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Central inspiratory activity rhythmically activates synaptic currents of airway vagal preganglionic neurons in neonatal rats
Accepted Manuscript Title: Central inspiratory activity rhythmically activates synaptic currents of airway vagal preganglionic neurons in neonatal rats Authors: Lili Hou, Mark C. Bellingham, Yong Huang, Pengyu Zhang, Xin Zhou, Min Zhang PII: DOI: Reference:
S0304-3940(18)30811-5 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2018.11.024 NSL 33942
To appear in:
Neuroscience Letters
Received date: Revised date: Accepted date:
23 July 2018 18 October 2018 15 November 2018
Please cite this article as: Hou L, Bellingham MC, Huang Y, Zhang P, Zhou X, Zhang M, Central inspiratory activity rhythmically activates synaptic currents of airway vagal preganglionic neurons in neonatal rats, Neuroscience Letters (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2018.11.024 This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
Central inspiratory activity rhythmically activates synaptic currents of airway vagal preganglionic neurons in neonatal rats
Lili Hou1, Mark C. Bellingham2, Yong Huang3, Pengyu Zhang1, Xin Zhou1, Min Zhang1*
Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai General Hospital,
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Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
Faculty of Medicine, School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland,
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Brisbane, QLD, Australia 3
Department of Anesthesiology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong
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University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
Corresponding authors: Min Zhang, E-mail: [email protected]
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*
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First author: Lili Hou, E-mail: [email protected]
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Min Zhang, Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Address: No. 100 Haining Road, Shanghai, 200080, China
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Tel/Fax: +86-021-37798863
Highlights
1, In IA-AVPNs, NMDA receptors, non-NMDA receptors, gap junction
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couplings and the type of α4β2 and α7 nAChRs involved in the rhythmic activation of synaptic currents during inspiratory bursts, while non-NMDA receptors constitute a major proportion.
2, In II-AVPNs, excitatory glutamatergic synaptic inputs presynaptically
facilitated its inhibitory glycinergic inputs.
Abstract The airway vagal preganglionic neurons (AVPNs) in the external formation of the
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nucleus ambiguus (eNA) can be separated into inspiratory-activated AVPNs (IA-AVPNs) and inspiratory-inhibited AVPNs (II-AVPNs). IA-AVPNs are activated
by excitatory presynaptic inputs during inspiratory bursts, but the composition and the
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roles of these excitatory inputs still remain obscure. II-AVPNs are inhibited by
inhibitory presynaptic inputs but whether these inhibitory inputs are regulated by excitatory inputs is also unclear. In the current study, AVPNs were retrogradely
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fluorescent labeled. The IA-AVPNs were discriminated from II-AVPNs by their
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different synaptic inputs during inspiratory bursts. The excitatory inputs to IA-AVPNs
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and the presynaptic regulation of II-AVPNs were examined by whole-cell patch
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clamping. Topical application of 6-Cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (CNQX) to the recorded IA-AVPNs almost abolished the tonic EPSCs during inspiratory intervals,
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inhibited the phasic excitatory currents during inspiratory bursts and attenuated the phasic inspiratory inward currents (PIICs) driven by central inspiratory activity.
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Blockade of α4β2 and α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) respectively inhibited PIICs in some IA-AVPNs. Carbenoxolone, a gap junction uncoupler, partly
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inhibited the PIICs of IA-AVPNs. Focal application of CNQX to the II-AVPNs significantly inhibited the frequency, peak amplitude and area of the phasic inspiratory outward currents (PIOCs). These findings demonstrated that glutamatergic
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non-NMDA receptors played a predominant role in the excitatory drive to the IA-AVPNs, and that α4β2, α7 nAChRs and gap junctions were also rhythmically activated by central inspiratory activity. Additionally, glycinergic neurons making inhibitory inputs to the II-AVPNs were pre-synaptically facilitated by excitatory glutamatergic synaptic inputs.
Abbreviation list: ACSF, artificial cerebral spinal fluid; AMPA, 2-amino-3-(5-methyl-3-oxo-1,2oxazol-4-yl)propanoic acid; AP5, D-2-amino-5-phosphonovalerate; CBX, carbenoxolone; cNA, the compact formation of the nucleus ambiguous; CNQX, 6-Cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2, 3-dione; DMSO, dimethyl sulfoxide; eNA, the external formation of the nucleus ambiguous; GABA, γ-aminobutyric acid;
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IA-AVPNs, inspiratory-activated airway vagal preganglionic neurons; II-AVPNs,
inspiratory-inhibited airway vagal preganglionic neurons; NA, nucleus ambiguous;
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NMDA, N-methyl-D-aspartate; AVPNs, airway vagal preganglionic neurons; α4β2 nAChRs: α4β2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors; α7 nAChRs: α7 nicotinic
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acetylcholine receptors; sEPSCs, spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents;
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Key words: airway vagal preganglionic neurons, N-methyl-d-aspartate,
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Non-N-methyl-d-aspartate, nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, gap junctions, synaptic
1. Introduction
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transmission, patch clamp
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Airway vagal preganglionic neurons (AVPNs) are part of the integrated respiratory control network, and play a crucial role in the modulation of airway functions in both
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physiological and pathological conditions in mammals [3, 17, 22]. Previous studies demonstrated that AVPNs located in the external formation of the nucleus ambiguus (eNA) in the medulla oblongata are the dominant modulators of the cholinergic tone
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of the airway smooth muscles[3, 15]. AVPNs receive synaptic inputs from various brain areas [13, 16], including the pre-Bötzinger complex (PBC)[5, 6, 39]. The PBC contains respiratory pattern generator neurons[11, 31], interneurons [1, 25] and other heterogeneous neurons [2, 9]. Respiratory pattern generator neurons not only drive respiratory premotor neurons innervating the diaphragm muscles and intercostals but also drive AVPNs [28], thus linking respiratory muscle movements to rhythmical
fluctuations of airway cholinergic tone and airway resistance under normal conditions [16, 17], optimizing gas exchanges by decreasing large fluctuations of functional residual capacity and prevention of lung collapse [19]. Indeed, AVPNs show phasic synaptic activity in synchrony with central inspiratory activity[5, 6]. At present, two types of AVPNs located in eNA are distinguished by their differing phasic synaptic control: inspiratory-activated AVPNs (IA-AVPNs) are those that have phasic
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inspiratory-related excitatory synaptic currents and inspiratory-inhibited AVPNs (II-AVPNs) are those that have phasic inspiratory-related inhibitory synaptic
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currents[5, 6, 20].
In vitro bath application of CNQX abolished both the excitatory synaptic currents in
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IA-AVPNs and hypoglossal inspiratory bursts [6], indicating glutamate-AMPA
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receptors might play a predominant role in the activation of the IA-AVPNs in the
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respiratory circuits. However, when considering that the generation of respiratory rhythm in the respiratory network depends largely on glutamate-AMPA receptors [24,
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33, 36], it is difficult to determine which neurons (e.g. inspiratory generator neurons,
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presynaptic neurons to the IA-AVPNs, IA-AVPNs) are being targeted by the action of bath-applied CNQX. Application of NMDA to the ventral surface of the medulla oblongata, where AVPNs are located, increased tracheal tone [16], indicating that
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AVPNs can be excited by NMDA receptor activation. Additionally, gap junctions [8, 19]and endogenous cholinergic mechanisms mediated by activation of the α7 and
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α4β2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are also involved in the regulation of IA-AVPNs [10, 40]. For example, thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) evoked a distinct oscillatory pattern mediated by gap junctions in IA-AVPNs [20], but not in
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II-AVPNs [21]. However, the roles of NMDA receptors, gap junctions and nACh receptors in the synaptic activation of IA-AVPNs by central activity remain unclear. The first aim in the current study was to clarify the composition and the roles of synaptic currents in IA-AVPNs driven by central inspiratory activity, using whole cell patch clamp. In II-AVPNs, most spontaneous IPSCs and all the phasic inspiratory outward currents
(PIOCs) are glycinergic currents [21]. PIOCs in II-AVPNs could be inhibited coincidentally with the inhibition of hypoglossal inspiratory bursts in vitro, and are thus unlikely to be due to blockade of inhibitory transmission in the respiratory reflex network[30]. In view of the effects of synaptic activation of AMPA receptors on gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) neurotransmission [32], it is reasonable to postulate that glycinergic neurons innervating II-AVPNs during inspiratory bursts
of the current study was to clarify this possibility at the synaptic level.
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2. Materials and methods
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could be regulated by glutamatergic synaptic inputs from PBC. Thus, the second aim
2.1. Animals and ethical approval
The animal procedures were approved by the Animal Care Committee of Shanghai
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General Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University, and were in accordance
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with the guidelines established by the National Institute of Health for the care and use
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of experimental animals. 36 neonatal rats were used for this study. From 36 slices, a total of 32 IA-AVPNs (88.9%) and 4 II-AVPNs (11.1%) were identified.
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2.2 Retrogradely fluorescent labelling of the AVPNs and slice preparation
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Three to five day-old Sprague-Dawley rats (Shanghai General Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University) were anesthetized by inhalation of halothane (0.5 ml) and hypothermia, and then the AVPNs were labeled, as described in our previous
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work [20, 21]. 48-52 h after the labeling, the animal was deeply anesthetized with halothane again and then decapitated. The brainstem was isolated and submerged in
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cold (4 °C) artificial cerebral spinal fluid (ACSF, mmol L-1: NaCl 124, KCl 3.0, KH2PO4 1.2, CaCl2 2.4, MgSO4 1.3, NaHCO3 26, d-glucose 10), which was constantly bubbled with 95% O2-5% CO2. A single medullary slice of 500-800 μm
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thickness with one to two hypoglossal rootlets in each side was made. The slice was transferred into the recording chamber (0.6 ml) and superfused with ACSF at a flow rate of 6-10 ml/min to maintain rhythmic inspiratory discharges in hypoglossal rootlets. Bath temperature was maintained at 23 ± 0.5 °C, and the concentration of KCl in ACSF was increased to 10 mmol L-1 to maintain a steady bursting of the hypoglossal rootlets.
2.3. Electrophysiological recording The patch pipettes were filled with a K+ gluconate-dominated solution (mmol L-1): potassium gluconate, 150; HEPES, 10; EGTA, 10; CaCl2, 0.1; MgCl2 1; and Mg-ATP, 2 (pH 7.3). Lidocaine N-ethyl bromide (QX314) was included in the patch pipette to block voltage gated sodium currents. When the AVPNs were clamped at -80 mV using this solution, neurons showing bursting sEPSCs during inspiratory bursts were
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identified as IA-AVPNs. The Cl− currents were minimized, and only the EPSCs could be recorded. When the neurons were clamped at -50 mV using this solution, the
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II-AVPNs were identified as those that exhibited phasic inspiratory bursts of the
inhibitory (outward) synaptic activity. In these conditions, both EPSCs and IPSCs of II-AVPNs could be recorded. The membrane current was amplified with an Axopatch
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700B amplifier (10 kHz sampling frequency; 1 kHz filter frequency), digitized with
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1322A Digidata, and collected with Clampex 9.2 software (Axon Instruments, USA).
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The hypoglossal bursts were recorded from hypoglossal rootlets using a suction electrode, amplified with a BMA-931 bioamplifier (5 kHz sampling frequency;
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10-1,000 HZ band pass; 20,000 times), and electronically integrated (t=200 ms) with
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an MA-1000 Moving Averager (CWE Inc., Ardmore, PA, United States) before recording in the computer. The raw and integrated nerve rootlet signals were fed into the computer simultaneously with the membrane current signal.
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2.4. Drug application
A pressure-ejection pipette (15 p.s.i., tip diameter: 2-3 μm, injection duration: 100 ms)
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was positioned about 10 μm away from the red neuron, and the drugs were continuously focally applied using a PV830 Pneumatic PicoPump (World Precision Instruments, USA) for 1-2 sec. The concentration of drugs was used as described in
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the previous studies [20, 38, 40]. D-2-amino-5-phosphonovalerate (AP5, 50 μmol L-1), 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2, 3-dione (CNQX, 50 μmol L-1), methyllycaconitine (MLA, 100 nmol L-1), dihydro-β-erythroidine (DHβE, 3 μmol L-1) and carbenoxolone (CBX, 100 μmol L-1) were used to block NMDA, non-NMDA, α7, α4β2 nAChRs and gap junctions respectively. All drugs were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (St Louis, MO).
The affected range of these drugs by focal applying to the neurons using puff pipette was tested before experiments. As mentioned in the previous study[38], 10 μmol L-1 GABA was topically applied to the recorded neuron. The maximum area of the tissue affected by the puffer pipette was approximately 100-120 μm. 2.5. Data analysis The tonic spontaneous EPSCs (sEPSCs) and the phasic spontaneous excitatory
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currents (SECs) were analyzed using MiniAnalysis (Synaptosoft, version 4.3.1) with a minimal acceptable amplitude of 10 pA. The PIICs/PIOCs and the hypoglossal
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inspiratory bursts were analyzed using Clampfit 9.2 (Axon instruments, USA), the changes of which were expressed as the percentages of the control values. Before analyzing the PIICs/PIOCs and the hypoglossal bursts, selected segments of them
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were low-pass filtered at 5-HZ with an eight-pole Bessel filter. Respiratory frequency
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was manually calculated. The data from 6-8 consecutive inspiratory bursts prior to
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focal application of drugs were analyzed as the control, and the effects of drugs were determined from 6-8 consecutive inspiratory bursts during focal application of drugs.
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Results are presented as mean ± SD, unless otherwise stated, statistically significant
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difference was accepted at P<0.05, using a two-tailed paired-Student’s t-test using Origin 8.0 (OriginLab Corporation, Northampton, MA, United States). 3. RESULTS
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3.1. AP5 reduced the area of the PIICs without affecting hypoglossal bursts, tonic sEPSCs or phasic SECs in IA-AVPNs
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Focal application of the NMDA antagonist AP5 (50 μmol L-1) didn't significantly alter phasic SECs during inspiratory bursts (frequency: 34.0±7.9 versus 34.3±9.2 Hz, P>0.05; amplitude: 110.0±51.0 versus 107.5±65.0 pA, P>0.05, n=6) or tonic sEPSCs
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(frequency: 6.2±2.8 versus 5.8±2.7 Hz; amplitude: 50.5±10.8 versus 48.5±11.1 pA, P>0.05, n=6) (Fig1.A,D,E,F,G,H,I,J). However, AP5 reduced PIIC area (89.6±17.2%, P<0.05, n=6) but not PIIC peak amplitude (94.7±12.8%, P>0.05, n=6) compared with that of the control condition in IA-AVPNs (Fig.1B,C). Hypoglossal inspiratory bursts were not changed (Fig.1 A). 3.2. CNQX abolished the tonic sEPSCs, decreased the phasic SECs, inhibited
both peak amplitude and area of PIICs in IA-AVPNs Blockade of non-NMDA receptors by topical administration of CNQX (50 μmol L-1) to IA-AVPNs significantly decreased PIIC peak amplitude (38.4±11.3%, P<0.05, n=7) and area (37.0±9.8%, P<0.05, n=7) in IA-AVPNs (Fig.2A, B, C, E, G). CNQX had no effect on hypoglossal inspiratory bursts (Fig.2A). CNQX abolished almost all tonic sEPSCs during inspiratory intervals and phasic SECs during inspiratory bursts
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(Fig.2A, B, C) in 16 neurons. However, very scarce spikelets during inspiratory bursts were still exhibited after focal application of CNQX (Fig.2C&D). Surprisingly, a
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small inward current in the baseline (52.90±4.76 pA) was induced by CNQX
application in 2 of 16 IA-AVPNs (Fig.2 A). The input resistance of these 2 neurons was not significantly altered (data not shown).
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3.3. DHβE, MLA and CBX abolished PIICs and the remaining spikelets in
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IA-AVPNs
To clarify whether non-glutamatergic receptors were responsible for the remaining
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spikelets and CNQX-insensitive PIICs, the nAChR antagonists DHβE (3 μmol L-1),
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MLA (100 nmol L-1) and the gap junction blocker CBX (100 μmol L-1) were topically administered to the recorded neuron. In the absence of AP5 and CNQX in the pipette,
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focal application of DHβE significantly inhibited the PIIC peak amplitude (11.7±5.0%, P<0.001, n=6) and area (11.7±5.4%, P<0.01, n=6) in 6 of 10 neurons. In the absence
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of AP5 and CNQX, in 4 of 10 neurons, focal application of MLA inhibited PIIC peak amplitude (6.8±2.7%, P<0.05, n=4) and area (7.2±1.9%, P<0.05, n=4).
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Co-application of DHβE and MLA in the absence of AP5 and CNQX didn't affect the frequency or the amplitude of sEPSCs during inspiratory bursts (frequency 29.8±2.0 versus 27.0±6.3 Hz; amplitude 103.7±11.0 versus 107.1±9.2 pA, P>0.05, n=4) or
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during inspiratory intervals (frequency 4.7±2.8 versus 4.3±2.7 Hz; amplitude 30.9±2.1versus 32.5 ±5.3 pA, P>0.05, n=4). In the presence of AP5, CNQX, DHβE and MLA in the pipettes, additionally focal application of CBX to 4 of 6 neurons almost completely abolished PIICs and the remaining spikelets of IA-AVPNs during inspiratory bursts (Fig.3A,B,C). Neither the CBX, DHβE nor MLA changed hypoglossal inspiratory bursts (Fig.3A).
3.4. CNQX inhibited the frequency, peak amplitude and area of PIOCs and abolished the tonic sEPSCs in II-AVPNs Using a holding voltage of -50 mV, II-AVPNs showed PIOCs and an increase in glycinergic IPSCs during inspiratory bursts. Topical application of CNQX to the recorded II-AVPN significantly attenuated the frequency, peak amplitude and area of PIOCs (Fig.4) without affecting hypoglossal inspiratory bursts (data not shown).
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Additional application of AP5 and DHβE had no further effects on frequency, peak amplitude and area of the PIOCs (data not shown). The sEPSCs during inspiratory
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intervals were abolished by CNQX. Both the tonic spontaneous IPSCs and the phasic IPSCs were not measured in quantity as parts of them were contaminated by EPSCs. 4. DISCUSSION
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Given that AVPNs are located in the eNA region containing PBC neurons, it is of
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crucial importance to ensure that focal application of drugs did not affect PBC inspiratory rhythm-generating neurons. Thus the distance between the puffer pipette
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and the recorded AVPNs was about 10 μm. Under these conditions, the hypoglossal
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inspiratory bursts were not changed by focal application of drugs.
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In this study, the rhythmic synaptic inward currents during inspiratory bursts in IA-AVPNs were due to the following mechanisms: NMDA and non-NMDA glutamatergic receptors, gap junction coupling, and α4β2/α7 type of nicotinic
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cholinergic mechanisms. In agreement with a previous study showing that IA-AVPNs were innervated by strong glutamatergic inputs [19] and that non-NMDA receptors
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played a major role in synaptic transmission to AVPNs [18], the current study demonstrated that activation of non-NMDA receptors underlaid the main component of synaptic inward currents during inspiratory bursts in IA-AVPNs. Focal application
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of AP5 also inhibited PIIC area, indicating that NMDA receptors were also activated by central inspiratory drive. DHβE and MLA decreased PIICs in some IA-AVPNs, demonstrating that α4β2 and α7 nAChRs play a small but an important role in generating PIICs. However, in some IA-AVPNs, DHβE and MLA did not alter PIICs. One possible explanation is that AVPNs may be subdivided in terms of nAChRs expression and their functional
contribution to synaptic currents[6]. For example, most AVPNs innervating intrapulmonary airways express α4 nAChRs, while those projecting to extrathoracic trachea show lower expression levels [10], providing an explanation of differential responses to blockade of α4β2 nAChRs. It is more difficult to explain a differential response to MLA seen for PIICs in some IA-AVPNs, as almost all retrogradely labeled AVPNs innervating either intrapulmonary or extrathoracic airways express α7
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nAChR subunits [10]. However, the rats used in this previous study[10] were much
older than that used in our study, and the α7 nAChR subunit undergoes a substantial
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developmental increase in the central nervous system [29], raising the possibility that developmental changes in expression account for differential response to MLA. In support of this, pharmacological studies have shown that the α7 subunit is not
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involved in the nicotinic responses of neonatal hypoglossal motor neurons (0-5 days)
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[4] or neonatal PBC inspiratory neurons (0-3 days) [35]. It is possible that most
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AVPNs in our study had low expression of α7 nAChRs, although morphological evidence is absent at present.
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Both the frequency and the amplitude of phasic SECs in IA-AVPNs increased during
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inspiratory bursts and were abolished by combined application of CNQX and CBX topically. These results indicate that the non-NMDA glutamatergic receptor and gap junction couplings could be rhythmically activated by central inspiratory activity.
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Considering the activation of α4β2 [40] and/or α7 [10] nAChRs can increase presynaptic release of glutamate, phasic SECs could contribute to a cholinergic
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up-regulation of glutamatergic transmission. However, antagonists of α4β2 or α7 nAChRs had no effect on tonic sEPSCs and phasic SECs, indicating that phasic SECs were largely caused by the summation of postsynaptic glutamatergic currents. Tonic
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sEPSCs of IA-AVPNs were abolished by CNQX, demonstrating that signal transmission was exclusively mediated by non-NMDA type receptors during inspiratory intervals. This study supports previous findings that application of non-NMDA antagonists to the brain region containing AVPNs led to a dose-dependent attenuation of the reflex-induced change of tracheal tone[18]. Interestingly, this current study also showed that CNQX induced an inward current in two IA-AVPNs,
showing a direct depolarization effect of CNQX in these neurons. The underlying mechanism remains unclear. One possible explanation is that CNQX plays a dual role in the central nervous system [14, 26], as CNQX can also serve as a weak agonist of AMPA receptors using transmembrane AMPA receptor regulatory protein (TARP) auxiliary subunits [26]. Another explanation is that other excitatory pathways in the respiratory network are probably unveiled by CNQX. For example, ATP could
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potentiate inspiratory glutamatergic drive to hypoglossal motoneurons (HMNs) [12]
and depolarize HMNs and phrenic motoneuron in the presence of TTX [12, 27]. Even
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in the presence of TTX, AP5 and CNQX, ATP still caused an inward current in PBC inspiratory neurons [23]. IA-AVPNs can also be disinhibited by 5-HT1A/7 receptor
agonists [7]. Consequently, purinergic and 5-HT receptor modulation might contribute
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to the direct depolarization of some IA-AVPNs in current study. The direct
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postsynaptic excitatory actions of CNQX on IA-AVPNs merit further investigations.
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We also found that gap junctions contributed to synaptic activation of IA-AVPNs during inspiration, supporting our previous report that currents mediated by gap
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junctions could be selectively revealed in single IA-AVPN[6]. CBX was reported to
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alter membrane excitability in HMNs and PBC neurons when applied for longer than 20 minutes [31]. However, input resistance of IA-AVPNs was not altered by focal application of CBX alone at 1-2 minutes in present study. It seems that blockade of
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gap junction contributes to the partial inhibition of PIICs and SECs. Gap junctions might be important for synchronization of the electrical activity in IA-AVPNs, which
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may be involved in synchronization of bronchial constriction when asthma attacks. Gap junctions mediated oscillations may be involved in the generation or enhancement of the respiratory rhythm [31, 37]. In some special circumstances, for
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example, oscillations evoked by TRH in IA-AVPNs might be related to cold-stress-induced asthma exacerbation [20]. In our current research, focal application of CNQX to II-AVPNs inhibited glycinergic synaptic transmission, indicating that glycinergic preynaptic inputs of II-AVPNs could be regulated by glutamatergic innervation from PBC. As focal CNQX abolished glycinergic synaptic activity, this implies that synaptic activation of presynaptic
AMPA receptors should facilitate glycinergic neurons synapsing with II-AVPNs. Our finding thus differs from previous reports that stimulation of AMPA receptors induced presynaptic inhibition at inhibitory synapses [14, 19, 34]. In the hypoglossal nucleus, the facilitatory effects of CNQX on both glycinergic and GABAergic synaptic transmission depend on the weak agonism of non-NMDA receptor by CNQX [14]. In this study, CNQX still served as an antagonist of non-NMDA receptors expressed on
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glycinergic neurons synapsing with II-AVPNs. As CNQX reduced both tonic sEPSCs during inspiratory intervals and glycinergic inputs, this suggests that the presynaptic
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influence of glutamate plays an important role in keeping the balance between the
excitatory and inhibitory synaptic inputs to II-AVPNs. Alterations in this equilibrium could result in dysfunctions of trachea, bronchi and pulmonary airways[20-22].
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5. CONCLUSIONS
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In IA-AVPNs, NMDA receptors, non-NMDA receptors, gap junction coupling, α4β2
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and α7 nAChRs involved in the rhythmic activation of synaptic currents during inspiratory bursts, with non-NMDA receptors constituting a major component
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(Summarized in Fig.5A); in II-AVPNs, excitatory glutamatergic synaptic inputs
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presynaptically facilitated its inhibitory glycinergic inputs (Summarized in Fig.5B). 6. CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This project was supported by National Nature Science Foundation of China to Lili
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Hou (81300020), the Young Physician Assistant Training Program of Shanghai and the Excellent Young Physician Assistant Training Program of Shanghai General
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Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University to Lili Hou.
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Figure legends
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Figure 1. Focal application of AP5 reduced the area, but not the amplitude, of the
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PIICs, and didn't alter tonic sEPSCs during inspiratory intervals or phasic SECs during inspiratory bursts in IA-AVPNs. A, Recording in a representative IA-AVPN
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during control conditions (the upper panel) and application of AP5 (the lower panel), indicating that AP5 didn't alter hypoglossal inspiratory bursts, tonic sEPSCs or phasic
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SECs. B and C, Comparison (B) and summarized data(n=6) (C) of the PIICs during control and AP5 application, showing that PIIC area was reduced but PIIC amplitude
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was not changed by AP5. D, Cumulative distribution of the amplitude of the phasic SECs. E and F, Cumulative distribution of the inter-event interval (E) and the amplitude (F) of the the tonic sEPSCs. G and H, Summarized data of the frequency
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(G) and the amplitude (H) of the phasic SECs during inspiratory bursts (n=6). I and J, Summarized data of the frequency (H) and the amplitude (J) of the tonic sEPSCs during inspiratory intervals (n=6). *P<0.05 compared with the control group, Student's paired t-test. ∫Ⅻ, integrated hypoglossal bursts. Freq.: frequency, Amp. :amplitude.
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Figure 2. Focal application of CNQX inhibited most phasic SECs, decreased PIICs
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and abolished almost all tonic sEPSCs in IA-AVPNs, without altering hypoglossal bursts. A, Recording in a representative IA-AVPN. The upper panel shows that CNQX
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induced a slight inward current in the IA-AVPN and inhibited SECs, both during
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inspiratory bursts and during inspiratory intervals. The lower panel shows that integrated hypoglossal bursts weren't changed by CNQX. B and C, The recording of the IA-AVPN from (A) on an extended timescale during control (B) and focal
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application of CNQX (C). The arrow in (C) shows the remaining spikelets not blocked by CNQX. D, The recording of spikelets from (C) on an enlarged timescale.
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E and G, Comparison (E) and summarized data (G, n=7) of the PIICs in the peak amplitude and area during control and CNQX application, showing significant reduction of PIICs by CNQX . F and H, Frequency histogram (F) and running average
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of tonic sEPSC amplitude (H) of a representative IA-AVPN, showing CNQX almost abolished tonic spontaneous EPSCs. ***P<0.001 compared with control groups, Student's paired t-test. ∫Ⅻ, integrated hypoglossal bursts. Amp. :amplitude.
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Figure 3. Antagonists of nAChRs (DHβE, MLA) and a gap junction blocker (CBX) partially inhibited PIICs. A, A representative recording of an IA-AVPN. The first
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panel shows synaptic activities and hypoglossal inspiratory burst during control. The second panel shows that co-application of CNQX and AP5 removed a major
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proportion of the PIIC during inspiratory bursts . The third panel shows that additive focal application of DHβE and MLA further inhibited a small proportion of PIICs and
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the fourth panel exhibits that additional application of CBX almost abolished all remaining spikelets and PIICs. B and C, Summarized data of PIIC peak amplitude (B) and area (C) (n=4). *P<0.05, **P<0.01 and ***P<0.001 respectively compared with
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control groups, Student's paired t-test. ∫Ⅻ, integrated hypoglossal bursts. Amp. :amplitude.
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Figure 4. CNQX reduced PIOC frequency, peak amplitude and area. A, A representative recording of an II-AVPN, showing that focal application of CNQX
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significantly attenuated PIOC frequency, peak amplitude and area. B, The top, middle and bottom traces show the recording of the II-AVPN during control condition, focal
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application of CNQX and washing, respectively, using an faster time scale compared to (A). C, Comparison of PIOCs during control and focal application of CNQX, showing that PIOCs were reduced by CNQX. D, Summarized data of PIOC frequency,
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peak amplitude and area (n=4). **P<0.01 and ***P<0.001 compared with the control groups, Student's paired t-test. Amp. :amplitude.
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Figure 5. Proposed mechanisms underlying the synaptic activation of IA-AVPNs
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during inspiratory bursts and of presynaptic facilitation of II-AVPNs. A, A schematic showing that at least three mechanisms are involved in the synaptic activation of the
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IA-AVPN during inspiratory bursts. B, A schematic depicting presynaptic facilitation
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of glycinergic synaptic inputs of II-AVPNs via glutamergic innervations from PBC during inspiratory bursts, in addition to direct glutamatergic inputs received by and
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II-AVPNs during inspiratory intervals.
S0304-3940(18)30811-5 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2018.11.024 NSL 33942
To appear in:
Neuroscience Letters
Received date: Revised date: Accepted date:
23 July 2018 18 October 2018 15 November 2018
Please cite this article as: Hou L, Bellingham MC, Huang Y, Zhang P, Zhou X, Zhang M, Central inspiratory activity rhythmically activates synaptic currents of airway vagal preganglionic neurons in neonatal rats, Neuroscience Letters (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2018.11.024 This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
Central inspiratory activity rhythmically activates synaptic currents of airway vagal preganglionic neurons in neonatal rats
Lili Hou1, Mark C. Bellingham2, Yong Huang3, Pengyu Zhang1, Xin Zhou1, Min Zhang1*
Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai General Hospital,
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Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
Faculty of Medicine, School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland,
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Brisbane, QLD, Australia 3
Department of Anesthesiology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong
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University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
Corresponding authors: Min Zhang, E-mail: [email protected]
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*
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First author: Lili Hou, E-mail: [email protected]
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Min Zhang, Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Address: No. 100 Haining Road, Shanghai, 200080, China
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Tel/Fax: +86-021-37798863
Highlights
1, In IA-AVPNs, NMDA receptors, non-NMDA receptors, gap junction
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couplings and the type of α4β2 and α7 nAChRs involved in the rhythmic activation of synaptic currents during inspiratory bursts, while non-NMDA receptors constitute a major proportion.
2, In II-AVPNs, excitatory glutamatergic synaptic inputs presynaptically
facilitated its inhibitory glycinergic inputs.
Abstract The airway vagal preganglionic neurons (AVPNs) in the external formation of the
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nucleus ambiguus (eNA) can be separated into inspiratory-activated AVPNs (IA-AVPNs) and inspiratory-inhibited AVPNs (II-AVPNs). IA-AVPNs are activated
by excitatory presynaptic inputs during inspiratory bursts, but the composition and the
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roles of these excitatory inputs still remain obscure. II-AVPNs are inhibited by
inhibitory presynaptic inputs but whether these inhibitory inputs are regulated by excitatory inputs is also unclear. In the current study, AVPNs were retrogradely
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fluorescent labeled. The IA-AVPNs were discriminated from II-AVPNs by their
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different synaptic inputs during inspiratory bursts. The excitatory inputs to IA-AVPNs
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and the presynaptic regulation of II-AVPNs were examined by whole-cell patch
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clamping. Topical application of 6-Cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (CNQX) to the recorded IA-AVPNs almost abolished the tonic EPSCs during inspiratory intervals,
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inhibited the phasic excitatory currents during inspiratory bursts and attenuated the phasic inspiratory inward currents (PIICs) driven by central inspiratory activity.
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Blockade of α4β2 and α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) respectively inhibited PIICs in some IA-AVPNs. Carbenoxolone, a gap junction uncoupler, partly
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inhibited the PIICs of IA-AVPNs. Focal application of CNQX to the II-AVPNs significantly inhibited the frequency, peak amplitude and area of the phasic inspiratory outward currents (PIOCs). These findings demonstrated that glutamatergic
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non-NMDA receptors played a predominant role in the excitatory drive to the IA-AVPNs, and that α4β2, α7 nAChRs and gap junctions were also rhythmically activated by central inspiratory activity. Additionally, glycinergic neurons making inhibitory inputs to the II-AVPNs were pre-synaptically facilitated by excitatory glutamatergic synaptic inputs.
Abbreviation list: ACSF, artificial cerebral spinal fluid; AMPA, 2-amino-3-(5-methyl-3-oxo-1,2oxazol-4-yl)propanoic acid; AP5, D-2-amino-5-phosphonovalerate; CBX, carbenoxolone; cNA, the compact formation of the nucleus ambiguous; CNQX, 6-Cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2, 3-dione; DMSO, dimethyl sulfoxide; eNA, the external formation of the nucleus ambiguous; GABA, γ-aminobutyric acid;
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IA-AVPNs, inspiratory-activated airway vagal preganglionic neurons; II-AVPNs,
inspiratory-inhibited airway vagal preganglionic neurons; NA, nucleus ambiguous;
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NMDA, N-methyl-D-aspartate; AVPNs, airway vagal preganglionic neurons; α4β2 nAChRs: α4β2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors; α7 nAChRs: α7 nicotinic
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acetylcholine receptors; sEPSCs, spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents;
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Key words: airway vagal preganglionic neurons, N-methyl-d-aspartate,
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Non-N-methyl-d-aspartate, nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, gap junctions, synaptic
1. Introduction
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transmission, patch clamp
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Airway vagal preganglionic neurons (AVPNs) are part of the integrated respiratory control network, and play a crucial role in the modulation of airway functions in both
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physiological and pathological conditions in mammals [3, 17, 22]. Previous studies demonstrated that AVPNs located in the external formation of the nucleus ambiguus (eNA) in the medulla oblongata are the dominant modulators of the cholinergic tone
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of the airway smooth muscles[3, 15]. AVPNs receive synaptic inputs from various brain areas [13, 16], including the pre-Bötzinger complex (PBC)[5, 6, 39]. The PBC contains respiratory pattern generator neurons[11, 31], interneurons [1, 25] and other heterogeneous neurons [2, 9]. Respiratory pattern generator neurons not only drive respiratory premotor neurons innervating the diaphragm muscles and intercostals but also drive AVPNs [28], thus linking respiratory muscle movements to rhythmical
fluctuations of airway cholinergic tone and airway resistance under normal conditions [16, 17], optimizing gas exchanges by decreasing large fluctuations of functional residual capacity and prevention of lung collapse [19]. Indeed, AVPNs show phasic synaptic activity in synchrony with central inspiratory activity[5, 6]. At present, two types of AVPNs located in eNA are distinguished by their differing phasic synaptic control: inspiratory-activated AVPNs (IA-AVPNs) are those that have phasic
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inspiratory-related excitatory synaptic currents and inspiratory-inhibited AVPNs (II-AVPNs) are those that have phasic inspiratory-related inhibitory synaptic
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currents[5, 6, 20].
In vitro bath application of CNQX abolished both the excitatory synaptic currents in
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IA-AVPNs and hypoglossal inspiratory bursts [6], indicating glutamate-AMPA
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receptors might play a predominant role in the activation of the IA-AVPNs in the
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respiratory circuits. However, when considering that the generation of respiratory rhythm in the respiratory network depends largely on glutamate-AMPA receptors [24,
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33, 36], it is difficult to determine which neurons (e.g. inspiratory generator neurons,
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presynaptic neurons to the IA-AVPNs, IA-AVPNs) are being targeted by the action of bath-applied CNQX. Application of NMDA to the ventral surface of the medulla oblongata, where AVPNs are located, increased tracheal tone [16], indicating that
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AVPNs can be excited by NMDA receptor activation. Additionally, gap junctions [8, 19]and endogenous cholinergic mechanisms mediated by activation of the α7 and
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α4β2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are also involved in the regulation of IA-AVPNs [10, 40]. For example, thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) evoked a distinct oscillatory pattern mediated by gap junctions in IA-AVPNs [20], but not in
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II-AVPNs [21]. However, the roles of NMDA receptors, gap junctions and nACh receptors in the synaptic activation of IA-AVPNs by central activity remain unclear. The first aim in the current study was to clarify the composition and the roles of synaptic currents in IA-AVPNs driven by central inspiratory activity, using whole cell patch clamp. In II-AVPNs, most spontaneous IPSCs and all the phasic inspiratory outward currents
(PIOCs) are glycinergic currents [21]. PIOCs in II-AVPNs could be inhibited coincidentally with the inhibition of hypoglossal inspiratory bursts in vitro, and are thus unlikely to be due to blockade of inhibitory transmission in the respiratory reflex network[30]. In view of the effects of synaptic activation of AMPA receptors on gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) neurotransmission [32], it is reasonable to postulate that glycinergic neurons innervating II-AVPNs during inspiratory bursts
of the current study was to clarify this possibility at the synaptic level.
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2. Materials and methods
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could be regulated by glutamatergic synaptic inputs from PBC. Thus, the second aim
2.1. Animals and ethical approval
The animal procedures were approved by the Animal Care Committee of Shanghai
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General Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University, and were in accordance
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with the guidelines established by the National Institute of Health for the care and use
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of experimental animals. 36 neonatal rats were used for this study. From 36 slices, a total of 32 IA-AVPNs (88.9%) and 4 II-AVPNs (11.1%) were identified.
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2.2 Retrogradely fluorescent labelling of the AVPNs and slice preparation
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Three to five day-old Sprague-Dawley rats (Shanghai General Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University) were anesthetized by inhalation of halothane (0.5 ml) and hypothermia, and then the AVPNs were labeled, as described in our previous
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work [20, 21]. 48-52 h after the labeling, the animal was deeply anesthetized with halothane again and then decapitated. The brainstem was isolated and submerged in
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cold (4 °C) artificial cerebral spinal fluid (ACSF, mmol L-1: NaCl 124, KCl 3.0, KH2PO4 1.2, CaCl2 2.4, MgSO4 1.3, NaHCO3 26, d-glucose 10), which was constantly bubbled with 95% O2-5% CO2. A single medullary slice of 500-800 μm
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thickness with one to two hypoglossal rootlets in each side was made. The slice was transferred into the recording chamber (0.6 ml) and superfused with ACSF at a flow rate of 6-10 ml/min to maintain rhythmic inspiratory discharges in hypoglossal rootlets. Bath temperature was maintained at 23 ± 0.5 °C, and the concentration of KCl in ACSF was increased to 10 mmol L-1 to maintain a steady bursting of the hypoglossal rootlets.
2.3. Electrophysiological recording The patch pipettes were filled with a K+ gluconate-dominated solution (mmol L-1): potassium gluconate, 150; HEPES, 10; EGTA, 10; CaCl2, 0.1; MgCl2 1; and Mg-ATP, 2 (pH 7.3). Lidocaine N-ethyl bromide (QX314) was included in the patch pipette to block voltage gated sodium currents. When the AVPNs were clamped at -80 mV using this solution, neurons showing bursting sEPSCs during inspiratory bursts were
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identified as IA-AVPNs. The Cl− currents were minimized, and only the EPSCs could be recorded. When the neurons were clamped at -50 mV using this solution, the
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II-AVPNs were identified as those that exhibited phasic inspiratory bursts of the
inhibitory (outward) synaptic activity. In these conditions, both EPSCs and IPSCs of II-AVPNs could be recorded. The membrane current was amplified with an Axopatch
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700B amplifier (10 kHz sampling frequency; 1 kHz filter frequency), digitized with
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1322A Digidata, and collected with Clampex 9.2 software (Axon Instruments, USA).
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The hypoglossal bursts were recorded from hypoglossal rootlets using a suction electrode, amplified with a BMA-931 bioamplifier (5 kHz sampling frequency;
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10-1,000 HZ band pass; 20,000 times), and electronically integrated (t=200 ms) with
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an MA-1000 Moving Averager (CWE Inc., Ardmore, PA, United States) before recording in the computer. The raw and integrated nerve rootlet signals were fed into the computer simultaneously with the membrane current signal.
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2.4. Drug application
A pressure-ejection pipette (15 p.s.i., tip diameter: 2-3 μm, injection duration: 100 ms)
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was positioned about 10 μm away from the red neuron, and the drugs were continuously focally applied using a PV830 Pneumatic PicoPump (World Precision Instruments, USA) for 1-2 sec. The concentration of drugs was used as described in
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the previous studies [20, 38, 40]. D-2-amino-5-phosphonovalerate (AP5, 50 μmol L-1), 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2, 3-dione (CNQX, 50 μmol L-1), methyllycaconitine (MLA, 100 nmol L-1), dihydro-β-erythroidine (DHβE, 3 μmol L-1) and carbenoxolone (CBX, 100 μmol L-1) were used to block NMDA, non-NMDA, α7, α4β2 nAChRs and gap junctions respectively. All drugs were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (St Louis, MO).
The affected range of these drugs by focal applying to the neurons using puff pipette was tested before experiments. As mentioned in the previous study[38], 10 μmol L-1 GABA was topically applied to the recorded neuron. The maximum area of the tissue affected by the puffer pipette was approximately 100-120 μm. 2.5. Data analysis The tonic spontaneous EPSCs (sEPSCs) and the phasic spontaneous excitatory
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currents (SECs) were analyzed using MiniAnalysis (Synaptosoft, version 4.3.1) with a minimal acceptable amplitude of 10 pA. The PIICs/PIOCs and the hypoglossal
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inspiratory bursts were analyzed using Clampfit 9.2 (Axon instruments, USA), the changes of which were expressed as the percentages of the control values. Before analyzing the PIICs/PIOCs and the hypoglossal bursts, selected segments of them
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were low-pass filtered at 5-HZ with an eight-pole Bessel filter. Respiratory frequency
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was manually calculated. The data from 6-8 consecutive inspiratory bursts prior to
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focal application of drugs were analyzed as the control, and the effects of drugs were determined from 6-8 consecutive inspiratory bursts during focal application of drugs.
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Results are presented as mean ± SD, unless otherwise stated, statistically significant
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difference was accepted at P<0.05, using a two-tailed paired-Student’s t-test using Origin 8.0 (OriginLab Corporation, Northampton, MA, United States). 3. RESULTS
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3.1. AP5 reduced the area of the PIICs without affecting hypoglossal bursts, tonic sEPSCs or phasic SECs in IA-AVPNs
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Focal application of the NMDA antagonist AP5 (50 μmol L-1) didn't significantly alter phasic SECs during inspiratory bursts (frequency: 34.0±7.9 versus 34.3±9.2 Hz, P>0.05; amplitude: 110.0±51.0 versus 107.5±65.0 pA, P>0.05, n=6) or tonic sEPSCs
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(frequency: 6.2±2.8 versus 5.8±2.7 Hz; amplitude: 50.5±10.8 versus 48.5±11.1 pA, P>0.05, n=6) (Fig1.A,D,E,F,G,H,I,J). However, AP5 reduced PIIC area (89.6±17.2%, P<0.05, n=6) but not PIIC peak amplitude (94.7±12.8%, P>0.05, n=6) compared with that of the control condition in IA-AVPNs (Fig.1B,C). Hypoglossal inspiratory bursts were not changed (Fig.1 A). 3.2. CNQX abolished the tonic sEPSCs, decreased the phasic SECs, inhibited
both peak amplitude and area of PIICs in IA-AVPNs Blockade of non-NMDA receptors by topical administration of CNQX (50 μmol L-1) to IA-AVPNs significantly decreased PIIC peak amplitude (38.4±11.3%, P<0.05, n=7) and area (37.0±9.8%, P<0.05, n=7) in IA-AVPNs (Fig.2A, B, C, E, G). CNQX had no effect on hypoglossal inspiratory bursts (Fig.2A). CNQX abolished almost all tonic sEPSCs during inspiratory intervals and phasic SECs during inspiratory bursts
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(Fig.2A, B, C) in 16 neurons. However, very scarce spikelets during inspiratory bursts were still exhibited after focal application of CNQX (Fig.2C&D). Surprisingly, a
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small inward current in the baseline (52.90±4.76 pA) was induced by CNQX
application in 2 of 16 IA-AVPNs (Fig.2 A). The input resistance of these 2 neurons was not significantly altered (data not shown).
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3.3. DHβE, MLA and CBX abolished PIICs and the remaining spikelets in
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IA-AVPNs
To clarify whether non-glutamatergic receptors were responsible for the remaining
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spikelets and CNQX-insensitive PIICs, the nAChR antagonists DHβE (3 μmol L-1),
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MLA (100 nmol L-1) and the gap junction blocker CBX (100 μmol L-1) were topically administered to the recorded neuron. In the absence of AP5 and CNQX in the pipette,
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focal application of DHβE significantly inhibited the PIIC peak amplitude (11.7±5.0%, P<0.001, n=6) and area (11.7±5.4%, P<0.01, n=6) in 6 of 10 neurons. In the absence
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of AP5 and CNQX, in 4 of 10 neurons, focal application of MLA inhibited PIIC peak amplitude (6.8±2.7%, P<0.05, n=4) and area (7.2±1.9%, P<0.05, n=4).
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Co-application of DHβE and MLA in the absence of AP5 and CNQX didn't affect the frequency or the amplitude of sEPSCs during inspiratory bursts (frequency 29.8±2.0 versus 27.0±6.3 Hz; amplitude 103.7±11.0 versus 107.1±9.2 pA, P>0.05, n=4) or
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during inspiratory intervals (frequency 4.7±2.8 versus 4.3±2.7 Hz; amplitude 30.9±2.1versus 32.5 ±5.3 pA, P>0.05, n=4). In the presence of AP5, CNQX, DHβE and MLA in the pipettes, additionally focal application of CBX to 4 of 6 neurons almost completely abolished PIICs and the remaining spikelets of IA-AVPNs during inspiratory bursts (Fig.3A,B,C). Neither the CBX, DHβE nor MLA changed hypoglossal inspiratory bursts (Fig.3A).
3.4. CNQX inhibited the frequency, peak amplitude and area of PIOCs and abolished the tonic sEPSCs in II-AVPNs Using a holding voltage of -50 mV, II-AVPNs showed PIOCs and an increase in glycinergic IPSCs during inspiratory bursts. Topical application of CNQX to the recorded II-AVPN significantly attenuated the frequency, peak amplitude and area of PIOCs (Fig.4) without affecting hypoglossal inspiratory bursts (data not shown).
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Additional application of AP5 and DHβE had no further effects on frequency, peak amplitude and area of the PIOCs (data not shown). The sEPSCs during inspiratory
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intervals were abolished by CNQX. Both the tonic spontaneous IPSCs and the phasic IPSCs were not measured in quantity as parts of them were contaminated by EPSCs. 4. DISCUSSION
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Given that AVPNs are located in the eNA region containing PBC neurons, it is of
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crucial importance to ensure that focal application of drugs did not affect PBC inspiratory rhythm-generating neurons. Thus the distance between the puffer pipette
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and the recorded AVPNs was about 10 μm. Under these conditions, the hypoglossal
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inspiratory bursts were not changed by focal application of drugs.
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In this study, the rhythmic synaptic inward currents during inspiratory bursts in IA-AVPNs were due to the following mechanisms: NMDA and non-NMDA glutamatergic receptors, gap junction coupling, and α4β2/α7 type of nicotinic
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cholinergic mechanisms. In agreement with a previous study showing that IA-AVPNs were innervated by strong glutamatergic inputs [19] and that non-NMDA receptors
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played a major role in synaptic transmission to AVPNs [18], the current study demonstrated that activation of non-NMDA receptors underlaid the main component of synaptic inward currents during inspiratory bursts in IA-AVPNs. Focal application
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of AP5 also inhibited PIIC area, indicating that NMDA receptors were also activated by central inspiratory drive. DHβE and MLA decreased PIICs in some IA-AVPNs, demonstrating that α4β2 and α7 nAChRs play a small but an important role in generating PIICs. However, in some IA-AVPNs, DHβE and MLA did not alter PIICs. One possible explanation is that AVPNs may be subdivided in terms of nAChRs expression and their functional
contribution to synaptic currents[6]. For example, most AVPNs innervating intrapulmonary airways express α4 nAChRs, while those projecting to extrathoracic trachea show lower expression levels [10], providing an explanation of differential responses to blockade of α4β2 nAChRs. It is more difficult to explain a differential response to MLA seen for PIICs in some IA-AVPNs, as almost all retrogradely labeled AVPNs innervating either intrapulmonary or extrathoracic airways express α7
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nAChR subunits [10]. However, the rats used in this previous study[10] were much
older than that used in our study, and the α7 nAChR subunit undergoes a substantial
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developmental increase in the central nervous system [29], raising the possibility that developmental changes in expression account for differential response to MLA. In support of this, pharmacological studies have shown that the α7 subunit is not
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involved in the nicotinic responses of neonatal hypoglossal motor neurons (0-5 days)
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[4] or neonatal PBC inspiratory neurons (0-3 days) [35]. It is possible that most
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AVPNs in our study had low expression of α7 nAChRs, although morphological evidence is absent at present.
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Both the frequency and the amplitude of phasic SECs in IA-AVPNs increased during
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inspiratory bursts and were abolished by combined application of CNQX and CBX topically. These results indicate that the non-NMDA glutamatergic receptor and gap junction couplings could be rhythmically activated by central inspiratory activity.
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Considering the activation of α4β2 [40] and/or α7 [10] nAChRs can increase presynaptic release of glutamate, phasic SECs could contribute to a cholinergic
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up-regulation of glutamatergic transmission. However, antagonists of α4β2 or α7 nAChRs had no effect on tonic sEPSCs and phasic SECs, indicating that phasic SECs were largely caused by the summation of postsynaptic glutamatergic currents. Tonic
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sEPSCs of IA-AVPNs were abolished by CNQX, demonstrating that signal transmission was exclusively mediated by non-NMDA type receptors during inspiratory intervals. This study supports previous findings that application of non-NMDA antagonists to the brain region containing AVPNs led to a dose-dependent attenuation of the reflex-induced change of tracheal tone[18]. Interestingly, this current study also showed that CNQX induced an inward current in two IA-AVPNs,
showing a direct depolarization effect of CNQX in these neurons. The underlying mechanism remains unclear. One possible explanation is that CNQX plays a dual role in the central nervous system [14, 26], as CNQX can also serve as a weak agonist of AMPA receptors using transmembrane AMPA receptor regulatory protein (TARP) auxiliary subunits [26]. Another explanation is that other excitatory pathways in the respiratory network are probably unveiled by CNQX. For example, ATP could
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potentiate inspiratory glutamatergic drive to hypoglossal motoneurons (HMNs) [12]
and depolarize HMNs and phrenic motoneuron in the presence of TTX [12, 27]. Even
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in the presence of TTX, AP5 and CNQX, ATP still caused an inward current in PBC inspiratory neurons [23]. IA-AVPNs can also be disinhibited by 5-HT1A/7 receptor
agonists [7]. Consequently, purinergic and 5-HT receptor modulation might contribute
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to the direct depolarization of some IA-AVPNs in current study. The direct
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postsynaptic excitatory actions of CNQX on IA-AVPNs merit further investigations.
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We also found that gap junctions contributed to synaptic activation of IA-AVPNs during inspiration, supporting our previous report that currents mediated by gap
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junctions could be selectively revealed in single IA-AVPN[6]. CBX was reported to
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alter membrane excitability in HMNs and PBC neurons when applied for longer than 20 minutes [31]. However, input resistance of IA-AVPNs was not altered by focal application of CBX alone at 1-2 minutes in present study. It seems that blockade of
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gap junction contributes to the partial inhibition of PIICs and SECs. Gap junctions might be important for synchronization of the electrical activity in IA-AVPNs, which
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may be involved in synchronization of bronchial constriction when asthma attacks. Gap junctions mediated oscillations may be involved in the generation or enhancement of the respiratory rhythm [31, 37]. In some special circumstances, for
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example, oscillations evoked by TRH in IA-AVPNs might be related to cold-stress-induced asthma exacerbation [20]. In our current research, focal application of CNQX to II-AVPNs inhibited glycinergic synaptic transmission, indicating that glycinergic preynaptic inputs of II-AVPNs could be regulated by glutamatergic innervation from PBC. As focal CNQX abolished glycinergic synaptic activity, this implies that synaptic activation of presynaptic
AMPA receptors should facilitate glycinergic neurons synapsing with II-AVPNs. Our finding thus differs from previous reports that stimulation of AMPA receptors induced presynaptic inhibition at inhibitory synapses [14, 19, 34]. In the hypoglossal nucleus, the facilitatory effects of CNQX on both glycinergic and GABAergic synaptic transmission depend on the weak agonism of non-NMDA receptor by CNQX [14]. In this study, CNQX still served as an antagonist of non-NMDA receptors expressed on
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glycinergic neurons synapsing with II-AVPNs. As CNQX reduced both tonic sEPSCs during inspiratory intervals and glycinergic inputs, this suggests that the presynaptic
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influence of glutamate plays an important role in keeping the balance between the
excitatory and inhibitory synaptic inputs to II-AVPNs. Alterations in this equilibrium could result in dysfunctions of trachea, bronchi and pulmonary airways[20-22].
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5. CONCLUSIONS
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In IA-AVPNs, NMDA receptors, non-NMDA receptors, gap junction coupling, α4β2
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and α7 nAChRs involved in the rhythmic activation of synaptic currents during inspiratory bursts, with non-NMDA receptors constituting a major component
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(Summarized in Fig.5A); in II-AVPNs, excitatory glutamatergic synaptic inputs
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presynaptically facilitated its inhibitory glycinergic inputs (Summarized in Fig.5B). 6. CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This project was supported by National Nature Science Foundation of China to Lili
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Hou (81300020), the Young Physician Assistant Training Program of Shanghai and the Excellent Young Physician Assistant Training Program of Shanghai General
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Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University to Lili Hou.
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Figure legends
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Figure 1. Focal application of AP5 reduced the area, but not the amplitude, of the
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PIICs, and didn't alter tonic sEPSCs during inspiratory intervals or phasic SECs during inspiratory bursts in IA-AVPNs. A, Recording in a representative IA-AVPN
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during control conditions (the upper panel) and application of AP5 (the lower panel), indicating that AP5 didn't alter hypoglossal inspiratory bursts, tonic sEPSCs or phasic
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SECs. B and C, Comparison (B) and summarized data(n=6) (C) of the PIICs during control and AP5 application, showing that PIIC area was reduced but PIIC amplitude
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was not changed by AP5. D, Cumulative distribution of the amplitude of the phasic SECs. E and F, Cumulative distribution of the inter-event interval (E) and the amplitude (F) of the the tonic sEPSCs. G and H, Summarized data of the frequency
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(G) and the amplitude (H) of the phasic SECs during inspiratory bursts (n=6). I and J, Summarized data of the frequency (H) and the amplitude (J) of the tonic sEPSCs during inspiratory intervals (n=6). *P<0.05 compared with the control group, Student's paired t-test. ∫Ⅻ, integrated hypoglossal bursts. Freq.: frequency, Amp. :amplitude.
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Figure 2. Focal application of CNQX inhibited most phasic SECs, decreased PIICs
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and abolished almost all tonic sEPSCs in IA-AVPNs, without altering hypoglossal bursts. A, Recording in a representative IA-AVPN. The upper panel shows that CNQX
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induced a slight inward current in the IA-AVPN and inhibited SECs, both during
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inspiratory bursts and during inspiratory intervals. The lower panel shows that integrated hypoglossal bursts weren't changed by CNQX. B and C, The recording of the IA-AVPN from (A) on an extended timescale during control (B) and focal
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application of CNQX (C). The arrow in (C) shows the remaining spikelets not blocked by CNQX. D, The recording of spikelets from (C) on an enlarged timescale.
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E and G, Comparison (E) and summarized data (G, n=7) of the PIICs in the peak amplitude and area during control and CNQX application, showing significant reduction of PIICs by CNQX . F and H, Frequency histogram (F) and running average
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of tonic sEPSC amplitude (H) of a representative IA-AVPN, showing CNQX almost abolished tonic spontaneous EPSCs. ***P<0.001 compared with control groups, Student's paired t-test. ∫Ⅻ, integrated hypoglossal bursts. Amp. :amplitude.
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Figure 3. Antagonists of nAChRs (DHβE, MLA) and a gap junction blocker (CBX) partially inhibited PIICs. A, A representative recording of an IA-AVPN. The first
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panel shows synaptic activities and hypoglossal inspiratory burst during control. The second panel shows that co-application of CNQX and AP5 removed a major
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proportion of the PIIC during inspiratory bursts . The third panel shows that additive focal application of DHβE and MLA further inhibited a small proportion of PIICs and
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the fourth panel exhibits that additional application of CBX almost abolished all remaining spikelets and PIICs. B and C, Summarized data of PIIC peak amplitude (B) and area (C) (n=4). *P<0.05, **P<0.01 and ***P<0.001 respectively compared with
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control groups, Student's paired t-test. ∫Ⅻ, integrated hypoglossal bursts. Amp. :amplitude.
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Figure 4. CNQX reduced PIOC frequency, peak amplitude and area. A, A representative recording of an II-AVPN, showing that focal application of CNQX
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significantly attenuated PIOC frequency, peak amplitude and area. B, The top, middle and bottom traces show the recording of the II-AVPN during control condition, focal
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application of CNQX and washing, respectively, using an faster time scale compared to (A). C, Comparison of PIOCs during control and focal application of CNQX, showing that PIOCs were reduced by CNQX. D, Summarized data of PIOC frequency,
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peak amplitude and area (n=4). **P<0.01 and ***P<0.001 compared with the control groups, Student's paired t-test. Amp. :amplitude.
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Figure 5. Proposed mechanisms underlying the synaptic activation of IA-AVPNs
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during inspiratory bursts and of presynaptic facilitation of II-AVPNs. A, A schematic showing that at least three mechanisms are involved in the synaptic activation of the
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IA-AVPN during inspiratory bursts. B, A schematic depicting presynaptic facilitation
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of glycinergic synaptic inputs of II-AVPNs via glutamergic innervations from PBC during inspiratory bursts, in addition to direct glutamatergic inputs received by and
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II-AVPNs during inspiratory intervals.