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Case study: The challenges of climate change for Lagos, Nigeria
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect Case study: The challenges of climate change for Lagos, Nigeria Peter Elias and Ademola Omojola This case study paper considers some of the main climate change challenges for Lagos. Emerging adaptation and mitigation responses are considered in the context of Lagos urbanization trends, as well as development and transformation agendas. Insights are based on a synthesis of key literature, technical reports and policy documents. The paper reports that although Lagos authorities have started to respond to the stresses and risks from climate change, these efforts are haphazard, largely top-down, uncoordinated and fragmented. To be sustainable, there is an urgent need to rally political will, recognize local action through popular participation, identify and build capacities, and institutionalize adaptation frameworks in all agencies and planning levels. Address Department of Geography, University of Lagos, Akoka-Yaba, Lagos, Nigeria Corresponding author: Elias, Peter ([email protected])
Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2015, 13:74–78 This review comes from a themed issue on Sustainability challenges Edited by David Simon and Hayley Leck For a complete overview see the Issue and the Editorial Received: 25-07-2014; Revised: 03-02-2015; Accepted: 27-02-2015
was merely 763 000 people, which is the current approximate population of some local government councils. By 1970, the total population grew to 2 025 000 and by 2010 had increased dramatically to 16 864 000. Lagos State houses the largest urban agglomeration and Lagos is the most populous city in sub-Saharan Africa with an estimated population of 18 million and an annual population growth rate of 6.0% [1]. According to a UN projection, the population will be 25 million in 2025 [2], thus becoming the third largest megacity in the world. The state is the industrial, commercial and business hub of Nigeria which contributed about 35.6% to the national GDP in 2010, reported to be about $80.61 billion [1] and represents about 62.3% of national nonoil GDP. Metropolitan Lagos has over 10 000 industrial and commercial activities with an estimated 212 motor vehicles per square kilometre compared to the global average of eleven [3]. It generates over 70% of Nigerian air traffic and handles more than 80% of sea transport. The National Bureau of Statistics reported that the Internally Generated Revenue (IGR) of Lagos State was $30.106 billion, $32.827 billion and $35.467 billion in 2010, 2011 and 2012 respectively [3]. Despite these key factors over 70% of the inhabitants are poor and the state has over 100 slum communities [1].
Available online 12th March 2015 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2015.02.008 1877-3435/# 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Introduction Lagos State is located in southwestern Nigeria on the narrow plain of the Bight of Benin. It is bounded to the North and East by Ogun State of Nigeria, to the West by the Republic of Benin and the Atlantic Ocean to the south. Its total landmass is about 3345 square kilometres (0.4% of the country’s total land area) of which 22% is covered by water. The location and physical characteristics of the State including geology, topography, soil features, water and wetlands makes it vulnerable to climate change. At independence in 1960, Lagos was retained as Nigeria’s capital and commercial hub and there has thus been an ongoing influx of people from all over the country, notwithstanding the subsequent relocation of the capital to Abuja. Table 1 outlines population trends in Lagos state between 1960 and 2015. In 1960 the population of Lagos Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2015, 13:74–78
The nature and magnitude of the spatial and population explosion in Lagos State has exposed the failure of existing development frameworks, infrastructure, institutions and the public service delivery system [4,5]. Furthermore, Lagos has spread west towards the mainland and more than 40 km to the northwest, merging with Ikeja and Agege to form a major metropolitan conurbation [6]. The metropolitan area covers 16 out of the 20 LGA and encroaches on four LGAs in neighbouring Ogun State to form a continuously expanding megacity [7]. This has created a very complex scenario for physical planning and administration in the context of pressing climate change concerns and has thus engaged the attention of the current democratic dispensation [8]. Since returning to democratic governance in 1999, Lagos has become the centre of reforms to meet the challenges of human population explosion and the burden of inadequate social infrastructures. The megacity status of the city state also makes it imperative for city administrators to focus strategic reforms on good governance as exemplified globally. The Lagos transformation philosophy of the state encapsulates its policy thrust linking good governance and reform process of government [4]. It www.sciencedirect.com
Incentives for climate change adaptation in Lagos Elias and Omojola 75
Table 1 Population of Lagos State, 1960–2015 (in millions). Year
Population
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2006 2010 2015
0.07 2.05 4.38 7.74 13.4 17.6 19.8 23.04
Source: Adapted from Lagos State Government [1].
focuses on numerous reforms such as political will and leadership, budget reform and link with government activities, partnership building with popular participation and private sector involvement and sustainable urban planning. More recently, the Lagos government has started to recognize the centrality of addressing climate change concerns together with these reforms.
The reality of climate change in Lagos State Earlier studies on the city of Lagos identified the basic climate change risk components in the city [9,10]. Flooding, sea level rise, storm surge, high temperature and high rainfall intensity constitute the notable hazards and high vulnerability levels which are shaped by Lagos’ high population density, large poor population, low lying topography and coastal location [11]. Adaptive capacity is also typically low due to characteristically weak institutions. The impacts of climate change in Lagos State are multifaceted and affect all sectors. For example, research on the effects of climate change on water and waste water management has revealed that flooding and associated pollution will greatly reduce the water quality and potable water quantity in the state [10]. Further studies have also noted that numerous highly populated communities within 10 km of the coastline are often inundated or submerged as a result of sea level rise or flooding [13,14]. Recent reports by the Lagos State Department of Drainage Services listed several communities that were seriously impacted by the 2010 and 2011 floods. According to this report, most parts of Kuramo, Ikoyi/Victoria Island, Lekki and Apapa on the barrier islands and over 1500 households and 10 communities in parts of Ikorodu and Ajegunle on the mainland were heavily impacted [15]. Furthermore, extensive urban transport infrastructure, business investments and resources that form the basis of economic and social developments are situated within this vulnerable part of the state. The inclement heat also adversely affects human health especially, the children and the elderly. Rising temperature coupled with poorly maintained drainage also exacerbates the incidence of several disease vectors [1]. There www.sciencedirect.com
are also indications that dependence on rain-fed agriculture will affect large agricultural populations and production in Lagos [11]. A study by Adeoti et al. [12] on the perception of the impact of flooding on fish production in Lagos revealed that changes in rainfall patterns, temperature and wind could have affected over 81% of the fish farmers in the state. A study by Adelekan [16] revealed some of the rainfall characteristics for some part of the state (Table 2). These realities of climate change have prompted the government of Lagos State to change the tactics of coping and managing these dire situations through several transformational agendas as outlined below.
The response of Lagos to climate change Although at the national level the federal government has been an active participant in climate change activities from early on, the state and the local governments have been slower to act on account of political, legislative and fiscal constraints. This contrast with South Africa where powerful metropolitan municipalities such as Cape Town and Durban acquire legal, fiscal and professional capacity of their own to independently evolve policies and programs on environment and climate change [17]. The situation in Nigeria indicates a disjuncture between different levels of government. This notwithstanding, Lagos State has recently started to act on climate change issues. Lagos State’s membership and participation in the C40 Large Cities Climate Leadership network since 2007 was the turning point for the state’s formal reaction to climate change issues. This culminated in the formation of the climate change unit within the state’s Ministry of Environment. The unit has since been coordinating climate change actions across the state. The established climate change unit has embarked on several mitigation and adaptation responses, although on a somewhat ad-hoc basis. Some of the notable outcomes of these activities are the organized environmental advocacy programs such as the Lagos State Energy Kids which is managed by the Lagos State Ministry of Energy with the aim to inculcate in children the need for alternative, renewable energy, and clean power that is environmentfriendly. There is also the establishment of Climate Change Clubs in the state-owned secondary schools managed by the Office of Environmental Services in Table 2 Rainfall characteristics for Lagos Island. Rainfall characteristics
1971–1995
1996–2005
Mean number of rainy days Maximum number of rainy days Minimum number of rainy days Mean rainfall (mm)
112 163 76 1697.8
82 105 69 1647.3
Source: Adelekan [16].
Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2015, 13:74–78
76 Sustainability challenges
the Ministry of Environment focusing on capacity building programs for Staff, Project Officers and Climate Change Club members. In like manner, the Lagos State Waste Management Authority (LAWMA) Clubs educate children on proper waste disposal and recycling options while the Sewage Ambassadors Initiative involves education on the management of domestic and commercial sewage-wastewater in the State in a number of public schools. In addition, the unit started an annual climate change summit about 6 years ago. The summits have focused on some thematic issues aimed at raising awareness, identifying critical sectors, exploring risks and vulnerability, identifying investment and job opportunities, increasing both adaptive capacity and mitigation and building partnerships to strengthen the state’s resilience. Participants at these summits are often drawn from the federal, state and local governments as well as communities/NGOs, the private sector, international development partners and households/individuals. In like manner, the state has some adaptation strategies which cover critical sectors including improved land management and aquaculture to promote food security, provision and maintenance of sea walls and storm water barriers, relocation of highly vulnerable populations, and climate sensitive road and drainage designs and construction. The state government has also attempted to integrate climate change adaptation into rebuilding Lagos State through vigorous urban renewal programs and climatesensitive infrastructure provisions [1,4]. This mainstreaming of climate change concerns in the state’s physical planning and infrastructural development recognizes inadequate physical planning and the poor quality of some of the physical infrastructures. If these actions are properly implemented, they can help to increase the State’s resilience to climate change. The state has put in place a climate change adaptation policy (2012–2014) subject to review every 3 years [1]. The policy focuses on harmonizing all state climate change mitigation and adaptation activities in areas such as education and training, research and development, technical development and transfer, finance, mainstreaming and governance and emphasizes the potential opportunities presented by the climate change challenge. The policy also directly complements international conventions, treaties and protocols such as UNFCCC and its Kyoto Protocol (KP) and the Conference of the Parties (COP) including Cancun Agreement (COP16) and the Durban Platform for Enhanced Actions (COP 17). The policy is an ambitious attempt at climate change adaptation planning, with some of the principles already dovetailing into strategies and programs of government while the document is yet to be officially endorsed for implementation. Meanwhile, there is a proposed plan to provide the official endorsement of the policy during the 2015 climate change summit. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2015, 13:74–78
Furthermore, the state focuses on institutional strengthening for supporting climate agendas. The state’s emergency units such as the Lagos State Emergency Management Agency (LASEMA), Lagos State Fire Services, Lagos State Ambulances Services and the Emergency Units of State-owned health facilities, among others, have been greatly improved upon in recent years through aggressive upgrading of facilities, capacity building and the procurement of state-of-theart equipment. Additional government efforts are visible in the area of aquaculture for food security through the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives with the development of farm settlements and farmers’ co-operatives schemes, optimal utilization of Aquaculture potentials and agricultural facilities, development of strategic storage, processing and marketing programs, improved access to Agricultural credit and inputs, support services and capacity building, and ensuring food hygiene and safety through support programs and enabling laws [18]. There is also considerable investment in sea wall protection activities in Lagos, especially around the port and coast where there is a high concentration of economic investment. Lagos has also embarked on primary and secondary drainage channel construction and rehabilitation, as well as cleaning of open drains and concrete lining of canals to improve flood water flows. Regular flood warning and disaster relief planning for vulnerable communities is also undertaken as a result of increasing recognition of the impact of climate change and the peculiar situation of Lagos. Accordingly, these activities are now being undertaken as strategies for adaptation. In addition to climate change adaptation efforts, the state is also involved in many mitigation activities since it recognizes the interdependence between adaptation and mitigation [1]. These include waste reduction and management strategies through reduction, re-use, and recycling backed by policy formulation, investment in infrastructures and partnership with the private sector. For instance, the provision of public infrastructure and services, which are largely private sector-driven, has been with support from the state government. These include collaboration with private vendors for the collection and disposal of domestic and industrial wastes, road construction and rehabilitation as in the case of Lekki Concession Company responsible for the rehabilitation of the Lagos-Epe Expressway, and energy supply through the Independent Power Project (IPP). Urban tree planting, although often associated with city beautification rather than climate change mitigation, has also been a concerted government effort. For instance, the state has planted over 5 million trees in 6 years and there is an annual tree planting campaign to sustain this activity. The state also focuses strongly on green economy and climate entrepreneurial activities. Improved mobility infrastructure, urban transportation www.sciencedirect.com
Incentives for climate change adaptation in Lagos Elias and Omojola 77
and multiple modal systems such as the recent Bus Rapid Transit (BRT), Light Rail and Cable Car in the city of Lagos are attempts at reducing the state’s carbon footprint. A major challenge in this respect is the high proportion of private vehicle use in the state and the citizens’ apathy towards the use of the public bus transportation. Continuous sensitization and improved quality and availability of buses and other modes of public transport are important for increasing usage. One of the greatest flaws in the state’s response in managing climate change is the lack of engagement with local government, which is closest to local communities yet currently only participates in residual activities. This extra-subordinate nature of local government in the state may be ascribed to their inadequate funding, manpower and staff capacity that limits their ability to participate in critical issues such as awareness and education campaigns, early warning design and implementation, risk reduction and resource management. Non-governmental organization and the private sector are also only tangential partners in climate interventions. Consequently, the power of local authorities and their communities in the mobilization of local assets and resources are little explored in the state which limits their potential contributions to adaptation [8]. Moreover, vulnerable coastal and other communities have been largely excluded from participating in adaptation planning and decision making processes. A further drawback in the state’s response is the lack of a well-coordinated program that fully recognizes key stakeholders and their roles. For instance, physical data sets that are key to making informed decisions and assessments are sometimes available but not accessible to stakeholders especially among those involved in informal activities or residing in informal communities. The floods of 2010 and 2011 resulted in government attempts to evacuate residents living in low-lying communities without adequate sensitization and mobilization. Moreover, local assets and resources including ability for local mobilization, participation and voluntary services were ignored. Detailed mapping of risks at neighbourhood levels that can assist local adaptation options and other response actions have not yet been undertaken.
Conclusion In recent years, Lagos’ high vulnerability to climate change has been revealed through extensive damage by floods and storms. The city’s geographic location together with inadequate and poorly maintained critical infrastructure and poor urban governance exacerbate such vulnerabilities. While it is clear that Lagos’ high vulnerability to climate change impacts has stimulated government responses and policy attention, implementation and co-ordination across multiple scales require considerable www.sciencedirect.com
strengthening with particular attention to equity and participation in decision-making.
Acknowledgments This case study paper forms part of the special issue on Bearing the Brunt of Environmental Change: Understanding adaptation and transformation challenges in urban Africa edited by David Simon and Hayley Leck, which arises from the Urban Studies Seminar of the same name held at Royal Holloway, University of London, in April 2013.
References and recommended reading Papers of particular interest, published within the period of review, have been highlighted as: of special interest of outstanding interest 1. Lagos State Government: Climate change policy 2012–2014. Lagos State Ministry of Environment; 2012. The paper contains the climate change policy 2012–2014 where it recognizes the challenges of climate change for Lagos. The rationale of the Policy is to guide the State and other stakeholders on the implementation of collective measures to address climate change impacts and causes through adaptation, mitigation and other measures, while assuring sustainable socio-economic development through harmonised and coordinated strategies, programmes and actions to combat climate change. 2.
Lagos State Government: Facts and Figures. Lagos State Public Private Partnership Office; 2010.
3.
National Bureau of Statistics: Gross Domestic Product for Nigeria. Federal Government of Nigeria; 2013.
4. Filani MO: The Changing Face of Lagos: From Vision to Reform and Transformation. Cities Alliance; 2012. The author highlights the efforts of government to transform Africa’s largest city and economic powerhouse. It underscores the challenges faced by the state in her quest towards an inclusive urban transformation based on building of partnerships. The infrastructural and governance backlogs in the state should compel combination of clear and consistent leadership, constant reform and innovation, meaningful engagement with the city’s private and corporate citizens and huge investments. 5.
Aluko OE: The Impact of Urbanization on Housing Development: The Lagos, Nigeria Experience. Ethiop J Environ Stud Manage 2010, 3:64-74.
6.
Mabogunje, Ladipo A: Developing Megacities in Developing Countries. University of Lagos Press; 2007.
7.
Wahab K, Ayinde T: Human settlements and development. In State of the Environment Report. Edited by Oguleye M, Alo B. Lagos State Ministry of Environment; 2010:154-175.
8.
LAS-CCAS: Towards a Lagos State Climate Change Adaptation Strategy. Lagos State Ministry of Environment; 2012.
9.
Aderogba K, Oredipe M, Oderinde S, Afelumo T: Challenges of poor drainage systems and floods in Lagos Metropolis, Nigeria. Int J Soc Sci Educ 2012, 2:412-427.
10. Major DC, Omojola A, Dettinger M, Hanson RT, SanchezRodriguez R: Climate change, water, and wastewater in cities. In Climate Change and Cities: First Assessment Report of the Urban Climate Change Research Network. Edited by Rosenzweig C, Solecki WD, Hammer SA, Mehrotra S. Cambridge University Press; 2011:113-143. 11. Omojola A, Elias P: Physical environment. In State of the Environment Report. Edited by Oguleye M, Alo B. Lagos State Ministry of Environment; 2010:24-34. 12. Adeoti A, Olayide O, Coster A: Flooding and welfare of Fisher’s households in Lagos State, Nigeria. J Hum Ecol 2010, 32:161167. 13. Mehrotra S, Rosenzweig C, Solecki WD, Natenzon CE, Omojola A, Folorunsho R, Gilbride J: Cities, disasters and climate risk. In Climate Change and Cities: First Assessment Report of the Urban Climate Change Research Network. Edited by Rosenzweig C, Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2015, 13:74–78
78 Sustainability challenges
Solecki WD, Hammer SA, Mehrotra S. Cambridge University Press; 2011:113-143. 14. United Nations Human Settlements Programme: The State of the World’s Cities 2006/7. London: UN-HABITAT, Nairobi and Earthscan; 2006. 15. Future Environments Inc.: 2010–2011 Flood Events Report. Lagos State Ministry of Environment; 2012. 16. Adelekan OI: Vulnerability of poor urban coastal communities to flooding in Lagos. Nig J Environ Urban 2010, 22:433
Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2015, 13:74–78
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956247810380141 Retrieved online 19th August 2014. 17. Taylor A, Cartwright A, Sutherland C: Institutional Pathways for Local Climate Adaptation: A Comparison of three South African Municipalities. A Publication of the Research Department of Agence Francaise de Development; 2014. 18. LASG: Food Security: The Role of Agriculture and Cooperatives. Lagos State Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives; 2013.
www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect Case study: The challenges of climate change for Lagos, Nigeria Peter Elias and Ademola Omojola This case study paper considers some of the main climate change challenges for Lagos. Emerging adaptation and mitigation responses are considered in the context of Lagos urbanization trends, as well as development and transformation agendas. Insights are based on a synthesis of key literature, technical reports and policy documents. The paper reports that although Lagos authorities have started to respond to the stresses and risks from climate change, these efforts are haphazard, largely top-down, uncoordinated and fragmented. To be sustainable, there is an urgent need to rally political will, recognize local action through popular participation, identify and build capacities, and institutionalize adaptation frameworks in all agencies and planning levels. Address Department of Geography, University of Lagos, Akoka-Yaba, Lagos, Nigeria Corresponding author: Elias, Peter ([email protected])
Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2015, 13:74–78 This review comes from a themed issue on Sustainability challenges Edited by David Simon and Hayley Leck For a complete overview see the Issue and the Editorial Received: 25-07-2014; Revised: 03-02-2015; Accepted: 27-02-2015
was merely 763 000 people, which is the current approximate population of some local government councils. By 1970, the total population grew to 2 025 000 and by 2010 had increased dramatically to 16 864 000. Lagos State houses the largest urban agglomeration and Lagos is the most populous city in sub-Saharan Africa with an estimated population of 18 million and an annual population growth rate of 6.0% [1]. According to a UN projection, the population will be 25 million in 2025 [2], thus becoming the third largest megacity in the world. The state is the industrial, commercial and business hub of Nigeria which contributed about 35.6% to the national GDP in 2010, reported to be about $80.61 billion [1] and represents about 62.3% of national nonoil GDP. Metropolitan Lagos has over 10 000 industrial and commercial activities with an estimated 212 motor vehicles per square kilometre compared to the global average of eleven [3]. It generates over 70% of Nigerian air traffic and handles more than 80% of sea transport. The National Bureau of Statistics reported that the Internally Generated Revenue (IGR) of Lagos State was $30.106 billion, $32.827 billion and $35.467 billion in 2010, 2011 and 2012 respectively [3]. Despite these key factors over 70% of the inhabitants are poor and the state has over 100 slum communities [1].
Available online 12th March 2015 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2015.02.008 1877-3435/# 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Introduction Lagos State is located in southwestern Nigeria on the narrow plain of the Bight of Benin. It is bounded to the North and East by Ogun State of Nigeria, to the West by the Republic of Benin and the Atlantic Ocean to the south. Its total landmass is about 3345 square kilometres (0.4% of the country’s total land area) of which 22% is covered by water. The location and physical characteristics of the State including geology, topography, soil features, water and wetlands makes it vulnerable to climate change. At independence in 1960, Lagos was retained as Nigeria’s capital and commercial hub and there has thus been an ongoing influx of people from all over the country, notwithstanding the subsequent relocation of the capital to Abuja. Table 1 outlines population trends in Lagos state between 1960 and 2015. In 1960 the population of Lagos Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2015, 13:74–78
The nature and magnitude of the spatial and population explosion in Lagos State has exposed the failure of existing development frameworks, infrastructure, institutions and the public service delivery system [4,5]. Furthermore, Lagos has spread west towards the mainland and more than 40 km to the northwest, merging with Ikeja and Agege to form a major metropolitan conurbation [6]. The metropolitan area covers 16 out of the 20 LGA and encroaches on four LGAs in neighbouring Ogun State to form a continuously expanding megacity [7]. This has created a very complex scenario for physical planning and administration in the context of pressing climate change concerns and has thus engaged the attention of the current democratic dispensation [8]. Since returning to democratic governance in 1999, Lagos has become the centre of reforms to meet the challenges of human population explosion and the burden of inadequate social infrastructures. The megacity status of the city state also makes it imperative for city administrators to focus strategic reforms on good governance as exemplified globally. The Lagos transformation philosophy of the state encapsulates its policy thrust linking good governance and reform process of government [4]. It www.sciencedirect.com
Incentives for climate change adaptation in Lagos Elias and Omojola 75
Table 1 Population of Lagos State, 1960–2015 (in millions). Year
Population
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2006 2010 2015
0.07 2.05 4.38 7.74 13.4 17.6 19.8 23.04
Source: Adapted from Lagos State Government [1].
focuses on numerous reforms such as political will and leadership, budget reform and link with government activities, partnership building with popular participation and private sector involvement and sustainable urban planning. More recently, the Lagos government has started to recognize the centrality of addressing climate change concerns together with these reforms.
The reality of climate change in Lagos State Earlier studies on the city of Lagos identified the basic climate change risk components in the city [9,10]. Flooding, sea level rise, storm surge, high temperature and high rainfall intensity constitute the notable hazards and high vulnerability levels which are shaped by Lagos’ high population density, large poor population, low lying topography and coastal location [11]. Adaptive capacity is also typically low due to characteristically weak institutions. The impacts of climate change in Lagos State are multifaceted and affect all sectors. For example, research on the effects of climate change on water and waste water management has revealed that flooding and associated pollution will greatly reduce the water quality and potable water quantity in the state [10]. Further studies have also noted that numerous highly populated communities within 10 km of the coastline are often inundated or submerged as a result of sea level rise or flooding [13,14]. Recent reports by the Lagos State Department of Drainage Services listed several communities that were seriously impacted by the 2010 and 2011 floods. According to this report, most parts of Kuramo, Ikoyi/Victoria Island, Lekki and Apapa on the barrier islands and over 1500 households and 10 communities in parts of Ikorodu and Ajegunle on the mainland were heavily impacted [15]. Furthermore, extensive urban transport infrastructure, business investments and resources that form the basis of economic and social developments are situated within this vulnerable part of the state. The inclement heat also adversely affects human health especially, the children and the elderly. Rising temperature coupled with poorly maintained drainage also exacerbates the incidence of several disease vectors [1]. There www.sciencedirect.com
are also indications that dependence on rain-fed agriculture will affect large agricultural populations and production in Lagos [11]. A study by Adeoti et al. [12] on the perception of the impact of flooding on fish production in Lagos revealed that changes in rainfall patterns, temperature and wind could have affected over 81% of the fish farmers in the state. A study by Adelekan [16] revealed some of the rainfall characteristics for some part of the state (Table 2). These realities of climate change have prompted the government of Lagos State to change the tactics of coping and managing these dire situations through several transformational agendas as outlined below.
The response of Lagos to climate change Although at the national level the federal government has been an active participant in climate change activities from early on, the state and the local governments have been slower to act on account of political, legislative and fiscal constraints. This contrast with South Africa where powerful metropolitan municipalities such as Cape Town and Durban acquire legal, fiscal and professional capacity of their own to independently evolve policies and programs on environment and climate change [17]. The situation in Nigeria indicates a disjuncture between different levels of government. This notwithstanding, Lagos State has recently started to act on climate change issues. Lagos State’s membership and participation in the C40 Large Cities Climate Leadership network since 2007 was the turning point for the state’s formal reaction to climate change issues. This culminated in the formation of the climate change unit within the state’s Ministry of Environment. The unit has since been coordinating climate change actions across the state. The established climate change unit has embarked on several mitigation and adaptation responses, although on a somewhat ad-hoc basis. Some of the notable outcomes of these activities are the organized environmental advocacy programs such as the Lagos State Energy Kids which is managed by the Lagos State Ministry of Energy with the aim to inculcate in children the need for alternative, renewable energy, and clean power that is environmentfriendly. There is also the establishment of Climate Change Clubs in the state-owned secondary schools managed by the Office of Environmental Services in Table 2 Rainfall characteristics for Lagos Island. Rainfall characteristics
1971–1995
1996–2005
Mean number of rainy days Maximum number of rainy days Minimum number of rainy days Mean rainfall (mm)
112 163 76 1697.8
82 105 69 1647.3
Source: Adelekan [16].
Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2015, 13:74–78
76 Sustainability challenges
the Ministry of Environment focusing on capacity building programs for Staff, Project Officers and Climate Change Club members. In like manner, the Lagos State Waste Management Authority (LAWMA) Clubs educate children on proper waste disposal and recycling options while the Sewage Ambassadors Initiative involves education on the management of domestic and commercial sewage-wastewater in the State in a number of public schools. In addition, the unit started an annual climate change summit about 6 years ago. The summits have focused on some thematic issues aimed at raising awareness, identifying critical sectors, exploring risks and vulnerability, identifying investment and job opportunities, increasing both adaptive capacity and mitigation and building partnerships to strengthen the state’s resilience. Participants at these summits are often drawn from the federal, state and local governments as well as communities/NGOs, the private sector, international development partners and households/individuals. In like manner, the state has some adaptation strategies which cover critical sectors including improved land management and aquaculture to promote food security, provision and maintenance of sea walls and storm water barriers, relocation of highly vulnerable populations, and climate sensitive road and drainage designs and construction. The state government has also attempted to integrate climate change adaptation into rebuilding Lagos State through vigorous urban renewal programs and climatesensitive infrastructure provisions [1,4]. This mainstreaming of climate change concerns in the state’s physical planning and infrastructural development recognizes inadequate physical planning and the poor quality of some of the physical infrastructures. If these actions are properly implemented, they can help to increase the State’s resilience to climate change. The state has put in place a climate change adaptation policy (2012–2014) subject to review every 3 years [1]. The policy focuses on harmonizing all state climate change mitigation and adaptation activities in areas such as education and training, research and development, technical development and transfer, finance, mainstreaming and governance and emphasizes the potential opportunities presented by the climate change challenge. The policy also directly complements international conventions, treaties and protocols such as UNFCCC and its Kyoto Protocol (KP) and the Conference of the Parties (COP) including Cancun Agreement (COP16) and the Durban Platform for Enhanced Actions (COP 17). The policy is an ambitious attempt at climate change adaptation planning, with some of the principles already dovetailing into strategies and programs of government while the document is yet to be officially endorsed for implementation. Meanwhile, there is a proposed plan to provide the official endorsement of the policy during the 2015 climate change summit. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2015, 13:74–78
Furthermore, the state focuses on institutional strengthening for supporting climate agendas. The state’s emergency units such as the Lagos State Emergency Management Agency (LASEMA), Lagos State Fire Services, Lagos State Ambulances Services and the Emergency Units of State-owned health facilities, among others, have been greatly improved upon in recent years through aggressive upgrading of facilities, capacity building and the procurement of state-of-theart equipment. Additional government efforts are visible in the area of aquaculture for food security through the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives with the development of farm settlements and farmers’ co-operatives schemes, optimal utilization of Aquaculture potentials and agricultural facilities, development of strategic storage, processing and marketing programs, improved access to Agricultural credit and inputs, support services and capacity building, and ensuring food hygiene and safety through support programs and enabling laws [18]. There is also considerable investment in sea wall protection activities in Lagos, especially around the port and coast where there is a high concentration of economic investment. Lagos has also embarked on primary and secondary drainage channel construction and rehabilitation, as well as cleaning of open drains and concrete lining of canals to improve flood water flows. Regular flood warning and disaster relief planning for vulnerable communities is also undertaken as a result of increasing recognition of the impact of climate change and the peculiar situation of Lagos. Accordingly, these activities are now being undertaken as strategies for adaptation. In addition to climate change adaptation efforts, the state is also involved in many mitigation activities since it recognizes the interdependence between adaptation and mitigation [1]. These include waste reduction and management strategies through reduction, re-use, and recycling backed by policy formulation, investment in infrastructures and partnership with the private sector. For instance, the provision of public infrastructure and services, which are largely private sector-driven, has been with support from the state government. These include collaboration with private vendors for the collection and disposal of domestic and industrial wastes, road construction and rehabilitation as in the case of Lekki Concession Company responsible for the rehabilitation of the Lagos-Epe Expressway, and energy supply through the Independent Power Project (IPP). Urban tree planting, although often associated with city beautification rather than climate change mitigation, has also been a concerted government effort. For instance, the state has planted over 5 million trees in 6 years and there is an annual tree planting campaign to sustain this activity. The state also focuses strongly on green economy and climate entrepreneurial activities. Improved mobility infrastructure, urban transportation www.sciencedirect.com
Incentives for climate change adaptation in Lagos Elias and Omojola 77
and multiple modal systems such as the recent Bus Rapid Transit (BRT), Light Rail and Cable Car in the city of Lagos are attempts at reducing the state’s carbon footprint. A major challenge in this respect is the high proportion of private vehicle use in the state and the citizens’ apathy towards the use of the public bus transportation. Continuous sensitization and improved quality and availability of buses and other modes of public transport are important for increasing usage. One of the greatest flaws in the state’s response in managing climate change is the lack of engagement with local government, which is closest to local communities yet currently only participates in residual activities. This extra-subordinate nature of local government in the state may be ascribed to their inadequate funding, manpower and staff capacity that limits their ability to participate in critical issues such as awareness and education campaigns, early warning design and implementation, risk reduction and resource management. Non-governmental organization and the private sector are also only tangential partners in climate interventions. Consequently, the power of local authorities and their communities in the mobilization of local assets and resources are little explored in the state which limits their potential contributions to adaptation [8]. Moreover, vulnerable coastal and other communities have been largely excluded from participating in adaptation planning and decision making processes. A further drawback in the state’s response is the lack of a well-coordinated program that fully recognizes key stakeholders and their roles. For instance, physical data sets that are key to making informed decisions and assessments are sometimes available but not accessible to stakeholders especially among those involved in informal activities or residing in informal communities. The floods of 2010 and 2011 resulted in government attempts to evacuate residents living in low-lying communities without adequate sensitization and mobilization. Moreover, local assets and resources including ability for local mobilization, participation and voluntary services were ignored. Detailed mapping of risks at neighbourhood levels that can assist local adaptation options and other response actions have not yet been undertaken.
Conclusion In recent years, Lagos’ high vulnerability to climate change has been revealed through extensive damage by floods and storms. The city’s geographic location together with inadequate and poorly maintained critical infrastructure and poor urban governance exacerbate such vulnerabilities. While it is clear that Lagos’ high vulnerability to climate change impacts has stimulated government responses and policy attention, implementation and co-ordination across multiple scales require considerable www.sciencedirect.com
strengthening with particular attention to equity and participation in decision-making.
Acknowledgments This case study paper forms part of the special issue on Bearing the Brunt of Environmental Change: Understanding adaptation and transformation challenges in urban Africa edited by David Simon and Hayley Leck, which arises from the Urban Studies Seminar of the same name held at Royal Holloway, University of London, in April 2013.
References and recommended reading Papers of particular interest, published within the period of review, have been highlighted as: of special interest of outstanding interest 1. Lagos State Government: Climate change policy 2012–2014. Lagos State Ministry of Environment; 2012. The paper contains the climate change policy 2012–2014 where it recognizes the challenges of climate change for Lagos. The rationale of the Policy is to guide the State and other stakeholders on the implementation of collective measures to address climate change impacts and causes through adaptation, mitigation and other measures, while assuring sustainable socio-economic development through harmonised and coordinated strategies, programmes and actions to combat climate change. 2.
Lagos State Government: Facts and Figures. Lagos State Public Private Partnership Office; 2010.
3.
National Bureau of Statistics: Gross Domestic Product for Nigeria. Federal Government of Nigeria; 2013.
4. Filani MO: The Changing Face of Lagos: From Vision to Reform and Transformation. Cities Alliance; 2012. The author highlights the efforts of government to transform Africa’s largest city and economic powerhouse. It underscores the challenges faced by the state in her quest towards an inclusive urban transformation based on building of partnerships. The infrastructural and governance backlogs in the state should compel combination of clear and consistent leadership, constant reform and innovation, meaningful engagement with the city’s private and corporate citizens and huge investments. 5.
Aluko OE: The Impact of Urbanization on Housing Development: The Lagos, Nigeria Experience. Ethiop J Environ Stud Manage 2010, 3:64-74.
6.
Mabogunje, Ladipo A: Developing Megacities in Developing Countries. University of Lagos Press; 2007.
7.
Wahab K, Ayinde T: Human settlements and development. In State of the Environment Report. Edited by Oguleye M, Alo B. Lagos State Ministry of Environment; 2010:154-175.
8.
LAS-CCAS: Towards a Lagos State Climate Change Adaptation Strategy. Lagos State Ministry of Environment; 2012.
9.
Aderogba K, Oredipe M, Oderinde S, Afelumo T: Challenges of poor drainage systems and floods in Lagos Metropolis, Nigeria. Int J Soc Sci Educ 2012, 2:412-427.
10. Major DC, Omojola A, Dettinger M, Hanson RT, SanchezRodriguez R: Climate change, water, and wastewater in cities. In Climate Change and Cities: First Assessment Report of the Urban Climate Change Research Network. Edited by Rosenzweig C, Solecki WD, Hammer SA, Mehrotra S. Cambridge University Press; 2011:113-143. 11. Omojola A, Elias P: Physical environment. In State of the Environment Report. Edited by Oguleye M, Alo B. Lagos State Ministry of Environment; 2010:24-34. 12. Adeoti A, Olayide O, Coster A: Flooding and welfare of Fisher’s households in Lagos State, Nigeria. J Hum Ecol 2010, 32:161167. 13. Mehrotra S, Rosenzweig C, Solecki WD, Natenzon CE, Omojola A, Folorunsho R, Gilbride J: Cities, disasters and climate risk. In Climate Change and Cities: First Assessment Report of the Urban Climate Change Research Network. Edited by Rosenzweig C, Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2015, 13:74–78
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Solecki WD, Hammer SA, Mehrotra S. Cambridge University Press; 2011:113-143. 14. United Nations Human Settlements Programme: The State of the World’s Cities 2006/7. London: UN-HABITAT, Nairobi and Earthscan; 2006. 15. Future Environments Inc.: 2010–2011 Flood Events Report. Lagos State Ministry of Environment; 2012. 16. Adelekan OI: Vulnerability of poor urban coastal communities to flooding in Lagos. Nig J Environ Urban 2010, 22:433
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956247810380141 Retrieved online 19th August 2014. 17. Taylor A, Cartwright A, Sutherland C: Institutional Pathways for Local Climate Adaptation: A Comparison of three South African Municipalities. A Publication of the Research Department of Agence Francaise de Development; 2014. 18. LASG: Food Security: The Role of Agriculture and Cooperatives. Lagos State Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives; 2013.
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