Carotenoid and riboflavin content of banana cultivars from Makira, Solomon Islands

Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 23 (2010) 624–632

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Original Article

Carotenoid and riboflavin content of banana cultivars from Makira, Solomon Islands Lois Englberger a,*, Graham Lyons b, Wendy Foley c, Jeff Daniells d, Bill Aalbersberg e, Usaia Dolodolotawake e, Claudine Watoto f, Ellen Iramu g, Belden Taki h, Francis Wehi i, Peter Warito f,i, Mary Taylor j a

Island Food Community of Pohnpei, Kolonia, Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia c Queensland Health, Brisbane, Australia d Queensland Department of Employment, Economic Development and Innovation, South Johnstone, Australia e Institute of Applied Sciences/University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji f Kastom Gaden Association, Honiara, Solomon Islands g Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock, Honiara, Solomon Islands h Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock, Makira Ulawa Province, Solomon Islands i Makira Island Community Groups, Makira Island, Solomon Islands j Secretariat of the Pacific Community, Suva, Fiji b

A R T I C L E I N F O

A B S T R A C T

Article history: Received 1 June 2009 Received in revised form 6 February 2010 Accepted 19 March 2010

The Solomon Islands face problems of vitamin A deficiency and infectious diseases, including malaria. It is essential to identify nutrient-rich indigenous foods for preventing and alleviating these diseases. Previous work in Micronesia identified yellow/orange-fleshed carotenoid-rich banana cultivars, in particular Fe’i cultivars (characterized by upright bunches), with potential to alleviate vitamin A deficiency. Although there is a great diversity of Solomon Islands bananas, little is documented about these cultivars and their nutrient content. Using an ethnographic approach, this study aimed to identify nutrient-rich cultivars and to collect information relating to production and consumption. Seven Fe’i cultivars (not previously analyzed) and three non-Fe’i cultivars were assessed for flesh color, fruit size and other attributes and analyzed for provitamin A carotenoids (b- and a-carotene), total carotenoids and riboflavin. Five Fe’i and two non-Fe’i cultivars were identified as carotenoid-rich. Of 10 cultivars analyzed the concentrations of b-carotene equivalents ranged from 45 to 7124 mg/100 g. Compared to cultivars with light-colored flesh, the yellow/orange-fleshed cultivars generally contained higher carotenoid concentrations. All Fe’i cultivars contained riboflavin, from 0.10 to 2.72 mg/100 g, some having substantial concentrations. The nutrient-rich cultivars, including Fe’i, should be promoted for their potential to contribute to vitamin A intake and overall health. ß 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Fe’i banana Musa (Fe’i group) Vitamin A deficiency Indigenous foods Ethnographic approach to food analysis Biodiversity of traditional food systems Horticulture and biodiversity Agrobiodiversity Cultivar differences Underutilized species Food composition

1. Introduction The Solomon Islands, with an estimated population of 518,338 (Solomon Islands National Statistics Office, 2009) and located in the western Pacific, face serious problems of vitamin A deficiency (VAD). This is evidenced by high rates of xerophthalmia (Schaumberg et al., 1995) and proxy indicators for VAD. The mortality rate for children under 5 years of age (U5MR) for the Solomon Islands is 73 per 1000 (Knowles, 2005), which is higher

* Corresponding author at: P.O. Box 1995, Kolonia, Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia. Tel.: +691 320 3259; fax: +691 320 2127. E-mail address: [email protected] (L. Englberger). 0889-1575/$ – see front matter ß 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jfca.2010.03.002

than the cut-off criteria of 50 for VAD (IVACG, 2002). There are also high rates of neonatal and infant deaths from diarrhea, pneumonia and malaria, other proxy indicators of VAD (Black et al., 2003). Brimblecombe (2000) found that children were at risk for VAD, using dietary data from a 7-day food frequency questionnaire developed by Helen Keller International. The Solomon Islands clearly has a VAD problem; at the same time, they may also have indigenous crops with potential provitamin A content to address this problem. It is important to identify the indigenous culturally acceptable foods that could prevent and alleviate these diseases. The Solomon Islands, with its 28,370 km2, is a relatively large and diverse country for the South Pacific, having over 80 indigenous languages. Over 80% of its people are involved in rural subsistence farming (ILO, 2006). The country is classified by the

L. Englberger et al. / Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 23 (2010) 624–632

United Nations as a Least Developed Country (LCD).1 Although most indigenous groups are Melanesian, there is also a Polynesian minority. Health and agriculture studies report an increasing shift in the Solomon Islands from indigenous foods to micronutrient-poor imported foods, such as refined rice, flour and sugar (Coyne, 2000; Jackson et al., 2006). No food fortification programs are in place. Particularly in the capital city, Honiara and peri-urban areas, intakes of refined imported foods are high. These studies also indicate emerging problems of non-communicable diseases such as diabetes. However, the country is known for a diversity of banana cultivars, including Fe’i cultivars (Jansen, 2004; Taylor, 2005). Fe’i bananas are characterized by erect or semi-erect bunches2 of fruit, red-purple sap, and a deep yellow, yellow-orange or orange flesh, and are considered unique to the Pacific Islands. Only limited information is available on these bananas (Davey et al., 2009; Sharrock, 2000). Many carotenoid-rich banana cultivars, including Fe’i, have been identified in Micronesia (Englberger et al., 2003a,b, 2006a,b), but no Solomon Islands Fe’i banana cultivars have been assessed for nutrient content. The yellow, orange and red color of many fruits and vegetables is due to their carotenoid content (McLaren and Frigg, 2001). Studies on Micronesian bananas showed that greater yellow or orange flesh coloration indicates an increasing level of carotenoids, creating interest in assessing other Pacific Island banana cultivars. Recent studies on bananas grown in Africa and South America have shown similar findings on the relationship between yellow-to-orange flesh coloration and higher carotenoid content (Amorim et al., 2009; Newilah et al., 2008). Foods rich in provitamin A carotenoids (e.g. b-carotene, acarotene, b-cryptoxanthin) protect against vitamin A deficiency and anemia (McLaren and Frigg, 2001). Consumption of foods rich in these and other carotenoids (e.g. lutein, zeaxanthin, lycopene) protects against cancer, diabetes, heart disease and other noncommunicable diseases (Bertram, 2002; Coyne et al., 2005; WCRF, 2007), including metabolic syndrome, a clustering of abnormalities increasing risk for developing cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes (Sluijs et al., 2009). Another distinctive characteristic of Fe’i bananas is the effect they have on turning urine yellow after the banana is consumed (Sharrock, 2000). This striking phenomenon may be the result of excess riboflavin, vitamin B2, which is rapidly excreted in the urine (Cooperman and Lopez, 1984). Stover and Simmonds (1987) indicate that the botanical origins of the Fe’i bananas are in Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands. One area of the Solomon Islands, Makira Island, is particularly renowned for its diversity as well as its cultural uses of bananas (Jansen, 2004). This study was planned around the following objectives: (1) to assess Solomon Island banana cultivars for carotenoids (b- and acarotene, total carotenoids) and riboflavin, focusing on Makira Island bananas, in particular rare Fe’i bananas; and (2) to assess production, consumption, and other factors in order to help plan an intervention for promoting nutrient-rich cultivars for potential health benefits.

2. Methods This study used an ethnographic, participatory and interagency approach, working with people of various relevant agencies 1 For further information on the LDCs and country classification, see United Nations Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and the Small Island Developing States (UNOHRLLS), http://www.unohrlls.org/en/ldc/25/). 2 A ‘‘bunch’’ refers to the entire set of fruits; a ‘‘hand’’ is a cluster of fruits and a ‘‘finger’’ is a single fruit.

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at the national, provincial and community levels. Some of the ethnographic research methods used for considering which cultivars to assess included: key informant interviews, informal focus group discussions, literature review, photography, pile sorting,3 market survey and observation (Blum et al., 1997). A sample collection kit included: an interview guide, formatted documentation list, Pohnpei banana photographs (Englberger and Lorens, 2004), labeling tape and marker, DSM Yolk Color Fan, Sohnle electronic kitchen scales (accurate to 2 g), digital camera, measuring tape and vacuum-pack sealing machine (Sunbeam FoodSaver Vac 420/Ultra), gel-ice for maintaining samples frozen, styrofoam coolbox, and newspaper for wrapping and insulating the samples. Jackson et al. (2006, pp. 83–85) listed 100 banana cultivar names from Makira Island, providing a starting point for the study. Based on information collection in previous banana work, we focused on cultivar name, flesh color, finger size, how eaten, rarity, and status. Local experts were consulted on how they group and describe the cultivars, growth, acceptability, taste, how they fit into the traditional food system, and what factors may be important for promoting the cultivars. The first four authors participated in the entire sample collection period, October 1–17, 2007, with assistance from other authors and local experts in cultivar identification and other information collection. 2.1. Materials Those working on this study faced great difficulties in obtaining the samples and sufficient ripe sample material due to the remote area from which most samples were collected, the short sampling period, cultivar rarity, subsistence agricultural system, infrequent marketing of cultivars selected for analysis, frequent lack of electricity for sample storage, and poor transport infrastructure, including irregular flight services to the study area. Samples and information were collected from three areas: (1) the produce market in the capital city of Honiara, Guadalcanal Island; (2) Kirakira area in the northern part of Makira Island; and (3) the Weathercoast area including Manivovo Training Center, a remote part of Makira where a large collection of banana cultivars was planted, and two nearby villages, Mwakorukoru and Mami. Kirakira was reached by a direct flight from Honiara. To reach Manivovo and the other two villages, a flight was taken from Kirakira to Santa Ana (a small island off the tip of eastern Makira) and a small motorized canoe was taken to Manivovo, as there is no road in that Weathercoast area. This area has been described as having hard conditions and being in extreme need (Jackson et al., 2006). A direct return flight to Honiara was taken from Santa Ana. As there are no laboratories in the Solomon Islands for nutrient analysis, samples were taken for analysis to the nearest accredited laboratory, the Institute of Applied Sciences, University of the South Pacific (IAS/USP), Suva Fiji. All samples collected in Kirakira, including one Fe’i cultivar, Bonubonu, were damaged due to the lack of freezer storage facilities and had to be discarded. Due to the lack of electricity, refrigeration and freezing facilities, (unpeeled) fingers were placed in water to slow down the ripening process for preparing the samples for the last few days when electricity and freezing facilities would be available. The fruit for two samples did not fully ripen during the sample collection period. All quarantine requirements were met, namely obtaining import permits from Fiji and phytosanitary certificates from the SI Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock to accompany the samples. 3 Pile sorting involves asking individuals to group a set of items in any way that it makes sense. This helps to initiate discussions and to better understand perceptions and relationships on a particular topic.

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2.2. Selection, documentation and preparation of samples Key partners were shown Pohnpei banana cultivar photographs in order to initiate discussions, gather information on Solomon Island banana cultivars and help obtain samples. Some cultivars had multiple names as confirmed by digital photographs and local food experts. In carotenogenic fruits, ripening is usually accompanied by carotenoid development (Rodriguez-Amaya, 1997). Thus, as our aim was to determine maximum carotenoid content, samples were prepared, when possible, with fully ripe fruit (the maturity was characterized as fully ripe when fruit was softest but had not spoiled as determined by taste and smell). Some samples were prepared from half-ripe fruit, at which stage bananas in the Solomon Islands are also consumed (as cooked fruit). One of the focus issues was to find orange- and yellow-fleshed banana showing potential for carotenoid content. Composite samples were prepared in order to provide a representative sample. Efforts were made to collect six good quality fingers for each composite sample. Measurements were taken of the sample finger length, girth (at widest point) and weight (edible portion) to help describe the cultivar fruits. Before freezing (using an available chest freezer), the flesh color was assessed visually for coloration by the five colors previously identified for banana flesh (white, cream, yellow, yellow-orange, and orange) and then estimated using the DSM (formerly Roche) Color Fan. This fan, developed for judging egg-yolk color in an objective way (Vuilleumier, 1969) has 15 segments, numbered sequentially with increasing degrees of yellow and orange. Photographs were taken to provide a record of flesh color differences. Gel-ice packs were frozen for packing with the samples for transport in a Styrofoam cooler, and samples were wrapped with newspaper for insulation. Banana samples were then vacuum-sealed and frozen. 2.3. Chemical analysis The IAS/USP laboratory carried out all analyses, using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and standard methods of analysis (AOAC, 2005). The samples were not saponified, as bananas are generally low in fat and by the laboratory method only high fat samples are saponified. Most cultivar samples were composites of two or more fruits (more fruits were selected for the samples but they did not ripen adequately during the sample collection period). The samples (composites) were completely homogenized and a portion (5– 10 g) was accurately weighed in duplicate. To this, 1 g of magnesium carbonate, 20 g of anhydrous sodium sulfate and 70 mL of acetone (AR Grade) was added and then blended for 5 min using a Bamix (hand-held blender) taking care not to overheat the extract (overheating was avoided by extracting for 1 min and resting for 30 s). The mixture was filtered through a sintered glass funnel. The residue was further extracted with acetone until the filtrate had no yellow/green color. The solvent was evaporated at low temperature and pressure, until a volume of approximately 5 mL was left. The extract was quantitatively transferred and made to an appropriate volume (10–100 mL, depending on color intensity of extract and expected concentration) in a volumetric flask, with acetone (HPLC grade), and filtered through a 0.45 mm Millipore filtration unit. Twenty microliters of sample was injected onto a Waters Novapak C18 (3.9 mm  300 mm) column with Waters, Sydney, Australia C18 guard column. The mobile phase was methanol/tetrahydrofuran (90:10) flowing at 0.5 mL 3/min, using a Waters 510 Model pump. The ultraviolet detector (a Waters 461 spectrophotometer) was set at 450 nm, with a- and b-carotene eluting at about

30 and 32 min, respectively. A calibration curve of standard (from Sigma, Sydney, Australia) concentrations vs. standard area was constructed and the regression equation was used to determine carotene content of sample. The concentration of standards was determined by measuring the absorbance of the b-carotene in acetone at 463 nm and using Beer’s law with a molar absorptivity of 125,893 moles 1 with acarotene at 130,929 moles 1. All analyses were carried out in duplicate with the means reported (results must vary by less than 10%). An in-house reference (beta Carotene Pills – Mayne Consumer Products, Qld., Australia), blanks and recovery samples were also run as quality assurance measures. A set of analyses was accepted if the in-house reference was within specified limits and recoveries were in the range 80–120%. The details of the carotenoid analyses are similar in detail to those reported previously (Englberger et al., 2003a). Riboflavin analyses followed standard analytical methods by HPLC (AOAC, 2005). One gram of the homogenized sample in duplicate was weighed in 50 mL centrifuge tubes, 17.5 mL of 0.05 M sulfuric acid was added, and the mixture was digested at 1000 8C for 1 h in a shaking water bath. Tubes were then cooled to room temperature and 2.5 mL of 2% a-amylase (in acetate buffer of pH 4.5) was added. The bottles were closed, shaken to mix contents and digested for a further 2 h at 550 8C in the shaking water bath. Afterwards, samples were cooled to room temperature, quantitatively transferred into 25 mL volumetric flasks and made to volume with distilled water. Samples were re-transferred to respective centrifuge tubes and centrifuged for 20 min at 2500 rpm (Orbital 420 from Clements Medical Equipment, Sydney, Australia). Supernatant was filtered in 0.45 mm filter paper and 20 mL of supernatant was injected into HPLC. A range of standards, recovery samples and in-house reference were treated in the same manner. The HPLC system consists of a Waters 515 pump, Waters C18 3.9  300 mm m-bondapak (Waters, Sydney, Australia), Jacso FP2020 Fluorescence Detector (Biloab, Auckland, New Zealand) and PerkinElmer data capture system (PerkinElmer, Melbourne Australia). Mobile phase was 0.5 g heptane sulfonic acid dissolved in 45% methanol with a flow rate of 1 mL/min. The detector wavelength was set at 360 nm excitation and 525 nm emission. Riboflavin standard was obtained from Sigma (Sydney, Australia). Riboflavin content of samples was determined by comparing peak area of standards and samples. The method has a linearity range of 0–1.0 mg/mL riboflavin and a repeatability and reproducibility of 5%. The detection limit is 0.01 mg/100 g. Recovery studies were carried out on three samples with recoveries in the accepted range of 80–120%. Initial method verification was through proficiency studies with FAPAS (Sutton, UK). 2.4. Assessment of carotenoid and riboflavin content and impact on vitamin requirements In order to allow comparison with other studies of carotenoids in bananas, b-carotene equivalents were calculated from HPLC analyses by adding the b-carotene and half the a-carotene content. The retinol equivalent (RE) value was calculated according to the conversion factor 6 mg b-carotene to 1 mg retinol, for comparisons to the contribution that each cultivar may make on meeting recommended safe intakes (WHO/FAO, 2004). The number of bananas needed to meet these estimated intakes was calculated using the mean weight of the edible portion per banana finger and b-carotene equivalents/100 g per cultivar. The retinol activity equivalent (RAE) was calculated, using the conversion factors 12:1 for b-carotene equivalents (Institute of Medicine, 2001). The impact of riboflavin content was assessed by comparing riboflavin content with recommended intakes (WHO/ FAO, 2004).

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Table 1 Description of selected Solomon Islands banana cultivars. Banana cultivara Fe’i (Toraka) Aibwo Akeakesusu Baubaunio Bonubonu Fagufagu Gatagata Toraka Parao Warowaro Non-Fe’i (Huki, Fuki) Huki Matawa Ropa Saena

Alternate name

Bunch

Growthb

Skin color: mature and ripe

How eaten

If rare or common

Status

Suria

Erect Not entirely erect Erect Erect Erect

Light green; orange Green; red Green; yellow; pale red Green; yellow/orange Green; orange

Cooked Cooked Cooked Cooked Cooked, raw

Rare Rare Common Common Rare

High High High High High

Green; orange/brown Green; red Green; brown

Cooked Cooked Cooked

Common Rare Rare

High High High

Green; yellow (hint of orange) Green-purple Green; yellow

Cooked

Common

High

Raw Cooked, raw

Common Common

Low High

Vudito Toraka He?

Erect Erect Erect

Long-term Long-term Long-term Long-term Grows >10 years without replanting Long-term Long-term Long-term

Mawororaha/ Mawororafa Huki Wawa Samoa, Horihori

Drooping

Medium-term

Drooping Drooping

Long-term Long-term

Toraka Baunio Qwonu Qwonu

Note: This information includes a combination of observations and reports from informants. a Name of cultivar where sample was collected. b Cultivars were described as short-term (must be replanted after each bearing of fruit); medium-term (must be replanted after bearing fruit two to three times); and longterm (can bear for long periods (5–10 years) without requiring replanting). Informants reported that most Toraka must be replanted after about 5 years for maintaining good growth.

3. Results and discussion Eleven cultivars were collected for analysis and described (Table 1). Twelve samples were analyzed for carotenoid, riboflavin, and moisture content and compared for impact on vitamin A intake (Tables 2 and 3). Fig. 1 presents a photograph of the eight distinct Fe’i cultivars for which documentation was collected. 3.1. Identification and reconciliation for cultivar spellings This study, carried out within predominantly oral cultures, faced the following naming problems: infrequent use of written cultivar names, different spellings used by different people; different regions and language groups following different spelling systems; cultivar rarity and unfamiliarity with some cultivars leading to new cultivar names. The cultivar names identified were confirmed by key informant interviews (mainly on Makira Island) and photographic study. Spellings were taken from a Solomons Pijin guide (Solomon Islands Christian Association, 1995) and were confirmed by key informants. The names presented here focused on the place where the sample was first collected. For example, the cultivar Aibwo was first collected in the Kirakira region, but later found in Mwakorukoru, where it was called Suria; thus the name Aibwo/Suria is presented (Fig. 2a and b). Toraka is a term that was used in Makira for referring to Fe’i bananas, and the term Huki or Fuki is the term used for non-Toraka bananas. Most Fe’i were characterized by an erect bunch, but Akeakesusu had a slightly horizontal bunch growth orientation. Some Fe’i cultivars are rarer than others; in particular, the cultivar Fagufagu, sometimes called ‘‘the wild banana’’, was considered rare and even at risk for conservation. Despite the rarity of some Fe’i cultivars, all Fe’i were considered as having high status in the traditional food system. One non-Fe’i, Ropa, was reported to have a low status, which was defined as a cultivar that would be less acceptable as a gift or for presentation at a cultural event. Informants reported that this cultivar was only eaten raw, whereas all other cultivars were commonly consumed as cooked, and some were consumed in both ways. Bananas are a particularly important food for the people on Makira Island, but there was also a perception of stigma to banana eating. Some Makira informants shared how they experienced shame during trips to other parts of the Solomon Islands as they

were called ‘‘banana eaters,’’ despite bananas being a major or minor staple in most other areas. Another perception expressed both on Guadalcanal and on Makira Island was that Fe’i banana cultivars are often considered to have little value. In Makira, Fe’i bananas are an important part of a traditional feast, where large amounts of these may be contributed for display and distribution, as for a wedding. However, one informant reported that the Fe’i bananas are also thrown around with little care. In some cases, due to the effect that these bananas have on causing urine to turn yellow, some people expressed concern about the safety of these bananas as a food, particularly for young infants. Some mothers explained they thought that the bananas may cause some disease, such as yellow fever, or hepatitis. Nevertheless, many Makira Island informants explained that they consume more Fe’i bananas than people from other parts of the Solomon Islands. One proclaimed, ‘‘People in Malaita [another province] don’t like Toraka [Fe’i bananas].’’ 3.2. Assessment of carotenoid content The cultivars in Table 2 showed great differences in carotenoid content, from 5945 mg b-carotene/100 g in the yellow/orangefleshed Fe’i Aibwo/Suria, to 58 mg b-carotene/100 g in the whitefleshed Saena (Cavendish subgroup). The yellow-fleshed Akeakesusu sample may have suffered damage during storage and/or transport, as shown by its extremely low carotenoid concentrations. This study confirmed findings that banana cultivars with deeper flesh coloration contain greater carotenoid concentrations (Amorim et al., 2009; Davey et al., 2009; Englberger et al., 2003a,b, 2006a,b; Newilah et al., 2008). This study also showed that the DSM Yolk Color Fan gave an indication of low and high carotenoid content, with fairly steady gradations consistent to carotenoid content. The maximum color (DSM 15) was found in the center of the half-ripe sample of Fagufagu (Fig. 3a and b), the cultivar described as having the deepest flesh color. The five ripe Fe’i cultivars, Aibwo/Suria, Gatagata/Vudito, Toraka Parao, and Warowaro, with the exception of Akeakesusu, all contained at least twice the concentration of b-carotene compared to a-carotene, thus providing more provitamin A activity. In one Fe’i cultivar (Warowaro), described as remarkable for its lightcolored flesh, the concentration of other carotenoids (primarily lutein/zeaxanthin), was 1278 mg/100 g banana, which greatly

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Table 2 Carotenoid and riboflavin content of selected Solomon Islands banana cultivars (edible portion, means of duplicate analyses, fresh weight). Classificationb

Source

Maturity

c

Color of raw flesh of sampled

b-Carotene (mg/100 g)

a-Carotene (mg/100 g)

b-Carotene eqe (mg/100 g)

Other carot enoidsf (mg/100 g)

Total carot enoidsg (mg/100 g)

Riboflavin (mg/100 g)

Water (%)

Aibwo/Suria#1

Fe’i

Makira

Ripe

1

5945

2358

7124

1097

9400

0.26

84.3

Aibwo/Suria#2

Fe’i

Makira

Ripe

5

2572

1517

3331

96

4185

1.09

80.8

Fagufagu

Fe’i

Makira

Half ripe

6

3428

1524

4190

103

5054

1.21

81.9

Ropa Gatagata/Vudito #1 Gatagata/Vudito #2 Toraka Parao

AAA: na Fe’i Fe’i Fe’i

Makira Guadalcanal Guadalcanal Makira

Ripe Ripe Ripe Ripe

2 6 1 3

1324 695 447 526

3682 79 42 250

3165 734 468 651

212 <2 <2 <2

5218 774 489 776

h

1.29 2.72 0.54

82.4 77.6 70.5 79.7

Baubaunio Huki Matawa

Fe’i AAB: Maoli/ Popoulu Fe’i

Makira Guadalcanal

Half ripe Ripe

3 2

Yellow/orange (Y/O): 12 Y/O: most 10, some 14 in center Y/O: most 8, some 15 in center Yellow: 5 Y/O: 10 Y/O: 13 Y/O: most 10, some 14 in center Light yellow: 1 Yellow: 4

332 296

249 293

457 443

<2 <2

581 589

0.21 0.10

66.9 77.7

Makira

Ripe

3

166

<2

167

1278

1444

0.11

83.0

h

79.3

1.26

78.0

Warowaro Saena Akeakesusu

AAA: Cavendish Fe’i

Guadalcanal

Ripe

2

Yellow: most 4, some 8 in center White: <1

Makira

Ripe

1

Yellow: 4

58

79

98

<2

137

35i

20i

45i

75i

130i

Notes: HPLC analyses carried out by: Institute of Applied Sciences/University of the South Pacific, Fiji, July 2008. na: not available Samples were collected on Guadalcanal Island on October 3, 2007, and on Makira Island October 4–15, 2007. a Name of cultivar where sample was collected. b Stover and Simmonds classification by genome and subgroup. c Number of different fruits in the composite sample. Due to limited space for transporting, large fruits were cut in equal pieces for the sample. Total sample weight ranged from approximately 50 to 120 g. d Color of raw fruit was described visually and estimated using the DSM Yolk Color Fan. e b-Carotene equivalents: the content of b-carotene plus half the content of a-carotene. f Xanthophyll compounds. g Estimated by calculating total peak areas recorded in the chromatograms (using the response factor of b-carotene); it includes xanthophyll- and cryptoxanthin-like compounds. h Not detected. i The extremely low concentrations indicate that this sample lost substantial carotenoid content during storage and/or transport.

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Cultivar name(s)a

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Table 3 Comparison of selected Solomon Islands banana cultivars for finger size and impact on vitamin A intake. Banana cultivara

Reported finger sizeb

Mean finger lengthc (cm)

Mean finger girthd (cm)

Mean finger weight: edible portione (g)

b-Carotene equivalentsf (mg/100 g)

REg (mg/100 g)

RAEh (mg/100 g)

b-Carotene (mg/finger)I

RE (mg/finger)g

Number of fingers to meet RSI (mg RE/day for female adult)j

Number of fingers to meet RSI (mg RE/day for pre-school child)k

Aibwo/Suria Fagufagu Ropa Gatagata/Vudito Toraka Parao Baubaunio Huki Matawa Warowaro Saena Akeakesusu

Medium Small Small, short Big, long Medium Medium Big Small Small Big

13 9 10 25 13 12 20 10 17 16

13 12 10 18 12 15 17 11 9 19

92 45 35 216 105 99 171 45 51 206

5227 4190 3165 601 651 457 443 167 98

871 698 528 100 109 76 74 28 16

435 349 264 50 54 38 37 14 8

4808 1885 1107 1298 683 452 757 75 49

801 314 184 216 113 75 126 12 8

0.6 1.5 2.7 2.3 4.4 6.6 3.9 41.6 62.5

0.4 1.2 2.1 1.8 3.5 5.3 3.1 33.3 50.6

l

l

l

l

l

l

l

a

Name of cultivar where sample was collected. Size of finger (individual fruit) as described by key informants. c Mean finger length calculated from four to six well-formed fingers (individual fruits). d Mean girth calculated from four to six well-formed fingers. e Mean weight of edible portion calculated weighing four to six fingers with peel and subtracting peel weight (about 20% of total finger weight). f Taken from Table 2. Means are presented for the two cultivars for which two samples were collected and analyzed (cultivars with multiple names). g Retinol equivalents (RE) (conversion factor 6:1 from b-carotene equivalents to RE). h Retinol activity equivalents (RAE) (conversion factor 12:1 from b-carotene equivalents to RAE). I Calculated using mean finger weight and content of b-carotene equivalents/100 g. j Calculated using RE per finger and the estimated recommended safe intake (RSI) for a non-pregnant, non-lactating female, 500 mg RE/day (WHO/FAO, 2004). k Calculated using RE per finger and the estimated recommended safe intake (RSI) for a child 1–3 years old, 400 mg RE/day (WHO/FAO, 2004). l As it is likely that this sample lost substantial carotenoid content during storage and/or transport (see Table 2 footnotes), the comparison for impact on vitamin A intake is not made. b

[(Fig._1)TD$IG]

Fig. 1. Individual fingers (fruits) of eight Fe’i banana cultivars on Makira Island (note that after this photo was taken, Aibwo and Suria were identified to be the same cultivar).

[(Fig._2)TD$IG]

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L. Englberger et al. / Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 23 (2010) 624–632

Fig. 2. (a) The Fe’i banana cultivar Aibwo/Suria, whole bunch. (b) Individual fingers of Aibwo/Suria, unpeeled and peeled, showing flesh color, and flesh DSM Yolk Color Fan to compare color.

[(Fig._3)TD$IG]

Fig. 3. (a) Individual fingers of Fe’i banana cultivar Fagufagu, peeled and unpeeled to show skin and flesh color, compared with a white-fleshed cultivar, Five-pound (AAB: Mysore). (b) The rare Fe’i banana cultivar Fagufagu, whole bunch.

exceeded the b-carotene (166 mg/100 g) and a-carotene (<2 mg/ 100 g) concentrations. The non-Fe’i cultivar Ropa contained a substantial a-carotene concentration. Huki Matawa contained almost equal concentrations of a- and b-carotene, and Saena contained a low concentration of both. In comparing Solomon Islands Fe’i to those of other Fe’i bananas, none reached the b-carotene concentration found in the Micronesian Utin Iap cultivar (8508 mg/100 g), which is still the highest concentration documented globally. However, as pointed out, ripe samples were not available for Fagufagu.

3.3. Quantity eaten per day and impact on vitamin A intake Table 3 presents the reported finger measurements including edible content, RE content per 100 g and per finger, and number of fingers to consume to contribute significantly to vitamin A status. Of the 10 cultivars, 7, including the half-ripe Fagufagu and Baubaunio samples, contained high provitamin A carotenoid concentrations, meeting estimated daily vitamin A requirements for pre-school children and non-lactating, non-pregnant female adults, within normal consumption patterns.

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3.4. Assessment of riboflavin content and impact on riboflavin intake Table 2 presents the concentrations of riboflavin content. All Fe’i cultivars and one non-Fe’i cultivar contained riboflavin. One finger of Gatagata, partly because of its large size (Table 3), would provide more than double the estimated daily requirement for a non-lactating, non-pregnant female (1.1 mg/day) (WHO/FAO, 2004) and for a child 1–3 years old (0.5 mg/day). These findings have relevance to anemia alleviation as there is evidence of riboflavin’s role in iron absorption and utilization (Powers, 2003). Due to the amounts of local staples commonly consumed in a traditional diet (up to 1000 g daily) (Malolo et al., 2000), all Fe’i cultivars including Warowaro could potentially meet estimated daily requirements. In Pohnpei, Micronesia, informants are very aware of the effect that Karat consumption has on coloring urine bright yellow, and that consuming Karat has a greater effect on urine color, than Utin Iap, another Fe’i banana (Englberger et al., 2006a). The assessment of these Micronesian Fe’i cultivars confirmed that Karat has substantially greater riboflavin content. None of the Solomon Islands banana cultivars reached the high riboflavin concentration found in Karat (up to 11.35 and 14.30 mg/100 g). 4. Conclusions Five Fe’i and two non-Fe’i Solomon Islands carotenoid-rich cultivars were identified for the first time, offering potential health benefits for protecting against vitamin A deficiency disorders and other diseases, including malaria, and should therefore be promoted. This study provides further evidence that flesh color can be used to screen for carotenoid-rich banana cultivars. All seven Fe’i cultivars contained riboflavin concentrations that could potentially meet daily estimated riboflavin requirements, according to traditional eating patterns. Further studies are recommended to confirm carotenoid and riboflavin content in these and other Solomon Islands cultivars and to more completely characterize cultivars for factors of production, consumption and acceptability. This would assist in an intervention to promote these bananas. The ethnographic, participatory approach in this study is essential to develop strategies to promote traditional food systems, improve health, and maintain biodiversity. Acknowledgements Warm thanks are given to the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, HarvestPlus, French Pacific Fund, Secretariat of the Pacific Community Land Resource Division, Solomon Islands Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock, Kastom Gaden Association, Makira Council of Women and other community groups, Manivovo Rural Training Centre for funding and other support. Special thanks are given to Premier John Mamafe, Bishop Alfred Karibongi, John and Joyce Murray, Kemuel Gapu, Dorothy Tamasia, Jimi Saelea, Daniel Wagatora, and Henry and Janet Siota for their help. References AOAC, 2005. Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC (Association of Official Analytical Chemists) International, 18th ed. AOAC International, Gaithersburg, MD. Amorim, E.P., Vilarinhos, A.D., Cohen, K.O., Amorim, V.B.O., dos Santos-Serejo, J.A., Silva, S.O., Pestana, K.N., dos Santos, V.J., Paes, N.S., Monte, D.C., dos Reis, R.V., 2009. Genetic diversity of carotenoid-rich bananas evaluated by Diversity Arrays Technology (DArT). Genetic Molecular Biology 32 (1), 96–103. Bertram, J.S., 2002. Proceedings of the 13th International Carotenoid Symposium, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA, 6–11 January, 2002. Pure and Applied Chemistry 74, 1369–1478. Black, R.E., Morris, S.S., Bryce, J., 2003. Where and why are 10 million children dying every year? Lancet 361, 2226–2234.

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