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Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Bohai Bay Basin and its coupling relationship with Pacific Plate subduction
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
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Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Bohai Bay Basin and its coupling relationship with Pacific Plate subduction Jintong Liang a, Hongliang Wang a,⇑, Ying Bai b,c, Xinyuan Ji a, Xuemei Duo a a
School of Energy Resource, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China Tarim Basin Branch, RIPED of Petro China, Beijing 100083, China c College of Earth & Space Science, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China b
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 17 December 2015 Received in revised form 31 May 2016 Accepted 14 June 2016 Available online xxxx Keywords: Bohai Bay Basin Tectonic evolution Strike-slip fault Fault extension rate Pacific Plate subduction
a b s t r a c t The Bohai Bay Basin is a Mesozoic–Cenozoic rift basin in eastern China. Based mainly on a balancedsection analysis, this study compares the spatio-temporal differences of tectonic evolution in relation to strike-slip faults among different depressions within the basin. In combination with the analysis of subsidence characteristics, the study also attempts to clarify the Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the basin and its coupling relationship with the subduction of the Pacific Plate. It was found that: (1) the strike-slip faults were activated generally from south to north and from west to east during the Cenozoic; (2) there is a negative correlation between the intensity of tectonic activity in the Bohai Bay Basin and subduction rate of the Pacific Plate; and (3) the migration direction of the basin depocenters is consistent with the direction of Pacific Plate subduction. Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Various types of basins evolved in the North China Craton (NCC), the oldest craton in China (Li et al., 2010), evidently as the result of tectonic activity in eastern China during the Mesozoic–Cenozoic. This raises questions as to the timing, scope and mechanism of the destruction of the NCC during that time. It is generally believed that subduction of the Pacific Plate was the controlling factor in the destruction of the NCC and the consequent tectonic evolution of the Bohai Bay Basin (BBB) in the Cenozoic. Previous studies have proposed different theories on the formation and geodynamics of Mesozoic and Cenozoic basins in eastern China. The earliest theories (Lu and Zheng, 1996; Zheng, 1999) argued from geochemical and geophysical evidence that basins of this type mainly stem from deep geological processes, and that the regulation mechanisms are relatively shallow. Other studies (Bao et al., 2013; Li, 2013; Wu et al., 2008) have analyzed the dynamic background of Eurasian tectonic evolution: restoring the positions of the Pacific Plate and the corresponding basin prototype at different times in the Cenozoic suggests an
⇑ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (H. Wang).
association with the formation and evolution of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic basin groups in the western Pacific island arcs. Those studies, however, and reports of BBB exploration (Gao et al., 2004; Hou et al., 2001; Lu et al., 1997; Zhang et al., 2001) and the destruction of the NCC (Qiu et al., 2015; Tang et al., 2013; Wilde et al., 2002; Zhao et al., 2009) contain little discussion of the connection between Pacific Plate movement and the tectonic evolution of basins. Reproducing tectonic evolution of the BBB in the Mesozoic–Cenozoic indicates how the NCC was destroyed. Based on previous studies, the present study has restored balanced seismic cross-sections in an attempt to reconcile the spatiotemporal differences of the tectonic evolution with the regularity of the tectonic migration. The role of Pacific Plate subduction in the destruction of the NCC was also investigated from the internal perspective of basin evolution to clarify their spatio-temporal relationship. 2. Regional geological setting The BBB is a Cenozoic rift basin in eastern China (Chi and Zhao, 2000; Lu et al., 1997) with a total area of 20 105 km2 (Fig. 1). The BBB is also known to be a major continental petroliferous basin. The basin contains four major strike-slip zones (Teng et al., 2014), and is bounded by the active right-lateral Tan-Lu fault zone to the east and the active oblique-slip Taihang fault zone to the
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2016.06.012 1367-9120/Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article in press as: Liang, J., et al. Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Bohai Bay Basin and its coupling relationship with Pacific Plate subduction. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2016.06.012
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Fig. 1. Sketch tectonic map showing the Cenozoic subdivision of the Bohai Bay Basin, including depressions, salients and uplifts. Blue areas represent depressions; yellow areas represent uplifts. Black linesshow the location of the balanced sections analyzed in this study. Broken red lines show strike-slip faults; red arrows show strike-slip directions. Restored balanced sections are shown in Fig. 5. Subsidence analysis are shown in Figs. 6 and 7. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
west, and by the Yanshan Mountain folded belt to the north and the Qihe-Guangrao and Lankao-Liaocheng faults to the south (Zhang, 2009). The major N-S-striking Tan-Lu fault zone, which consists of two parallel strike-slip faults, traverses the eastern edge of the BBB (Castellanos, 2007; Mann, 2012; Yang and Xu, 2004). The late Mesozoic/early Cenozoic Tan-Lu fault zone is a narrow rift comprising two grabens and an uplifted section (Hou et al., 1998; Xu, 1993). Studies of right-lateral strike-slip faults by Tong et al. (2008) and Hsiao et al. (2004) showed that varieties of structural features, including echelon normal faults, ‘‘comb” structures, ‘‘flower” structures, and ‘‘interpretable” and ‘‘buried” strike-slip faults are all found in the BBB. The BBB contains post-Cenozoic sedimentary formations (Kongdian, Shahejie, Dongying, Guantao, Minghuazhen and Pingyuan (Qiao et al., 2002); Fig. 2). The basin mainly consists of seven depressions. Six of these (the Linqing, Jiyang, Central Hebei, Central Bohai, Liaodong Gulf and Lower Liaohe Depressions) were investigated in this study.
tectonic evolution in the BBB. Despite the complex trends and patterns of the faults in the BBB, the orientation of each section discussed in this study generally parallels the regional faults. Consequently the extension rates of these faults were calculated using 2DMOVE software to differentiate the evolutionary phases of each depression during the Cenozoic. The details of the calculation method are shown in Fig. 3. The subsidence process in the BBB was analyzed in detail on the basis of these phases to illustrate its evolution during the Cenozoic. Studies of the destruction of the NCC are cited, especially those related to the Cenozoic subduction of the Pacific Plate, to demonstrate its implications in connection with the tectonic evolution of the BBB. Relevant data on BBB subsidence and Pacific Plate subduction were collated from the published literature or located from online sources.
4. Tectonic evolution characteristics of the BBB 4.1. Phases of tectonic evolution
3. Methods and data Seven seismic sections in different orientations were restored using the balanced-section method to reconstruct the history of
Tectonic activity intensity is reflected by fault extension rates (Fig. 4). The findings of the balanced-section analysis (Fig. 5) revealed the characteristics and differences in fault activity in relation to the tectonic evolution of the BBB. Previous studies (Hou
Please cite this article in press as: Liang, J., et al. Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Bohai Bay Basin and its coupling relationship with Pacific Plate subduction. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2016.06.012
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Fig. 3. Oblique cutting model of balanced sections showing method of calculating fault extension rate. AR = fault extension rate.
stage. This is explained by the fact that faulting activity originated in the south of the BBB.
Fig. 2. Cenozoic stratigraphy column of the Bohai Bay Basin, modified after Huang et al. (2014) and Qiu et al. (2015). Form. = Formation, PY = Pingyuan. Stratigraphy from well logs analyzed in Huang et al. (2014).
et al., 1998, 2001; Huang et al., 2014; Qiu et al., 2015) demonstrated that the Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the BBB occurred in three stages: initial rifting, rifting/subsiding and subsiding (Fig. 3). The evolution process may be further divided into five phases, described in the following. 4.1.1. Phase I: Paleocene to early Eocene (Kongdian Formation to Shahejie members 1 and 2) Influenced by the Yanshan movement, most of the depressions remained in the uplift–erosion phase (Zhao, 1990). South section 7 and middle-south section 5 first began to rift at fault extension rates as high as 8.97% and 5.35%, and the mid-BBB extended at a rate around 4%. Conversely, north sections 1 and 2 barely rifted at a rate close to zero, which suggests that the Liaodong Gulf Depression and the Lower Liaohe Depression did not exist at that
4.1.2. Phase II: Middle Eocene (Shahejie member 3) The extension rate of the entire BBB increased significantly in the middle Eocene and reached its strongest phase, especially in the north, where the rate increased sharply. More importantly, the faults in the NE and SW of the BBB were more active than in the middle of the basin during this phase. The extension rate of north section 1 had reached 18.64% by the end of this phase. Additionally, north section 2 and south section 7 were extending at the rapid rates of 8.9% and 8.97% respectively; the rates of the other sections were all below 6%. This phenomenon was accompanied by migration of the centers of activity from south to north, which may have been influenced by the Tan-Lu fault to the east and the Taihangshan Mountain fault zone to the west (Qi et al., 2008). During that time, the geological environment of the mid-BBB appears to have been relatively stable. 4.1.3. Phase III: Late Eocene (Shahejie members 1 and 2) Rifting in north section 1 and middle-south section 5 ceased during this phase. Fault activity in the other depressions also weakened, with extension rates around 2%; however, the extension rate in the middle of the BBB exceeded that figure both in the north and in the south, implying that the center of activity was once again in the middle of the BBB. 4.1.4. Phase IV: Oligocene (Dongying Formation) The basin continued to subside, with low average fault extension rates, by now less than 1.5% except in middle section 3 and north section 1, especially in Dongying members 2 and 3. Although
Please cite this article in press as: Liang, J., et al. Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Bohai Bay Basin and its coupling relationship with Pacific Plate subduction. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2016.06.012
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Fig. 4. Analysis of fault extension during the entire Cenozoic using data from Guo et al. (2007) and Tang et al. (2008). Fig. 2 shows section locations. (a) Accelerated rates of fault extension of each depression in the whole evolution process; (b) net rates of fault extension in each phase.
the extension rate of north section 1 continued to be relatively high (about 4.33%), the average rate of middle 4 section was about 1.5%. It is therefore concluded that the middle BBB continued to be the overall center of activity and that Phases III and IV occurred in the rifting/subsiding stage during which the basin began to subside, although low-extension-rate rifting continued in some sections.
4.1.5. Phase V: Neogene to Quaternary (Guantao, Minghuazhen and Pingyuan Formations) The BBB extension reached its highest level and the extension rate rose slightly during this phase, which could reasonably have
been due to neotectonic movement, when the BBB entered its final thermal subsiding phase.
4.2. Characteristics of tectonic evolution The present study of the tectonic evolution of the Bohai Bay Basin confirms earlier insights that the migration direction of the centers of tectonic activity changed regularly in the region. The analysis in Section 4.1 of the five evolution phases indicates that the centers of strike-slip fault activity migrated from the southern BBB to the middle-northern area and from west to east; the centers of tectonic subsidence also show this migration pattern. Two inter-
Please cite this article in press as: Liang, J., et al. Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Bohai Bay Basin and its coupling relationship with Pacific Plate subduction. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2016.06.012
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Fig. 5. Balanced sections of depressions 1–7 (see insets for location) showing stages of tectonic evolution.
pretations of the tectonic subsidence of the BBB suggest themselves as a result: (1) The isopach maps (Fig. 6) of the whole BBB refer to migration of the BBB depocenters during the Cenozoic (Suo et al., 2012). The distribution and configuration of the contours and colors in Fig. 6 reflect the fact that the southern and western areas of the BBB first experienced tectonic subsidence in the early Cenozoic (Phases I, II, and III). Then, in the late Cenozoic (Phases IV and V), the strata in the northern and eastern BBB were generally thicker than those of the southern and western BBB, from which it is inferred that the depocenters within the BBB had migrated northwards and eastwards. (2) Other evidence is related to subsidence intensity in the different depressions in the BBB (Fig. 7) during each evolution phase. In Phase I, subsidence occurred in the south-central part, especially in depressions 4 and 5, at a more rapid rate than in the northern part. During Phases II–IV, tectonic subsidence in the north of the basin was more intensive
than in the south. Notably, the depocenters continued to migrate towards depression 4 in the central BBB until Phase V.
5. Characteristics of Pacific Plate subduction Throughout its geological history, the evolution of the North China Plate was controlled by different factors (Chen et al., 2010; Zhu and Chen, 2011). Of these, the subducting Pacific slab played an important role (Kay and Kay, 1993; Zhang, 2009). Studies of plate motion have shown that the westward subduction of the Pacific Plate may be divided into four stages, by direction (Fig. 8) and by subduction rate (Fig. 9): (1) From the late Cretaceous to the early Paleocene (65–50 Ma): The Pacific Plate developed a NNW-trending movement (Bao et al., 2013; Zhang and Zhang, 2015), during which the subduction rate decreased from 140 mm/a to 120 mm/a (mean 130 mm/a).
Please cite this article in press as: Liang, J., et al. Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Bohai Bay Basin and its coupling relationship with Pacific Plate subduction. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2016.06.012
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Fig. 6. Contour maps of the Bohai Bay Basin tectonic subsidence in the Cenozoic showing subsidence centers (after Suo et al., 2012). Subsidence phases: (a) E1–2k; (b) E2k3; (c) E2k1; (d) E3d; (e) Ng; and (f) Qp.
(2) Late Paleocene to Eocene (50–32 Ma): The rate continued to decrease to its lowest value of about 40 mm/a, until the subduction trended from NNW to NWW in 43 Ma. The rate then gradually increased to 60 mm/a until the end of that period (Chen et al., 2015; Deng et al., 2002). (3) Oligocene to Miocene (32–23 Ma): The subduction rate increased slowly to 80 mm/a by 23 Ma, with the subduction direction unchanged (Suo et al., 2012). (4) Subduction of the Pacific Plate trended NWW from late in the Miocene (23 Ma) until the present time at rates of 100–130 mm/a, with the mean currently at 90 mm/a following its lowest level of 80 mm/a at 10 Ma (Bao et al., 2013). 6. Discussion When the characteristics of tectonic evolution of the BBB were compared with Pacific Plate subduction data, two sets of coupling relationships were clearly revealed, as discussed below.
formation of large sedimentary basins (Hou et al., 2003; Liu et al., 2004). One hypothesis regarding the formation and evolution of the BBB is that the mechanism was controlled both by asthenospheric upwelling and strike-slip faulting (Cao, 2008; Wu and Yano, 2007). Specifically, westward subduction of the Pacific Plate is thought to have triggered right-lateral strike-slip motion of the Tan-Lu fault zone, and is also indicated by reduced crustal and lithospheric thickness in geodynamic response to the upwelling asthenosphere. Complex trends and patterns of faults connect the Tan-Lu and Taihang fault zones to form the BBB depocenters (Mann, 2012). In addition, crustal extension caused by mantle uplift shifted from the SW to the NE of the BBB. This implies that the migration of subsidence in the BBB is likely to have been controlled by the spatio-temporal overlap of the NW-trending extension and the strike-slip activities of the fault system during the Cenozoic (Ren, 2008). A reasonable dynamical explanation may be drawn from the SW–NE extensional migration when considered together with the effect of asthenospheric upwelling and the transformation of the pattern of the strike-slip faults from left-lateral to right-lateral.
6.1. Influence of crustal control on BBB evolution 6.2. Relationship between Pacific Plate subduction and BBB subsidence Hou and Hari (2014) proposed that the BBB is a superimposed Mesozoic–Cenozoic basin in the eastern NCC. Other studies have also suggested that the interaction between the Indian, Eurasian and Pacific Plates contributed to the destruction of the NCC, producing widespread volcanism, lithospheric thinning and the
East Asia experienced widespread Cenozoic extension (Allen et al., 1997; Yang and Xu, 2004), evident from the tectonic subsidence of the BBB, during westward Pacific Plate subduction beneath the BBB (Mann, 2012). A significant question is whether
Please cite this article in press as: Liang, J., et al. Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Bohai Bay Basin and its coupling relationship with Pacific Plate subduction. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2016.06.012
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Fig. 7. Analysis of tectonic subsidence during the entire Cenozoic using data from previous studies (Renet al., 2008); see Fig. 2 for locations of depressions in the Bohai Bay Basin: (a) accelerated subsidence of main depressions in the Cenozoic; (b) net subsidence in each evolution phase (Lower Liaohe Depression not analyzed due to limited data). Phases I–V described in Section 4.1.
the BBB subsidence occurred in response to the subduction. The present study has given rise to the following interpretations regarding the possible relationship between Pacific Plate subduction and BBB formation: (1) Zhang (2005) proposed that the rate of basin subsidence and extension has a significantly negative correlation to that of slab subduction. Fig. 7 in this paper shows that rapid tectonic subsidence occurred when the subduction rate was decreasing (64–40 Ma), and that the subsidence rate declined as the subduction rate increased (40–0 Ma). The subsidence rate peaked at 40 Ma when the subduction rate
was at its lowest, demonstrating a clear negative relationship between the basin subsidence rate and plate subduction rate. (2) As for the migration characteristics, the BBB experienced a subsidence period during which the evolution center migrated SW–NE during the Cenozoic (Fig. 6). At the same time, the Pacific Plate drifted generally northward beneath the Eastern Eurasian Plate (Fig. 8), which probably explains the direction of basin subsidence migration. Notably, a study by Zhu and Chen (2011) compared the directions of BBB continental extension and Pacific Plate subduction, and reinforces this explanation.
Please cite this article in press as: Liang, J., et al. Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Bohai Bay Basin and its coupling relationship with Pacific Plate subduction. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2016.06.012
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Fig. 8. Maps showing the rate and trace of Pacific Plate subduction in the Mesozoic–Cenozoic (modified after Hou and Hari, 2014; Tang et al., 2010; Zhang and Zhang, 2015). During subduction, the Japanese islands rotated clockwise and anticlockwise for S and N segments respectively (Faure, 1985; Faure and Lalevée, 1987). Figures show subduction rates. Arrows in red show subduction directions. NCC = North China Craton; BBB = Bohai Bay Basin; JS = Japan Sea; KP = Korean peninsula. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
Together, these comparisons have allowed us to conclude that the migration of the BBB depocenters is controlled by Pacific Plate subduction in terms of both evolution rate and direction. 7. Conclusions The main understanding about the tectonic evolution of the BBB stems from an analysis of its fault movements and its subsidence process. Besides the crustal control of the strike-slip faults, this study examines how the subducting Pacific slab influenced BBB tectonic evolution, and shows the relationship between them. Considering all available geological data, we conclude the following:
(1) BBB tectonic evolution occurred in five phases during the Cenozoic, characterised by migration of depocenters south to north and from west to east over the whole evolution process. (2) While Cenozoic evolution of the BBB was affected by the crustal control exerted by the strike-slip faults, subduction of the Pacific Plate also played a major role in this process. (3) A clear negative correlation exists between the intensity of tectonic activity in the BBB and the subduction rate of the Pacific Plate. Furthermore, the migration direction of the BBB depocenters is consistent with the direction of Pacific Plate subduction.
Please cite this article in press as: Liang, J., et al. Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Bohai Bay Basin and its coupling relationship with Pacific Plate subduction. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2016.06.012
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Fig. 9. (a) Pacific Plate subduction rate (data from Zhang et al., 2005); (b) average Bohai Bay Basin subsidence rate in the Cenozoic.
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Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Bohai Bay Basin and its coupling relationship with Pacific Plate subduction Jintong Liang a, Hongliang Wang a,⇑, Ying Bai b,c, Xinyuan Ji a, Xuemei Duo a a
School of Energy Resource, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China Tarim Basin Branch, RIPED of Petro China, Beijing 100083, China c College of Earth & Space Science, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China b
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 17 December 2015 Received in revised form 31 May 2016 Accepted 14 June 2016 Available online xxxx Keywords: Bohai Bay Basin Tectonic evolution Strike-slip fault Fault extension rate Pacific Plate subduction
a b s t r a c t The Bohai Bay Basin is a Mesozoic–Cenozoic rift basin in eastern China. Based mainly on a balancedsection analysis, this study compares the spatio-temporal differences of tectonic evolution in relation to strike-slip faults among different depressions within the basin. In combination with the analysis of subsidence characteristics, the study also attempts to clarify the Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the basin and its coupling relationship with the subduction of the Pacific Plate. It was found that: (1) the strike-slip faults were activated generally from south to north and from west to east during the Cenozoic; (2) there is a negative correlation between the intensity of tectonic activity in the Bohai Bay Basin and subduction rate of the Pacific Plate; and (3) the migration direction of the basin depocenters is consistent with the direction of Pacific Plate subduction. Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Various types of basins evolved in the North China Craton (NCC), the oldest craton in China (Li et al., 2010), evidently as the result of tectonic activity in eastern China during the Mesozoic–Cenozoic. This raises questions as to the timing, scope and mechanism of the destruction of the NCC during that time. It is generally believed that subduction of the Pacific Plate was the controlling factor in the destruction of the NCC and the consequent tectonic evolution of the Bohai Bay Basin (BBB) in the Cenozoic. Previous studies have proposed different theories on the formation and geodynamics of Mesozoic and Cenozoic basins in eastern China. The earliest theories (Lu and Zheng, 1996; Zheng, 1999) argued from geochemical and geophysical evidence that basins of this type mainly stem from deep geological processes, and that the regulation mechanisms are relatively shallow. Other studies (Bao et al., 2013; Li, 2013; Wu et al., 2008) have analyzed the dynamic background of Eurasian tectonic evolution: restoring the positions of the Pacific Plate and the corresponding basin prototype at different times in the Cenozoic suggests an
⇑ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (H. Wang).
association with the formation and evolution of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic basin groups in the western Pacific island arcs. Those studies, however, and reports of BBB exploration (Gao et al., 2004; Hou et al., 2001; Lu et al., 1997; Zhang et al., 2001) and the destruction of the NCC (Qiu et al., 2015; Tang et al., 2013; Wilde et al., 2002; Zhao et al., 2009) contain little discussion of the connection between Pacific Plate movement and the tectonic evolution of basins. Reproducing tectonic evolution of the BBB in the Mesozoic–Cenozoic indicates how the NCC was destroyed. Based on previous studies, the present study has restored balanced seismic cross-sections in an attempt to reconcile the spatiotemporal differences of the tectonic evolution with the regularity of the tectonic migration. The role of Pacific Plate subduction in the destruction of the NCC was also investigated from the internal perspective of basin evolution to clarify their spatio-temporal relationship. 2. Regional geological setting The BBB is a Cenozoic rift basin in eastern China (Chi and Zhao, 2000; Lu et al., 1997) with a total area of 20 105 km2 (Fig. 1). The BBB is also known to be a major continental petroliferous basin. The basin contains four major strike-slip zones (Teng et al., 2014), and is bounded by the active right-lateral Tan-Lu fault zone to the east and the active oblique-slip Taihang fault zone to the
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2016.06.012 1367-9120/Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article in press as: Liang, J., et al. Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Bohai Bay Basin and its coupling relationship with Pacific Plate subduction. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2016.06.012
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Fig. 1. Sketch tectonic map showing the Cenozoic subdivision of the Bohai Bay Basin, including depressions, salients and uplifts. Blue areas represent depressions; yellow areas represent uplifts. Black linesshow the location of the balanced sections analyzed in this study. Broken red lines show strike-slip faults; red arrows show strike-slip directions. Restored balanced sections are shown in Fig. 5. Subsidence analysis are shown in Figs. 6 and 7. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
west, and by the Yanshan Mountain folded belt to the north and the Qihe-Guangrao and Lankao-Liaocheng faults to the south (Zhang, 2009). The major N-S-striking Tan-Lu fault zone, which consists of two parallel strike-slip faults, traverses the eastern edge of the BBB (Castellanos, 2007; Mann, 2012; Yang and Xu, 2004). The late Mesozoic/early Cenozoic Tan-Lu fault zone is a narrow rift comprising two grabens and an uplifted section (Hou et al., 1998; Xu, 1993). Studies of right-lateral strike-slip faults by Tong et al. (2008) and Hsiao et al. (2004) showed that varieties of structural features, including echelon normal faults, ‘‘comb” structures, ‘‘flower” structures, and ‘‘interpretable” and ‘‘buried” strike-slip faults are all found in the BBB. The BBB contains post-Cenozoic sedimentary formations (Kongdian, Shahejie, Dongying, Guantao, Minghuazhen and Pingyuan (Qiao et al., 2002); Fig. 2). The basin mainly consists of seven depressions. Six of these (the Linqing, Jiyang, Central Hebei, Central Bohai, Liaodong Gulf and Lower Liaohe Depressions) were investigated in this study.
tectonic evolution in the BBB. Despite the complex trends and patterns of the faults in the BBB, the orientation of each section discussed in this study generally parallels the regional faults. Consequently the extension rates of these faults were calculated using 2DMOVE software to differentiate the evolutionary phases of each depression during the Cenozoic. The details of the calculation method are shown in Fig. 3. The subsidence process in the BBB was analyzed in detail on the basis of these phases to illustrate its evolution during the Cenozoic. Studies of the destruction of the NCC are cited, especially those related to the Cenozoic subduction of the Pacific Plate, to demonstrate its implications in connection with the tectonic evolution of the BBB. Relevant data on BBB subsidence and Pacific Plate subduction were collated from the published literature or located from online sources.
4. Tectonic evolution characteristics of the BBB 4.1. Phases of tectonic evolution
3. Methods and data Seven seismic sections in different orientations were restored using the balanced-section method to reconstruct the history of
Tectonic activity intensity is reflected by fault extension rates (Fig. 4). The findings of the balanced-section analysis (Fig. 5) revealed the characteristics and differences in fault activity in relation to the tectonic evolution of the BBB. Previous studies (Hou
Please cite this article in press as: Liang, J., et al. Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Bohai Bay Basin and its coupling relationship with Pacific Plate subduction. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2016.06.012
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Fig. 3. Oblique cutting model of balanced sections showing method of calculating fault extension rate. AR = fault extension rate.
stage. This is explained by the fact that faulting activity originated in the south of the BBB.
Fig. 2. Cenozoic stratigraphy column of the Bohai Bay Basin, modified after Huang et al. (2014) and Qiu et al. (2015). Form. = Formation, PY = Pingyuan. Stratigraphy from well logs analyzed in Huang et al. (2014).
et al., 1998, 2001; Huang et al., 2014; Qiu et al., 2015) demonstrated that the Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the BBB occurred in three stages: initial rifting, rifting/subsiding and subsiding (Fig. 3). The evolution process may be further divided into five phases, described in the following. 4.1.1. Phase I: Paleocene to early Eocene (Kongdian Formation to Shahejie members 1 and 2) Influenced by the Yanshan movement, most of the depressions remained in the uplift–erosion phase (Zhao, 1990). South section 7 and middle-south section 5 first began to rift at fault extension rates as high as 8.97% and 5.35%, and the mid-BBB extended at a rate around 4%. Conversely, north sections 1 and 2 barely rifted at a rate close to zero, which suggests that the Liaodong Gulf Depression and the Lower Liaohe Depression did not exist at that
4.1.2. Phase II: Middle Eocene (Shahejie member 3) The extension rate of the entire BBB increased significantly in the middle Eocene and reached its strongest phase, especially in the north, where the rate increased sharply. More importantly, the faults in the NE and SW of the BBB were more active than in the middle of the basin during this phase. The extension rate of north section 1 had reached 18.64% by the end of this phase. Additionally, north section 2 and south section 7 were extending at the rapid rates of 8.9% and 8.97% respectively; the rates of the other sections were all below 6%. This phenomenon was accompanied by migration of the centers of activity from south to north, which may have been influenced by the Tan-Lu fault to the east and the Taihangshan Mountain fault zone to the west (Qi et al., 2008). During that time, the geological environment of the mid-BBB appears to have been relatively stable. 4.1.3. Phase III: Late Eocene (Shahejie members 1 and 2) Rifting in north section 1 and middle-south section 5 ceased during this phase. Fault activity in the other depressions also weakened, with extension rates around 2%; however, the extension rate in the middle of the BBB exceeded that figure both in the north and in the south, implying that the center of activity was once again in the middle of the BBB. 4.1.4. Phase IV: Oligocene (Dongying Formation) The basin continued to subside, with low average fault extension rates, by now less than 1.5% except in middle section 3 and north section 1, especially in Dongying members 2 and 3. Although
Please cite this article in press as: Liang, J., et al. Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Bohai Bay Basin and its coupling relationship with Pacific Plate subduction. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2016.06.012
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Fig. 4. Analysis of fault extension during the entire Cenozoic using data from Guo et al. (2007) and Tang et al. (2008). Fig. 2 shows section locations. (a) Accelerated rates of fault extension of each depression in the whole evolution process; (b) net rates of fault extension in each phase.
the extension rate of north section 1 continued to be relatively high (about 4.33%), the average rate of middle 4 section was about 1.5%. It is therefore concluded that the middle BBB continued to be the overall center of activity and that Phases III and IV occurred in the rifting/subsiding stage during which the basin began to subside, although low-extension-rate rifting continued in some sections.
4.1.5. Phase V: Neogene to Quaternary (Guantao, Minghuazhen and Pingyuan Formations) The BBB extension reached its highest level and the extension rate rose slightly during this phase, which could reasonably have
been due to neotectonic movement, when the BBB entered its final thermal subsiding phase.
4.2. Characteristics of tectonic evolution The present study of the tectonic evolution of the Bohai Bay Basin confirms earlier insights that the migration direction of the centers of tectonic activity changed regularly in the region. The analysis in Section 4.1 of the five evolution phases indicates that the centers of strike-slip fault activity migrated from the southern BBB to the middle-northern area and from west to east; the centers of tectonic subsidence also show this migration pattern. Two inter-
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Fig. 5. Balanced sections of depressions 1–7 (see insets for location) showing stages of tectonic evolution.
pretations of the tectonic subsidence of the BBB suggest themselves as a result: (1) The isopach maps (Fig. 6) of the whole BBB refer to migration of the BBB depocenters during the Cenozoic (Suo et al., 2012). The distribution and configuration of the contours and colors in Fig. 6 reflect the fact that the southern and western areas of the BBB first experienced tectonic subsidence in the early Cenozoic (Phases I, II, and III). Then, in the late Cenozoic (Phases IV and V), the strata in the northern and eastern BBB were generally thicker than those of the southern and western BBB, from which it is inferred that the depocenters within the BBB had migrated northwards and eastwards. (2) Other evidence is related to subsidence intensity in the different depressions in the BBB (Fig. 7) during each evolution phase. In Phase I, subsidence occurred in the south-central part, especially in depressions 4 and 5, at a more rapid rate than in the northern part. During Phases II–IV, tectonic subsidence in the north of the basin was more intensive
than in the south. Notably, the depocenters continued to migrate towards depression 4 in the central BBB until Phase V.
5. Characteristics of Pacific Plate subduction Throughout its geological history, the evolution of the North China Plate was controlled by different factors (Chen et al., 2010; Zhu and Chen, 2011). Of these, the subducting Pacific slab played an important role (Kay and Kay, 1993; Zhang, 2009). Studies of plate motion have shown that the westward subduction of the Pacific Plate may be divided into four stages, by direction (Fig. 8) and by subduction rate (Fig. 9): (1) From the late Cretaceous to the early Paleocene (65–50 Ma): The Pacific Plate developed a NNW-trending movement (Bao et al., 2013; Zhang and Zhang, 2015), during which the subduction rate decreased from 140 mm/a to 120 mm/a (mean 130 mm/a).
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Fig. 6. Contour maps of the Bohai Bay Basin tectonic subsidence in the Cenozoic showing subsidence centers (after Suo et al., 2012). Subsidence phases: (a) E1–2k; (b) E2k3; (c) E2k1; (d) E3d; (e) Ng; and (f) Qp.
(2) Late Paleocene to Eocene (50–32 Ma): The rate continued to decrease to its lowest value of about 40 mm/a, until the subduction trended from NNW to NWW in 43 Ma. The rate then gradually increased to 60 mm/a until the end of that period (Chen et al., 2015; Deng et al., 2002). (3) Oligocene to Miocene (32–23 Ma): The subduction rate increased slowly to 80 mm/a by 23 Ma, with the subduction direction unchanged (Suo et al., 2012). (4) Subduction of the Pacific Plate trended NWW from late in the Miocene (23 Ma) until the present time at rates of 100–130 mm/a, with the mean currently at 90 mm/a following its lowest level of 80 mm/a at 10 Ma (Bao et al., 2013). 6. Discussion When the characteristics of tectonic evolution of the BBB were compared with Pacific Plate subduction data, two sets of coupling relationships were clearly revealed, as discussed below.
formation of large sedimentary basins (Hou et al., 2003; Liu et al., 2004). One hypothesis regarding the formation and evolution of the BBB is that the mechanism was controlled both by asthenospheric upwelling and strike-slip faulting (Cao, 2008; Wu and Yano, 2007). Specifically, westward subduction of the Pacific Plate is thought to have triggered right-lateral strike-slip motion of the Tan-Lu fault zone, and is also indicated by reduced crustal and lithospheric thickness in geodynamic response to the upwelling asthenosphere. Complex trends and patterns of faults connect the Tan-Lu and Taihang fault zones to form the BBB depocenters (Mann, 2012). In addition, crustal extension caused by mantle uplift shifted from the SW to the NE of the BBB. This implies that the migration of subsidence in the BBB is likely to have been controlled by the spatio-temporal overlap of the NW-trending extension and the strike-slip activities of the fault system during the Cenozoic (Ren, 2008). A reasonable dynamical explanation may be drawn from the SW–NE extensional migration when considered together with the effect of asthenospheric upwelling and the transformation of the pattern of the strike-slip faults from left-lateral to right-lateral.
6.1. Influence of crustal control on BBB evolution 6.2. Relationship between Pacific Plate subduction and BBB subsidence Hou and Hari (2014) proposed that the BBB is a superimposed Mesozoic–Cenozoic basin in the eastern NCC. Other studies have also suggested that the interaction between the Indian, Eurasian and Pacific Plates contributed to the destruction of the NCC, producing widespread volcanism, lithospheric thinning and the
East Asia experienced widespread Cenozoic extension (Allen et al., 1997; Yang and Xu, 2004), evident from the tectonic subsidence of the BBB, during westward Pacific Plate subduction beneath the BBB (Mann, 2012). A significant question is whether
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Fig. 7. Analysis of tectonic subsidence during the entire Cenozoic using data from previous studies (Renet al., 2008); see Fig. 2 for locations of depressions in the Bohai Bay Basin: (a) accelerated subsidence of main depressions in the Cenozoic; (b) net subsidence in each evolution phase (Lower Liaohe Depression not analyzed due to limited data). Phases I–V described in Section 4.1.
the BBB subsidence occurred in response to the subduction. The present study has given rise to the following interpretations regarding the possible relationship between Pacific Plate subduction and BBB formation: (1) Zhang (2005) proposed that the rate of basin subsidence and extension has a significantly negative correlation to that of slab subduction. Fig. 7 in this paper shows that rapid tectonic subsidence occurred when the subduction rate was decreasing (64–40 Ma), and that the subsidence rate declined as the subduction rate increased (40–0 Ma). The subsidence rate peaked at 40 Ma when the subduction rate
was at its lowest, demonstrating a clear negative relationship between the basin subsidence rate and plate subduction rate. (2) As for the migration characteristics, the BBB experienced a subsidence period during which the evolution center migrated SW–NE during the Cenozoic (Fig. 6). At the same time, the Pacific Plate drifted generally northward beneath the Eastern Eurasian Plate (Fig. 8), which probably explains the direction of basin subsidence migration. Notably, a study by Zhu and Chen (2011) compared the directions of BBB continental extension and Pacific Plate subduction, and reinforces this explanation.
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Fig. 8. Maps showing the rate and trace of Pacific Plate subduction in the Mesozoic–Cenozoic (modified after Hou and Hari, 2014; Tang et al., 2010; Zhang and Zhang, 2015). During subduction, the Japanese islands rotated clockwise and anticlockwise for S and N segments respectively (Faure, 1985; Faure and Lalevée, 1987). Figures show subduction rates. Arrows in red show subduction directions. NCC = North China Craton; BBB = Bohai Bay Basin; JS = Japan Sea; KP = Korean peninsula. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
Together, these comparisons have allowed us to conclude that the migration of the BBB depocenters is controlled by Pacific Plate subduction in terms of both evolution rate and direction. 7. Conclusions The main understanding about the tectonic evolution of the BBB stems from an analysis of its fault movements and its subsidence process. Besides the crustal control of the strike-slip faults, this study examines how the subducting Pacific slab influenced BBB tectonic evolution, and shows the relationship between them. Considering all available geological data, we conclude the following:
(1) BBB tectonic evolution occurred in five phases during the Cenozoic, characterised by migration of depocenters south to north and from west to east over the whole evolution process. (2) While Cenozoic evolution of the BBB was affected by the crustal control exerted by the strike-slip faults, subduction of the Pacific Plate also played a major role in this process. (3) A clear negative correlation exists between the intensity of tectonic activity in the BBB and the subduction rate of the Pacific Plate. Furthermore, the migration direction of the BBB depocenters is consistent with the direction of Pacific Plate subduction.
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Fig. 9. (a) Pacific Plate subduction rate (data from Zhang et al., 2005); (b) average Bohai Bay Basin subsidence rate in the Cenozoic.
Acknowledgements We wish to thank two anonymous reviewers for their scientific and linguistic revisions to improve the manuscript. We gratefully acknowledge Professor Liu Shaofeng (College of Geosciences and Resources, China University of Geosciences) for constructive suggestions on the tectonic evolution of the BBB. We are also thankful to Dr. Zhang Leifu (College of Earth & Space Science, Peking University) for important comments on the manuscript. This study was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 91114203). References Allen, M.B., Macdonald, D.I.M., Vincent, S.J., Brouet-Menzies, C., Xun, Z., 1997. Early Cenozoic two-phase extension and late Cenozoic thermal subsidence and inversion of the Bohai Basin, northern China. Mar. Pet. Geol. 14, 951–972. Bao, H.Y., Guo, Z.F., Zhang, L.L., Huang, Y., 2013. Tectonic dynamics of eastern China since the formation of the Pacific plate. Adv. Earth Sci. 28 (3), 337–346. Castellanos, H.A., 2007. Sequence Stratigraphy and Tectonics of the Guantao and Minghuazhen formations, Zhao Dong Field, Bohai Bay, eastern China Ph.D. thesis. University of Texas, Austin, Texas, 242 p.. Cao, Z.X., 2008. Calculation of extension and subsidence of the cenozoic pull-apart and rift basins along the Yingkou-Weifang fault zone. Chin. J. Geol. 43 (1), 65– 81. Chen, J.J., Ma, Y.P., Chen, J.Z., Sun, G.B., 2015. Tectonic dynamics of northern continental margin basins in South China Sea. Earth Sci. Front. 22 (3), 038–047. Chen, L., Wei, Z.G., Cheng, C., 2010. Significant structural variations in the Central and Western North China Craton and its implications for the craton destruction. Earth Sci. Front. 17 (1), 212–228. Chi, Y.L., Zhao, W.Z., 2000. Strike-slip deformation during the Cenozoic and its influence on hydrocarbon accumulation in the Bohai Bay Basin. Acta Pet. Sinica 21 (2), 14–20. Deng, Q.D., Zhang, P.Z., Ran, Y.K., Yang, X.P., Min, W., 2002. The basic characteristics of active tectonics of China. Sci. China (Ser. D) 32 (12), 1020–1030. Faure, M., 1985. Microtectonic evidence for eastward ductile shear in the Jurassic orogen of southwest Japan. J. Struct. Geol. 7, 175–186. Faure, M., Lalevée, F., 1987. Bent structural trends of Japan: flexural-slip folding related to the Neogene opening of the Sea of Japan. Geology 15, 49–52. Gao, X.L., Xiao, X.M., Zhao, B.Q., Lu, H.Y., Tang, Y.C., 2004. Petroleum generation history of Lower Tertiary source rocks from the Bozhong Depression of the Bohai Bay Basin. Acta Sedimentol. Sin. 22 (2), 359–364.
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Please cite this article in press as: Liang, J., et al. Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Bohai Bay Basin and its coupling relationship with Pacific Plate subduction. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2016.06.012
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Please cite this article in press as: Liang, J., et al. Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Bohai Bay Basin and its coupling relationship with Pacific Plate subduction. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2016.06.012