the two groups are those who have no history of EDP at
Medium-sized data processing department The medium-sized data processing department usually has a history going back to the 1970s when the major expansion of mainframe computing took place. The department is usually defined by function; systems, programming and operations. Apart from the number of personnel, its history is mirrored in that of the large data processing department.
Table 1. Effects of technology on DP personnel Effects on DP, personneH
Period
Personnel recruited
History of DP
pre195Os
School leavers F’ew graduates
Manual data processing boundaries
1950s
School leavers Few graduates
More widespread use of ADP equipment, e.g. punch cards, mark sensing
Division of labour for processing of data but all data and files still kept in and by individual departments
1960s
Numerate and literate allrounders Experienced business personnel Graduates of any discipline or profession
Introduction of EDP, creation of separate DP depts with DP personnel
All data processing carried out in and by data processing department. Data and files held centrally. Job functions in EPD blurred, concept of analyst/programmer popular. Many of today’s DP managers entered the profession in this period
1970s
Numerate or literate specialists Graduates of many disciplines mcluding computing
Expansion of mainframe EDP Major technological changes Age of specialist
All data processing carried out in and by data processing department. Extreme division of DP labour in some organizations, analysts, designers, programmers, program testers etc. Only centralized DP could utilize narrow specialists
1980s
Data processing and computer science graduates Graduates from other discipline if have postgraduate EDP qualification
Major technological changes, e.g. micros, cause even wider expansion of EDP especially to small companies
New technology permits choice of DP strategy viz centralization or distributed processing or decentralization. Choice of decentralization could complete cycle by putting DP back within departmental boundaries. Choice of strategy has far-reaching effects on training, education and career prospects of DP personnel
~0125 no 9
november
1983
within dept.
Occasional division of labour for calculation (using pool of comptometer operators) or for output (using pool of typists). All data and fries kept in and by individual departments
7
Large data processing department It is in the large and medium-sized instaiiations that the impact of new technology will be most felt by data processing staff. Historically, many large organizations had diversified data processing facilities, often geographically scattered, and in some cases using different manufacturers’ equipment. In the mid-sixties, when large scale (by the standards of the time) mainframe co~~tions became feasible for many companies, these companies decided to centralize their data processing functions and the age of the data processing specialist began. Many of today’s data processing managers entered EDP in the sixties, either from user management or as data processing trainees. They personaliy experienced the changes in job responsibiiities which occurred throughout that period. Irrespective of their original background, most of these DP managers would now classify themselves as data processing professionals as opposed to their original accountant/economist etc. qualification. They, therefore, have a vested interest in any changes which affect the size, structure and authority of a data processing department.
Current trends Small data processing department At the ‘smaii’ end of the market there has been proliferation of new users, due to the widespread use of ~cr~omputers. These instaiiations usualiy have no data processing history or expertise. The situation is similar to the prei950s function (see Table i), where the work is carried out by whoever is most interested in the results, supported by packaged programs. Where further development of systems is necessary, the future possible effects for data processing personnel, either in working for the smail user independently or as part of a software group on a freelance
8
basis, arises. Since such an organization has no formal data processing structure, resistance to change can only come from the user department and is therefore irrelevant to this article. Medium-sized data processing department In the medium-sized installation, database techniques are probably having more impact than microcomputes. Sophisticated users are more demanding in their requirements and data processing personnel are having to enhance their own expertise to keep up with technological changes, or are resisting the introduction of such changes. Large data processing depar~t In the large ~st~ations the effects of both microcomputers and database techniques are being experienced. Many users have installed microcomputers with, or without, the aid or knowledge of their data processing department. Often several different types have materialized within the same organization. This can affect both the future successful operation of company data processing and of data processing personnel prospects, either favourabiy or unfavourabiy, depending on the organization and its data processing strategy. Where the database is concerned, large departments have already appointed specific database personnel.
Data processing managers In most companies the role of the data processing manager brings its own problems. With the exception of organizations such as computer manufacturers and software houses, there are few examples of data processing managers progressing to high element positions; still fewer to board level. Those who do, may create even more problems in the face of new technology.
Problems for the future The impact of technological change now appears to be affecting the original agents of change; data processing personnel. This poses several problems for the future: What wiii be the effects on data processing career paths? Will management styles be affected by the changes? Wili the changes be affected by m~agement styles? How wiil the org~tion of the whole data processing effort be affected? Data processing career
paths
There are two possible, distinct career paths open to data processing personnel. With the smaller, firsttime user, there could be a role for the microspecialist. This would entail working very closely with users, e.g. writing, or purchasing, application software. It would also include a high percentage of user training in the use of packages, keyboard skiiis etc. In this type of environment there would be virtuaiiy no data processing department structure, therefore probably no career path. The only career movement would be to a user department or to another company. However, such a career could be very rewarding in itself, either to an established practitioner who wanted to stay in a particular geographic area or who liked the working environment of a smaiI company, or to a new practitioner who wanted to gain experience in ail aspects of data processing to broader his/her career base before moving on to a larger organization. In the larger organization career paths have probably been long established within the usual systems/ programming/operations functions. Changes in technology would only affect these career paths where there were changes in m~agement styles or the organization of the data processing function.
data processing
Effects of thecakes on munagenle?lt styles In the smaller organization the entrepreneur would probably need to delegate more of the responsibility for information processing, if only because he/she would be unlikely to have the time or expertise to handle the function alone. In the larger organization the effect on management style would depend on the type of change. Where microcomputers and distributed processing more delegation are introduced, might be necessary. Although this would provide more op~rt~ities for individual data processing personnel, it might reduce the central power of the data processing department, and its manager, as user departments take control of heir own systems. Where database techniques are introduced, management might be centralized with much more authority being vested in the data processing department and its manager. Indeed, the information resource might become so important that companies might at last recognize and acknowledge the importance of a good data processing manager. Effects of management styles on technological changes It is this element of change which is perhaps the most important and the least acknowledged in an organization. Again, much has been written about user opposition to change, yet resistance from data processing personnel may have a far more damaging effect, especially if it is not even recognized as such. Where i.t is the data processing management style to recruit high quality staff, to educate and train these staff to their full potential and then to delegate responsibilities to them, changes in technology will probably be welcomed, both by the staff themselves who are thereby keeping in the forefront of the technology, and by the manager who is being supported by high-level expertise.
~0125no 9 november
1983
Where the data processing management style is authoritarian, then the changes may be less welcome, and suppressed at whichever level the authoritarian style is found, be it at data processing manager level or among his/her subordinates. It is difficult for a manager to manage his/her department well and to keep up with all the new technology. The manager or supervisor who refuses to delegate is unlikely to find time to evaluate new technology let alone become experienced with it. Since he/she cannot gain this experience then, all too often, this experience is denied to his/her staff. Changes are often, therefore, either
Vanuatu
of ahedata ~r~es~~
effmt Most companies will need to review the way in which they organize data processing. The falling cost and large of hardware available, variety together with the increasing dependence of org~ations on easy access to ~fo~ation, must cause those responsible for data as a resource to rethink their roles. The traditional organization for data processing has usually been that of the pyramid (see Figure 3); the data processing manager at the apex and the three functions of systems, programming and operating broadening the operation towards the base.
PROCESSING
SYSTEMS
PROGRAMMING
OPERATIONS Computer
programmers
Data input
Systems programmers
Data
operators
control
cperators clerks
Figure 3. Traditional organization qf a UP department. totally ignored or stifled at an early The pyramid has been a convenient stage. Such an attitude can stem from organizationai structure since the a fear of being unable to assimilate the three functions had definable bountechnology or from a fear of loss of daries. However, changes in techcontrol if the organization of the data nology have made these boundaries processing function becomes changed much less obvious. by the technology, or even simply, a The shape of the data processing fear that if staff become more profi- function in the future is likely to cient they may pose a threat to the DP reflect individual companies’ attitudes manager’s authority. towards data as a resource. If a This attitude could seriously affect company recognizes the importance the optimum use of technology in the of data to their overall profit then it organization, whether that section is may well be that the data processing management, systems, programming, department will be organized in the operations or data preparation. Initisame way as any other service departally, this attitude could restrict ment. For example, the purchasing personnel mobility as staff would have department does not buy goods solely no up-to-date skills to offer a new for its own use; it acts in an advisory employer. However, this shortrole as an agent for the whole comsighted approach would not be long pany, e.g. choosing the best supplier term as one of the commonest reasons for a department’s needs and monitorstaff give for leaving organizations is ing the purchases, made by the various to gain experience in newer technodepartments to gain optimum benefit logies; good staff have a healthy fear for the company as a whole. The data of falling behind in their knowledge. processing department could also
9
Top management
I
,
I
Purchasing
Sales
and
and
DP
Figure 4. Departmentally-based
DP
Productlon
Personnel
and
and
DP
data processing.
1 Top man?ement
I
Database
Figure 5. Departmentally-based database.
admlnlstratlon
1
I
DP with a common link through a
operate in such a way, maintaining databases, advising departments on hardware and software, developing in-house systems as required, but always keeping the company objectives in mind. This approach would mean the data processing function remained as a separate pyramidshaped department. However, if a company decides that departments should individual operate independently for data processing purposes then two possibilities could arise. First as in the pre195Os, each department processes its own data in the way they might type their own letters, with no common database facilities. Second, the departments operate independently but contribute to a common database. The first alternative would produce an organization chart as shown in Figure 4, where departments communicate above the line but not across departmental boundaries. The second choice would produce an organization chart as shown in Figure 5, where departments communicate via a com-
10
DP
mon link. Both these alternatives run the risk of less than optimum company-wide systems but this may be acceptable if they result in closer user participation and faster local response times. Data processing
personnel
Whether technology causes an organization to move to centralized, decentralized or a hybrid solution it will be necessary to take stock of the data processing personnel currently employed, to define any new personnel requirements and to train or recruit to meet those requirements. It is a fallacy that a good programmer will automatically make a good manager, or vice versa. It is equally short-sighted to automatically promote staff on the strength of such attributes as length of service. Data processing departments need reliable ‘plodders’ but currently there is also a strong need for ‘high-fliers’, those with enquiring, almost mercurial, minds to introduce new ideas into an organization.
In a survey carried out in fifteen large organizations in Scotland, data processing managers were asked what skills and attributes they considered were needed by their systems analysts both at the present time and in the next five years. Under the heading technical skills, the ability xo analyse problem areas and define practical solutions was considered either important or essential in every organization; the understanding of programming was considered to be relatively less important in the future (see Table 2). Under the heading management and business skills, planning ability and communication skills were considered paramount by all organizations (see Table 3). Under the heading personal attributes, staff were needed who were innovative, enthusiastic, yet displayed a disciplined approach to their work and to the pressure involved. Human relations skills were heavily emphasised by all organizations. The emphasis under all three headings varied very little in different types of organizations. It did not seem to matter whether the organization was a financial institution or a public utility or a manufacturing company. What did emerge very strongly was that organizations were worried that the current emphasis on technical skills was underplaying the importance of planning and communication skills. More projects were said to have ‘failed’ through poor planning and communication than from systems and programming errors. It was expected that future entrants to the field would come predominatly from university and college computer courses. In the past such courses have not been noted for producing graduates trained in management skills. The content of these courses has been changing in recent years but it might be that the criteria for entry to such courses should be reviewed, for example, to make literacy in applicants as important as numeracy.
data processing
policy cessing department to recognize their own training needs and to plan accordingly, whether this means inhouse training, industry conferences or private study. If data processing personnel want to extend their sphere of influence then they must have prepared for it. There is a need for more research in this area to answer such questions as what types of personnel do different organizations need, how can an orga-
Whatever the initial education and training of data processing staff, it is necessary for them both to keep up to date in the field of data processing and to expand their general knowledge of business. There may be a role here for post-graduate course in such areas as accounting, production control, and personel management. While the company must play its part in staff training, it is up to the individual members of the data proTable 2. Technical Technical
skills required by systems analysts Not important
skill
Important/ Essential
Now 5 yrs Now 5 yrs (%) (%) (%) (%) Ability to investigate
93
100
93
100
93
100
7
100
93
present practices and systems
Ability to define alternative
/
approaches
Ability to analyse and present optimum
-
7 -
solutions
Ability to produce good, practical technical designs
-
Ability to produce good, practical file designs
13 _
27 _
87
73
100
100
-
20
100
80
13
93
87
Ability to produce good, practical systems test data Ability to produce good, practical, specifications
nonambiguous
Ability to produce good, practical, documentation for users
nonambiguous
Ability to produce good, practical,
output designs for users
Practical understanding considerations Up-to-date
of programming
7
techniques
and
knowledge of available hardware and software
Table 3. Management Technical
program
and business
20
87
80
7
47
93
53
27
20
73
80
skills required by systems
analysts
Not Important/ Important Essential Now 5 yrs Now 5 yrs % % ) (%) (%) _ _ 100 100
skill
&bnrwork
-
Ability to monitor and control plan Ability to le.ad staff, coordinate Ability to motivate of ideas
13
work of others
staff, inspire confidence
in practicability
-
loo
loo
7
7
93
93
7
7
93
93
Practical understanding
of business in general
7
7
93
93
Practical understanding organization operates
of the industry
7
13
93
87
67
67
33
33
67 _
73
33
27
_
100
100
-
100
100
_
100
100
in which the
Some understanding programming etc.
of statistical
Some understanding
of work study/measurement
Ability to communicate
techniques/linear
verbally in a one-to-one
Ability to communicate orally in a one-to-many e.g. project presentations, training lectures Ability to communicate instruction manuals
in writing,
~0125 no 9
1983
november
e.g. reports,
situation situation,
_
nization attract these, how can they assess prospective personnel, do they want to retain such staff for long periods and, if so, how can they keep staff motivated? Optimum reorganization of the data processing effort will require a global look at th.e company’s requirements, structure and policies. The data processing manager and his immediate subordinates will need to be of a very high professional quality; such quality should be recognized by the organization which should review its promotion policies to include these staff at the very highest levels of decision making. But, again, there is a need for more research to idenrify and evaluate such personnel - what are the effects on organizations of giving more rather than less power to data processing, how might such staff have manipulated changes in technology to promote their own interests rather than those of the organization? The main problem for data processing personnel in the future is that of their professional status within an organization. The status of the entire department dlepends on that accredited to the manager. As long as the data processing manager is seen as a machine minder or as a producer of printouts then the problem will remain. The data processing manager must become an information systems manager whose responsibilities lie not simply in processing data but in bringing his/her expertise into all aspects of company decision making. In organizations such as banks and insurance companies, where the main ‘product’ is information there are more likely to be opportunities for well-qualified staff to progress in this way. Other areas, such as manufacturing, have still to realize the valuable assets available to them in the form of their data processing personnel. 0 _~__
11