Central petén blue pigment: A maya blue source outside of Yucatán, México

Journal of Archaeological Science 37 (2010) 1006–1019

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Central pete´n blue pigment: A maya blue source outside of Yucata´n, Me´xico Leslie G. Cecil* Department of Social and Cultural Analysis, P.O. Box 13047, SFA Station, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, TX 75962, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 10 August 2009 Received in revised form 11 November 2009 Accepted 2 December 2009

Much of the research on Maya Blue has focused on locating palygorskite sources in northern Yucata´n, Me´xico. To that end, Arnold et al. (2007) reported seven discriminate source mineral locations for palygorskite used in the manufacture of Maya Blue. Recently, a blue pigment was excavated from the archaeological site of Ixlu´, El Pete´n, Guatemala and LA-ICP-MS and INAA analyses were conducted to determine if the pigment had the traditional Maya Blue structure and if it was from one of the seven mineral sources in Me´xico. Geochemical analyses demonstrate that the Ixlu´ pigment has the traditional Maya Blue structure, but it was manufactured from clays in central Pete´n, Guatemala. These new data suggest that the knowledge of Maya Blue manufacture was transferred and not the actual pigment and they reveal another source for Maya Blue manufacture outside of the Yucata´n peninsula. Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Maya Blue Chemical analysis Central Pete´n Guatemala Postclassic Maya

Traditionally, Maya Blue (a chemically stable, blue pigment made from palygorskite clay and indigo that was used in Maya art and iconography and found throughout the Maya area and into Me´xico) is thought to have been manufactured primarily in northern Yucata´n and traded throughout Mesoamerica (Arnold, 1967, 1971; Arnold et al., 2007, 2008; Shepard, 1962; Shepard and Gettlieb, 1962; among others). Much of the recent research concerning Maya Blue has contributed greatly to the mineralogical and chemical composition of the pigment as well as the analysis of some archaeological samples against laboratory-established references of palygorskite, the clay used to manufacture Maya Blue (Dome´nech et al., 2009; Jose-Yacaman et al., 1996; Reyes-Valerio, 1993; Sa´nchez del Rı´o et al., 2004, 2006, 2009). Nevertheless, with the exception of Dome´nech-Carbo´ and Va´zquez de Agredos Pascual’s (2006) analyses at La Blanca in Pete´n, Guatemala (the Yaxha´Nakum area), these studies have focused on northern Yucata´n palygorskite mines and artifacts from archaeological sites in Me´xico ˜ o, Chich’en Itza, Ek’ Balam, (e.g., Acanceh, D’zula, El Tabasquen Kuluba´, and Mayapa´n). While these studies have contributed to the information about Maya Blue and its production, little attention has been given to samples (clay and pigment) outside of northern Yucata´n. This study is one of the first to examine possible Maya Blue manufacture outside of the well-established northern Yucata´n center of production. Since the inception of various studies to understand the chemical complexity and origin of production and trade of Maya * Tel.: þ1 936 468 3980. E-mail address: [email protected] 0305-4403/$ – see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2009.12.001

Blue, scholars have been divided into three main arenas: (1) determining Maya Blue mineralogical and chemical structure; (2) Maya Blue production in northern Yucata´n and trade to other communities in the Maya area and beyond (the Shepard/Arnold/ Bohor hypothesis) (Arnold, 1967; Arnold and Bohor, 1975, 1976; Shepard, 1962; Shepard and Gettlieb, 1962); and (3) Maya Blue production in various locations from different deposits of palygorskite suggesting a transfer of technological knowledge and not necessarily the actual pigment (the Littmann hypothesis) (Littmann, 1980, 1982). While the majority of studies have focused on the technological aspects of manufacturing Maya Blue and locating possible palygorskite sources (supporting the Shepard/Arnold/Bohor hypothesis), it is also important to acknowledge the communication of technological knowledge of Maya Blue manufacture. This example of passing of technological knowledge, in this case with a pigment tied to Maya ritual and art, is applicable to other fields of studies worldwide because many times the technology is transferred through social and/or political networks instead of the actual object. Arnold et al. (2007) recently published chemical data of 33 palygorskite samples collected from clay sources in Yucata´n, Me´xico, and Pete´n, Guatemala. Their results suggest seven different source areas for the clay used in manufacturing Maya Blue: Yo’ Sah Kab, Uxmal, Chapab, Sacalum, Maxcanu, Mama, and southern Pete´n (Fig. 1). The two clay samples from southern Pete´n (Pete´n road cut A and B) were collected in 1970 by Arnold (Arnold et al., 2007: p. 49) and were compared with a blue pigment sample obtained from Postclassic period (ca. A.D. 950–1500) (Table 1) excavations in central Pete´n (the archaeological site of

L.G. Cecil / Journal of Archaeological Science 37 (2010) 1006–1019

1007

Fig. 1. Map of the Yucata´n peninsula, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador indicating the clay and archaeological sites mentioned in the text and figures: (1) Maxcanu; (2) Uxmal; (3) Sacalum; (4) Chapab; (5) Mama; (6) Yo’ Sah Kab; (7) Mayapa´n; (8) Topoxte´ Islands; (9) Ixlu´; (10) Nakum; and (11) Nojpeten.

Ixlu´) by Proyecto Maya Colonial1 (Rice et al., 1996). Arnold et al. (2007: p. 53) stated that ‘‘[t]he compositional profile of this pigment is consistent with the palygorskite composition presented here although it does not seem to fall into any specific palygorskite

1

Proyecto Maya Colonial (1994–2002) investigated the Postclassic occupation in the Pete´n lakes region. Ethnohistoric and archaeological research into the Postclassic (ca. A.D. 950–1500) Maya of northern Yucata´n, Belize, and Guatemala revealed that it was a time of dynamic sociopolitical alliances and dominance relations, changing religious cults, long-distance exchange, and migrations of sociopolitical groups from northern Yucata´n to central Pete´n and vice versa. The project’s goals were to locate sites and territories named in Postclassic and early Colonial Spanish and Maya documents. Two of the main sociopolitical groups, the Kowoj and the Itza, and their corresponding material culture were investigated and three main sites were excavated (Zacpete´n, Ixlu´, and Nixtun Ch’ich’) (see Rice and Rice, 2009 for a complete recount of the Kowoj).

source group.’’ This supports the idea that there may have been an additional location (not in northern Yucata´n) from which Maya obtained clays to manufacture blue pigments. When the Ixlu´ sample is compared mineralogically and chemically to other

Table 1 Time periods and major events in the Maya region. Period Name

Approximate dates

Major trends

Preclassic

400 BC, A.D. 100

Early Classic Classic Terminal Classic Postclassic

ca. ca. ca. ca.

Emergence of Maya civilization, monumental architecture, Beginning of civic-ceremonial centers Urban state society ‘‘Collapse’’ and warfare Social and political re-organization of Maya

A.D. A.D. A.D. A.D.

250–600 600–800 800–900 900–1500

1008

L.G. Cecil / Journal of Archaeological Science 37 (2010) 1006–1019

Fig. 2. Map of archaeological site of Ixlu´ with Structure 2023 indicated (top, modified from Rice et al., 1996: Fig. 6) and map of archaeological sites in the central Pete´n lakes region (bottom, modified from Cecil and Neff, 2006: Fig. 1).

cream-colored clays and pottery (Clemencia Cream Paste Ware2) from the Yaxha´-Nakum vicinity in Guatemala, the sample not only is confirmed to be Maya Blue (made from palygorskite clay), but it was made from clays used to manufacture pottery in the central Pete´n lakes region. This suggests a new source area for Maya Blue – the central Pete´n lakes region. One of the concerns that Arnold (2005: pp. 56–58) justifiably poses is that archaeologists, geologists, and chemists are testing possible palygorskite clay sources that may not have been known to the Maya and just because scientists can determine that the

2 Clemencia Cream Paste Ware ceramics (first defined by Bullard, 1970 and then by Rice, 1979) are characterized by a low-fired (ca. 450–600  C), white (2.5YR 8/1) to cream-colored (10YR 8/2–3, 10YR 7/3–4, and 10YR 7/1) marly paste with a red (10R 5–4/6, 2.5YR 5–4/8, and 5YR 5/6) slip. Vessel forms include dishes, bowls, and jars (Bullard, 1970; Rice, 1979:15–21) and decoration occurs as black painted (Pastel Polychrome), red-and-black painted (Cante´ Polychrome), or red painted (Chompoxte´ Red-on-cream) (Rice, 1979:28–42). This ware category is specific to the Topoxte´ Island area in central Pete´n.

clay may have been appropriate for the manufacture of the Maya Blue pigment, the mere presence of palygorskite does not mean that the Maya actually used the clay (Arnold et al., 2007: p. 55). In this case, the Ixlu´ blue pigment sample is compared to pottery (clays used by the Maya) and clays that are chemically associated with that pottery. Therefore, if the clay in the Ixlu´ blue pigment sample has mineralogical and chemical affinities to the pottery and clays from the Yaxha´-Nakum vicinity, it stands to reason that the Maya had knowledge of and used those clays suggesting ‘‘behavior, human agency, and the social embeddedness of technology’’ of the production of Maya Blue (Arnold et al., 2007: p. 54).

2. Ixlu´ blue pigment sample and clemencia cream paste ware pottery The blue pigment sample [a small deposit (approximately 1 g) of pea-sized nodules not associated with murals or pottery with

L.G. Cecil / Journal of Archaeological Science 37 (2010) 1006–1019

blue decoration] was located during excavations of the Postclassic temple (Str. 2023) at Ixlu´ (Lot, 20,463; Pozo 65, 205; Level 2) (Fig. 2). The sample appears to be solely a pigment and not mixed with other pigments or attached to pieces of pottery, murals, or plaza floors. Structure 2023 was the focal point of the Postclassic ceremonial complex at Ixlu´. In general, Postclassic civic-ceremonial architecture consists of various groupings of open halls, temples, oratorios, and the like (Pugh, 2001a; Rice and Rice, 2009). At Ixlu´, the main Postclassic plaza (situated within a Late Classic plaza) consists of three open halls, a temple (Str. 2023), and a small platform. To the immediate east of the temple, and associated with the construction of the temple, was a row of 13 human crania (all facing east). This is the only location at Ixlu´ to have a Postclassic temple. Therefore, the temple’s location and context suggest a ritual context and possible ritual significance (human sacrifice as seen by the 13 crania) commonly associated with Maya Blue (Rice, 2009; Tozzer, 1941: pp. 117–119; Vail and Aveni, 2009). This Ixlu´ blue pigment sample was compared to nine clay deposits that were sampled during the Central Pete´n Historical Ecology Project (CPHEP) from locations around Lake Yaxha´ as well as 68 Clemencia Cream Paste ware pottery samples from the more recently excavated archaeological sites of Zacpete´n, Ixlu´, and Tipu. Clemencia Cream Paste Ware pottery was chosen for the analysis because it is a cream-colored ware manufactured in the local area during the Postclassic period and because Maya Blue is produced from a white clay. Therefore, given the other non-cream-colored Postclassic wares (see below), it seemed that if there were any similarities to Pete´n pottery, they most likely would occur within cream-colored pottery made from creamcolored clays. Of the nine clay samples analyzed, three are mineralogically and chemically similar to the Clemencia Cream Paste Ware pottery manufactured at or near Topoxte´ Island (Cecil, 2009). The closest statistical association between clays and archaeological sherds is with the clay sample obtained from the ground surface of the Homul River where it was crossed by the trail to the archaeological site of Nakum. Two other clay samples with strong statistical associations to the Clemencia Cream Paste ware sherds come from a road cut near the intersection of the road to Yaxha´ and the road to Melchor de Mencos (kilometer meter 64–65) and from the archaeological site of Yaxha´ (a natural clay deposit encountered in a test pit into Mound 512, 100–110 cm below surface). Clemencia Cream Paste Ware pottery (Fig. 3) is one of three decorative wares manufactured during the Postclassic period [the other two are Snail-Inclusion Paste Ware and Vitzil Orange-Red Ware, see Cecil (2001) for a more extensive discussion of Postclassic pottery wares]. Clemencia Cream Paste Ware pottery is the only Postclassic ware manufactured from a fine marly creamcolored (10YR 8/2, 8/3, 7/3, 7/4) clay with fine calcite, quartz, hematite, biotite, chalcedony, and chert mineral inclusions (as well as a small group of sherds with volcanic ash temper). The Clemencia Cream Paste ware pottery that was analyzed, and used here as a comparative sample, was excavated from Postclassic structures at Ixlu´ and Zacpete´n in central Pete´n and Tipu in Belize. These samples form three statistically significant chemical composition groups that reflect three different manufacturing recipes: (1) volcanic ash tempered; (2) calcite, quartz, hematite, and biotite inclusions; and (3) calcite, quartz, hematite, and chalcedony inclusions. Each of these manufacturing recipes correlates to a different decorative program: (1) monochrome red slip and volcanic ash tempered; (2) red-line decoration and calcite, quartz, hematite, and biotite inclusions; and (3) red-and-black line decoration and calcite, quartz, hematite, and chalcedony inclusions (Cecil, 2008, 2009; Cecil and Neff, 2006; Rice and Cecil, 2009). It

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Fig. 3. Clemencia Cream Paste Ware pottery: (a) Chompoxte´ Red-on-cream: Akalche´ Variety tripod dish; (b) Pastel Polychrome tecomate; (c) Chompoxte´ Red-on-cream: Kayukos Variety narrow neck jar; and (d) Cante´ Polychrome tripod dish.

has long been hypothesized that this pottery was manufactured at or near Topoxte´ Island by the Kowoj3 and traded to other sites within the region (Bullard, 1970; Rice, 1979); however, no pottery or clays were chemically examined until 2001 to test this longheld hypothesis based on visually apparent stylistic and paste similarities. With the addition of geochemical analyses, Cecil (Cecil, 2001, 2008, 2009; Cecil and Neff, 2006) can scientifically state that Clemencia Cream Paste ware pottery was produced by the Kowoj from clays in the Yaxha´-Nakum region and traded to other Kowoj-affiliated communities in the central Pete´n lakes region, thus grounding Bullard’s and Rice’s initial observations with statistical data.

3 The Kowoj controlled the northeastern area of Lake Pete´n Itza´ and the eastcentral Pete´n lakes (Lake Salpete´n, and possibly Lake Yaxha´ and Lake Macanche´) (Jones, 1998). They claimed to have migrated from Mayapa´n around A.D. 1530; however, they may have had a series of earlier migrations to and from Mayapa´n, of which one occurred after the fall of that site (ca. A.D. 1450) and the last may have been ca. A.D. 1530 (Cecil, 2001, 2004; Rice et al., 1996). Pete´n Kowoj kinship patronyms were linked to those of prestigious individuals at Mayapa´n (Jones, 1998: Table 1.1; Roys, 1957: Table 1) and the Chilam Balam of Chumayel stated that the guardian of the east gate of Mayapa´n was a Kowoj (Roys, 1933: p. 79). The main architectural pattern of the Kowoj is the temple assemblage (Pugh, 2001a). First defined by Proskouriakoff (1962) at Mayapa´n, this complex is present at Topoxte´ Island and Zacpete´n and variants also occur at Ixlu´ and Muralla de Leo´n in central Pete´n (Pugh, 2001b: p. 253), Tipu in western Belize (Cecil, 2009), and Isla Cilvituk in Campeche, Me´xico (Alexander, 1998). In addition to temple assemblages, ossuaries and individual skull deposits are common among the Kowoj (Duncan, 2005). Finally, the Kowoj distinguished themselves from other sociopolitical groups in the Pete´n lakes region through a distinctive pottery technological style: light-colored clay pastes with red-on-paste and red-and-black painted decoration (Cecil, 2001, 2004). Some of the decorative motifs specific to the Kowoj include multi-strand woven mats and ajaw and zip/ilhuitl glyphs (Rice and Cecil, 2009). Stylistically and technologically similar pottery was excavated from the southern Xiw/Kowoj portion of Mayapa´n (Structure Y-45a; Masson et al., 2006).

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L.G. Cecil / Journal of Archaeological Science 37 (2010) 1006–1019

3. Analytical methods The Ixlu´ blue pigment and pottery samples were analyzed using laser-ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (LAICP-MS) (Arnold et al., 2007), instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) (Cecil, 2001, 2008), and field emission environmental scanning-electron microscopy (ESEM). The clay samples were analyzed using X-ray diffraction (XRD) and INAA. 3.1. Mineralogical analyses 3.1.1. X-ray diffraction (XRD) Clay samples and Clemencia Cream Paste ware sherds fired below 550  C4 were analyzed by XRD using a Millipore filter transfer system to obtain a ‘‘fair crystallite orientation’’ of the clay size particles (Moore and Reynolds, 1997: p. 217). Exterior surfaces of the sherds were abraded by a silicon carbide burr. Clay and sherd samples were crushed, sieved (using a No. 14 USGS standard sieve with an opening of 1.40 mm), and centrifuged. After this initial processing, the dispersed suspension of clay size particles was decanted into a vacuum filter apparatus and the suspension was filtered through the system and the clay size particles were deposited on filter paper. The particles were then transferred onto a glass slide and dried. Each slide was analyzed dried and treated with ethylene glycol. The ethylene glycol treatment consisted of placing the slides in a plastic container with ethylene glycol for at least 12 h. After the samples were dried and/or exposed to ethylene glycol, they were then analyzed using an XRG 3100 X-ray generator and an XDS 2000 Sintag produced x-rays and recorded data for each sample. The X-ray energy source was set at 45 kV and 35 mA. Each sample was analyzed from 2 to 50, 2q. The diffractometer was calibrated before each analysis session. Mineral identification was determined by comparing sample d-spacing to published data (Chen, 1977; Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction Standards, 1980). 3.1.2. Field emission environmental scanning-electron microscopy (ESEM) The ESEM photographs of the Ixlu´ blue pigment were taken to identify the clay mineral(s). Approximately 200 mg of the pigment was affixed to a standard stub by a carbon-based tape. The sample was placed in the vacuum tube of the FEI Quanta 600F Field Emission Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope. The ESEM operated at 20 kV and images were captured between 8000 and 32,000 magnification. 3.2. Chemical analyses 3.2.1. Instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) and Laserablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (LA-ICP-MS) These chemical analyses were chosen for comparability purposes to data published by Arnold et al. (2007). Chemical analysis protocols of the raw clays, Clemencia Cream Paste wares, and Ixlu´ blue pigment sample are the same as those described by Arnold et al. (2007) and Glascock (1992, 2009). When comparing these current data to those published in Arnold et al. (2007), the author utilized those INAA data in the MURR database and those LA-ICP-MS data provided by Neff to Speakman (Speakman, personal

4 Because montmorillonite and palygorskite mineral structures begin to collapse at temperatures above 550  C (Nutting, 1943: p. 216; Ross and Hendricks, 1945: p. 48–54), only those Clemencia Cream Paste ware sherds that were determined to have been fired below 550  C were used in this analysis. Estimated firing temperatures were determined through standard refiring experimentation methodology (Cecil, 2001; Rice, 1987).

Fig. 4. SEM images of Ixlu´ blue pigment samples (top 33,124 magnification, bottom 25,227 magnification). Palygorskite is indicated by the fibrous clay materials.

communication 2006).5 Fifteen Clemencia Cream Paste Ware pottery samples were analyzed using LA-ICP-MS and 68 Clemencia Cream Paste Ware pottery samples were analyzed using INAA. The reason for the difference in sample size results from differences in research design: LA-ICP-MS focused on slip characteristics and paste analysis was secondary whereas INAA focused on paste analysis. 4. Results Mineralogical and chemical analyses demonstrate that not only is the Ixlu´ blue pigment composed of palygorskite clay (Maya Blue

5 The MURR database did not include samples MB12 and MB31 and could not be used for comparative purposes. Additionally, the Maxcanu and Mani chemical compositional groups (two each) were not used in this analysis because of the small sample size and because there was no apparent association of those samples with the central Pete´n samples collected by Arnold (Arnold et al., 2007) and those analyzed for this article.

L.G. Cecil / Journal of Archaeological Science 37 (2010) 1006–1019

1011

Fig. 5. Arnold et al. (2007: Fig. 3), Clemencia Cream Paste Ware, and Ixlu´ blue pigment LA-ICP-MS data plotted using rubidium and manganese base-10 logged concentrations. Ellipses represent 90% confidence intervals for group membership.

clay base), but that it was most likely manufactured from clays in the Yaxha´-Nakum area. Mineralogically, SEM images (Fig. 4) of the Ixlu´ Maya Blue sample illustrate the presence of palygorskite clay. These results are within range of other Maya Blue samples previously analyzed suggesting that this blue pigment is Maya Blue. Not only is the sample composed of palygorskite clay, XRD analyses of creamcolored clays and Clemencia Cream Ware pottery (analyzed untreated and treated with ethylene glycol) suggests that palygorskite and montmorillonite clays are present (as well as quartz and calcite). Montmorillonite is represented by the 16.9 Å, 8.8 Å, and 3.3 Å reflection peaks and the presence of palygorskite is

represented by the 4.46 Å reflection peak (Cecil, 2001; Moore and Reynolds, 1997: pp. 241–244). It is not unusual for montmorillonite naturally to occur with palygorskite (Arnold, 1971: pp. 31–37) and it is not essential for the production of Maya Blue, but montmorillonite does seem to aid in the adherence of the blue pigment to pottery and murals (Arnold, 2005). Nevertheless, SEM analyses of the Ixlu´ blue pigment sample support the presence of palygorskite (and montmorillonite) clays. When LA-ICP-MS chemical data of the Ixlu´ blue pigment are compared to those analyzed by Arnold et al. (2007) (Fig. 5, Table 2), the Ixlu´ sample plots separately from other northern Yucata´n Maya clay samples primarily because of higher concentrations of

Fig. 6. Arnold et al. (2007: Fig. 2), Clemencia Cream Paste Ware, and Ixlu´ blue pigment INAA data plotted using rubidium and vanadium base-10 logged concentrations. Ellipses represent 90% confidence intervals for group membership.

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L.G. Cecil / Journal of Archaeological Science 37 (2010) 1006–1019

Table 2 LA-ICP-MS elemental data (ppm) for sites/samples reported by Arnold et al. (2007) and the Ixlu´ blue pigment. ANID

MB001

MB002

MB003

MB015

MB022

MB023

MB024

Site

Yo’ Sah Kab

Yo’ Sah Kab

Yo’ Sah Kab

Yo’ Sah Kab

Yo’ Sah Kab

Yo’ Sah Kab

Yo’ Sah Kab

Na Mg Al Si K Ca Sc TI V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn As Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Sn Sb Cs Ba La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta Pb Th U

179.88 29,582.47 58,560.64 363,959.94 4378.06 11,535.14 12.05 1398.62 156.24 36.12 54.89 22,210.53 4.89 47.93 36.02 36.36 39.74 31.40 7.58 1.36 131.27 7.36 4.86 3.31 2.80 16.62 3.65 9.81 0.91 3.40 0.67 0.07 0.42 0.05 0.35 0.21 0.20 0.03 0.32 0.05 3.32 0.47 16.48 9.23 0.52

621.07 33,206.43 62,315.14 354,902.58 5283.57 6947.79 9.51 1556.12 176.15 32.56 51.88 32,722.89 4.00 51.14 14.65 32.20 29.73 32.69 9.82 1.43 135.29 8.01 3.41 3.55 2.09 21.53 9.02 22.15 2.42 8.57 1.34 0.17 0.68 0.12 0.47 0.06 0.16 0.03 0.31 0.04 3.87 0.55 5.32 11.42 0.64

306.15 37,265.25 65,439.54 361,911.74 3741.31 4753.88 9.22 1249.69 96.01 31.43 50.44 17,662.37 3.05 42.35 12.77 26.61 7.15 26.38 6.12 1.70 138.18 6.97 3.30 0.93 1.98 15.84 9.36 20.77 2.27 7.43 1.30 0.13 0.65 0.09 0.49 0.08 0.20 0.03 0.35 0.06 3.62 0.50 2.47 9.03 0.49

3619.20 33,586.79 61,579.15 360,681.13 5179.21 14,684.15 10.36 1628.48 108.30 43.51 56.47 14,339.96 3.41 41.10 11.31 26.39 7.09 39.50 30.74 2.52 142.16 8.28 4.26 0.85 2.68 12.31 2.77 5.35 0.81 3.13 0.50 0.02 0.34 0.07 0.36 0.12 0.27 0.05 0.50 0.09 4.04 0.60 4.26 5.46 0.48

45.86 34,795.02 62,904.99 368,264.67 889.12 2262.45 7.31 727.35 93.35 33.89 30.96 20,210.02 1.60 34.04 8.08 15.58 2.22 11.05 5.35 1.06 94.43 3.45 2.19 0.55 1.10 11.85 1.37 2.66 0.40 0.85 0.11 0.00 0.25 0.01 0.12 0.03 0.08 0.01 0.20 0.03 2.39 0.24 0.98 0.93 0.18

9921.63 27,872.53 72,297.28 353,506.36 5118.95 5619.86 9.91 1471.61 99.17 65.87 61.84 20,542.45 3.85 52.70 54.01 31.11 5.56 48.76 9.33 3.40 184.43 12.37 4.67 1.24 3.61 15.87 12.56 25.23 3.35 13.21 2.04 0.17 1.41 0.16 1.01 0.14 0.58 0.09 0.80 0.14 5.21 0.80 10.16 11.95 2.19

11,473.27 38,434.09 60,243.87 326,842.48 1029.42 51,591.38 7.38 1253.90 55.33 81.15 49.68 21,671.58 4.17 38.69 10.23 14.46 4.70 14.11 37.71 2.26 112.40 7.16 2.40 0.86 1.78 12.78 1.80 3.15 0.41 1.82 0.21 0.18 0.23 0.05 0.35 0.10 0.23 0.06 0.33 0.09 3.26 0.49 3.54 2.14 0.97

ANID

MB005

MB006

MB007

MB008

MB011

MB013

MB014

MB016

MB027

Site

Sacalum

Sacalum

Sacalum

Sacalum

Sacalum

Sacalum

Sacalum

Sacalum

Sacalum

Na Mg Al Si K Ca Sc TI V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn As Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Sn Sb Cs

267.41 34,221.61 66,322.96 354,546.84 8577.53 11,721.96 12.59 1683.55 92.52 59.91 47.81 19,600.09 3.56 58.00 8.46 38.41 19.02 64.19 4.63 3.81 139.46 8.67 4.43 0.84 4.33

259.93 27,064.33 70,885.00 362,204.65 4350.11 1831.68 8.96 1006.97 53.78 67.80 62.01 24,275.28 4.79 58.62 20.00 16.67 11.80 51.54 9.24 16.85 165.93 9.35 3.93 0.91 3.49

396.44 38,124.10 68,153.06 346,755.79 6577.22 15,769.67 12.75 1801.39 101.73 58.38 44.44 21,772.07 3.93 56.89 20.86 39.29 21.85 57.98 7.63 2.48 125.94 7.68 4.01 0.99 3.63

350.66 27,884.65 76,862.15 352,681.66 6027.23 4318.04 8.24 1046.99 77.34 60.10 62.36 25,625.93 4.79 64.02 12.44 18.30 13.61 64.64 10.81 16.68 169.58 9.29 4.88 1.16 3.72

282.15 31,844.63 58,683.74 372,336.99 5309.84 4425.12 8.55 1530.40 53.17 38.87 48.43 15,722.36 3.07 45.36 5.13 41.68 6.75 42.39 8.84 9.36 145.49 6.64 4.24 0.71 2.54

444.81 31,446.12 63,727.37 367,896.03 5187.67 3629.22 9.50 1486.94 48.57 49.83 45.13 17,163.62 5.37 53.93 6.98 45.42 12.34 48.93 13.93 8.95 139.77 7.75 3.73 0.94 3.28

2947.97 32,035.32 59,357.85 365,095.79 5732.91 5973.12 10.37 1657.34 68.07 55.17 54.54 21,110.89 4.16 64.57 6.98 42.62 15.43 41.73 5.69 6.27 143.18 8.96 4.53 1.17 3.50

511.08 29,582.47 74,787.82 347,487.32 10,816.78 8062.18 10.80 2011.41 91.79 37.86 48.88 25,231.66 5.99 74.67 66.25 76.95 26.21 72.96 8.28 4.38 176.86 8.76 5.12 1.45 3.51

2826.96 26,204.92 68,840.00 355,226.38 7663.14 6941.12 9.90 1303.58 85.18 68.14 85.86 27,872.03 8.40 64.04 18.32 52.71 16.71 48.42 10.73 10.33 165.68 10.34 3.95 1.26 3.85

L.G. Cecil / Journal of Archaeological Science 37 (2010) 1006–1019

1013

Table 2 (continued ) ANID

MB005

MB006

MB007

MB008

MB011

MB013

MB014

MB016

MB027

Site

Sacalum

Sacalum

Sacalum

Sacalum

Sacalum

Sacalum

Sacalum

Sacalum

Sacalum

Ba La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta Pb Th U

24.58 3.61 8.49 0.89 3.34 0.77 0.05 0.45 0.12 0.55 0.14 0.40 0.08 0.94 0.15 4.10 0.58 10.68 7.78 1.57

108.07 22.46 51.29 6.35 25.64 5.05 0.55 3.99 0.59 3.34 0.84 1.91 0.31 2.31 0.35 4.75 0.67 34.90 12.46 1.20

51.07 3.25 4.58 0.77 2.28 0.34 0.08 0.31 0.08 0.59 0.12 0.36 0.06 0.55 0.07 3.64 0.58 10.72 4.80 0.60

155.76 29.02 64.37 7.73 28.31 5.68 0.72 4.08 0.62 3.50 0.70 1.89 0.26 1.97 0.27 4.78 0.63 10.23 12.69 1.80

280.94 17.91 41.76 5.13 19.23 3.81 0.39 2.61 0.40 1.95 0.40 1.01 0.15 1.22 0.20 3.86 0.44 5.46 7.93 1.13

28.94 5.85 12.70 1.73 7.56 1.44 0.17 1.22 0.24 1.57 0.35 1.06 0.20 1.31 0.21 3.41 0.51 7.41 7.45 0.74

24.07 3.64 5.53 0.53 2.15 0.55 0.07 0.64 0.12 1.18 0.26 0.76 0.16 1.06 0.16 4.14 0.62 9.99 7.91 0.67

61.30 11.98 29.28 3.29 12.20 2.60 0.45 1.35 0.24 1.12 0.18 0.43 0.06 0.92 0.11 4.97 0.69 17.96 11.40 4.55

23.16 17.08 40.41 4.57 16.32 3.36 0.24 2.49 0.38 2.04 0.36 1.11 0.19 1.38 0.22 4.99 0.73 10.41 15.19 2.39

ANID

MB018

MB019

MB020

MB021

MB004

MB010

MB017

MB026

Site

Chapab

Chapab

Chapab

Chapab

Uxmal

Uxmal

Uxmal

Uxmal

Na Mg Al Si K Ca Sc TI V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn As Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Sn Sb Cs Ba La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta Pb Th U

213.16 39,077.67 63,252.32 360,531.90 4355.37 8144.97 10.87 1389.72 54.87 38.94 43.26 16,648.79 3.01 39.48 13.81 32.93 6.42 35.41 9.55 5.13 134.23 8.30 3.91 0.94 2.56 15.78 5.93 16.63 1.44 7.02 0.88 0.11 0.65 0.16 1.00 0.20 0.67 0.10 0.85 0.13 3.87 0.63 2.62 8.37 0.32

272.59 34,869.23 67,383.20 354,707.72 5082.01 6358.80 11.51 2295.27 78.46 48.80 40.69 24,760.88 3.13 42.77 13.94 32.33 11.44 39.51 6.39 4.23 142.45 9.43 4.21 1.01 3.44 32.44 2.32 4.58 0.69 2.29 0.32 0.03 0.28 0.05 0.34 0.06 0.21 0.03 0.37 0.06 4.39 0.73 3.10 2.72 0.50

233.03 25,504.97 62,376.03 372,468.91 3023.90 4244.52 10.03 1027.27 55.46 47.23 39.31 21,006.89 2.51 41.92 13.89 33.31 4.82 38.77 6.09 3.28 136.76 8.07 4.62 0.72 3.18 25.90 3.85 12.55 0.71 2.85 0.47 0.01 0.38 0.06 0.54 0.12 0.41 0.07 0.46 0.09 4.21 0.60 6.03 5.22 0.56

1806.50 26,611.29 68,149.93 367,096.38 3309.63 3257.86 8.23 1130.81 55.53 39.73 39.67 19,292.03 2.93 42.02 16.18 25.08 7.64 38.67 6.80 1.00 126.32 7.56 3.34 0.95 3.70 29.65 2.45 4.99 0.56 2.20 0.35 0.01 0.19 0.03 0.15 0.05 0.15 0.02 0.25 0.05 3.57 0.71 3.05 3.80 0.49

861.57 50,692.56 54,281.39 366,723.08 2316.46 3630.67 7.12 1103.36 70.03 43.34 21.35 11,782.42 1.16 29.21 20.15 19.37 3.68 6.89 2.95 0.49 78.32 5.19 2.68 0.79 1.31 7.81 0.89 1.62 0.38 0.71 0.13 0.01 0.07 0.01 0.08 0.02 0.07 0.01 0.11 0.01 2.15 0.47 0.87 0.78 0.41

153.04 53,174.60 54,311.38 361,668.52 2717.26 9381.05 8.18 1142.28 142.43 35.62 27.55 10,971.08 1.20 28.58 21.90 16.76 11.37 6.67 2.75 0.36 104.68 5.74 3.64 0.76 1.21 4.94 1.08 2.63 0.27 0.73 0.09 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.09 0.07 0.04 0.00 0.10 0.02 2.52 0.45 1.95 0.78 0.46

1416.32 55,868.86 46,560.38 370,078.12 2834.28 2400.35 5.75 936.92 181.85 32.40 47.77 11,221.30 1.04 25.60 14.89 18.90 4.52 6.60 2.71 0.90 118.55 3.23 2.23 0.66 1.08 5.35 0.72 1.55 0.13 0.45 0.08 0.03 0.08 0.02 0.22 0.06 0.17 0.03 0.27 0.04 3.29 0.43 0.42 0.93 0.39

241.17 34,066.49 62,038.64 368,824.18 1416.74 4999.57 6.48 1034.14 112.32 32.58 31.72 17,620.59 1.29 29.66 17.52 19.31 9.30 10.01 18.89 0.63 121.12 8.79 3.72 0.64 1.72 10.66 1.48 2.21 0.26 1.30 0.11 0.00 0.17 0.01 0.22 0.03 0.08 0.02 0.10 0.03 3.55 0.69 0.76 1.31 0.57

ANID

MB009

MB025

MB028

MB032

MB033

LGC121

Site

Maxcanu

Maxcanu

Mani

Pete´n B

Pete´n A

Ixlu´

Na Mg

1706.97 22,044.06

3080.76 17,585.44

1116.82 14,334.12

139.26 165,212.51

346.88 40,865.03

221.39 39,044.20 (continued on next page)

1014

L.G. Cecil / Journal of Archaeological Science 37 (2010) 1006–1019

Table 2 (continued ) ANID

MB009

MB025

MB028

MB032

MB033

LGC121

Site

Maxcanu

Maxcanu

Mani

Pete´n B

Pete´n A

Ixlu´

Al Si K Ca Sc TI V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn As Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Sn Sb Cs Ba La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta Pb Th U

90,430.93 304,794.19 14,131.98 48,190.96 21.56 3075.04 215.36 101.60 45.15 32,760.09 3.59 25.16 8.70 29.43 40.96 86.60 33.91 1.97 141.68 8.64 5.90 0.77 4.54 48.22 1.95 3.09 0.31 1.58 0.19 0.00 0.33 0.01 0.25 0.07 0.34 0.04 0.64 0.06 4.57 0.57 9.98 6.16 0.70

97,745.67 313,735.75 11,893.92 7818.08 11.83 2938.41 120.93 119.41 103.21 54,949.38 3.70 37.63 10.83 39.21 19.56 117.39 32.12 9.04 225.36 27.70 5.49 2.17 6.24 69.38 13.53 29.58 3.08 12.29 2.49 0.26 2.14 0.39 2.36 0.40 1.22 0.18 1.16 0.25 6.58 1.92 18.87 12.44 1.66

82,058.83 272,846.97 15,025.35 121,372.76 9.75 1412.67 57.26 64.94 178.63 30,577.57 5.24 21.00 37.66 41.23 13.45 108.91 213.97 7.51 139.21 8.25 3.35 1.17 5.35 149.91 5.95 26.00 1.40 1.33 1.10 0.22 1.14 0.19 1.15 0.26 0.87 0.13 1.00 0.16 4.14 0.60 12.63 5.00 1.48

32,534.97 245,944.81 967.21 62,667.95 9.87 700.13 158.42 346.19 312.78 31,913.14 22.68 362.14 13.52 29.29 1.94 25.88 152.59 4.05 38.72 1.05 2.85 0.16 0.75 62.97 1.89 3.36 0.43 1.90 0.28 0.09 0.40 0.08 0.44 0.15 0.40 0.06 0.49 0.09 1.07 0.08 1.12 0.59 0.31

46,863.08 270,374.93 4220.73 133,435.88 12.48 1071.44 89.06 595.97 688.00 45,768.58 41.56 674.59 21.26 61.74 4.30 38.11 155.92 17.17 1289.29 2.72 3.06 0.40 2.22 105.99 8.05 15.68 1.84 8.68 1.83 0.29 1.71 0.27 2.45 0.59 2.10 0.35 2.68 0.45 32.04 0.17 6.99 5.39 4.60

75,921.18 318,250.47 7608.89 50,241.34 5.32 1497.29 38.17 28.85 441.05 18,330.88 4.78 21.10 72.03 123.60 5.98 44.75 86.09 2.13 58.48 2.95 2.32 0.76 2.80 548.91 1.83 5.02 0.53 2.05 0.39 0.12 0.42 0.08 0.41 0.07 0.20 0.05 0.23 0.03 1.64 0.16 2.75 1.80 0.81

Ba, Cu, Mn, Sr, and Zn and lower concentrations of Hf, Nb, V, and Zr. Additionally, Mahalanobis-distance calculations reaffirm that the Ixlu´ blue pigment sample is not a statistical member of any of the northern Yucata´n Maya samples, but is similar to some of the northwest Yucata´n sources depending on the elements used for the analysis (Arnold et al., 2007: p. 53). However, when LA-ICP-MS data from the Clemencia Cream Paste Ware pottery are added to the data published by Arnold et al. (2007), the Pete´n samples (blue pigment and pottery) are distinct from those from Yucata´n (Fig. 5). While the Ixlu´ LA-ICP-MS sample (same sample analyzed on two different days) is not a statistical member of either of the larger Clemencia Cream Paste Ware chemical groups, it is closer to those chemical groups than those from Yucata´n. Interestingly, one of Arnold’s 1970 clay samples (Pete´n road cut A – near Tikal) plots within the non-volcanic ash tempered Clemencia Cream Paste Ware group. In addition to the LA-ICP-MS data, Arnold et al. (2007: Fig. 2) also report INAA data for possible clay sources used to make Maya Blue samples from northern Yucata´n. However, because INAA analysis of the Ixlu´ sample was not part of the Arnold’s larger Maya Blue project, the authors could not also project the INAA data for the Ixlu´ blue sample. In 2006, the Ixlu´ blue pigment was analyzed by INAA and the data projected with those reported by Arnold et al. (2007) and the pottery chemical compositional data of the white paste

pottery (Clemencia Cream Paste Ware) (Figs. 6 and 7). When the Ixlu´ blue pigment sample is plotted with Arnold et al.’s (2007: Fig. 2) INAA data (Table 3), the sample plots away from the Yucata´n samples and closer to the Clemencia Cream Paste Ware pottery samples (Fig. 6) because of the blue pigments higher concentrations of Ba, Ca, Mn, Sr, and Zn and the lower concentrations of Cr, Fe, Hf, Sb, Ta, Ti, V, and Zr. While the Ixlu´ blue pigment sample does not plot within either of the larger Clemencia Cream Paste Ware pottery chemical compositional groups, it is closer to these groups, but not a statistical member of these pottery groups. This is most likely a result of the general chemical trends from northern Yucata´n to southern Pete´n and because the differences between the clays and pottery from the two areas is greater than within the two areas. However, when the Ixlu´ blue pigment sample is plotted without the Yucata´n samples, it plots within the non-volcanic ash tempered Clemencia Cream Paste Ware chemical composition group (Fig. 7). This may be a result of the chemical composition change due to tempering of clays for pottery manufacture. The blue pigment is most likely ‘‘untempered’’ in the traditional manner that clay used to make pottery is tempered. It is not chemically similar to the volcanic ash tempered Clemencia Cream Paste Ware group because the blue pigment did not have volcanic ash added to the palygorskite/montmorillionite and indigo mixture. It is more like the larger Clemencia Cream Paste Ware ceramic group because the

L.G. Cecil / Journal of Archaeological Science 37 (2010) 1006–1019

1015

Fig. 7. Clemencia Cream Paste Ware pottery and Ixlu´ blue pigment INAA data plotted using rubidium and zirconium base-10 logged concentrations. Ellipses represent 90% confidence intervals for group membership.

clays used to make this pottery are petrographically similar to the pottery and a high quantity of temper (usually calcite in the central Pete´n lakes area) (Cecil, 2001) is not added. However, the pigment and the pottery will not be an exact chemical match because there was culturally-added temper to the pottery and the clay used to manufacture the blue pigment may also have been modified (sieved, picked over) before adding the indigo. Nevertheless, the Ixlu´ blue pigment sample is a statistical member of the nonvolcanic ash temper Clemencia Cream Paste Ware chemical composition group. 5. Discussion Mineralogical and chemical analyses of the Ixlu´ blue pigment demonstrate that the sample is Maya Blue. The analyses further suggest that this sample was not manufactured in the Yucata´n region, but from clays from central Pete´n in the Yaxha´-Nakum vicinity. Therefore, Maya Blue was manufactured outside of the northern Yucata´n Maya Blue core area demonstrating that Maya Blue was not only not made from a single clay source, but that it was manufactured in the southern Maya lowlands and the northern Maya lowlands. The Ixlu´ Maya Blue sample suggests that the technique and/or technical knowledge was transferred rather than the actual pigment. If Maya Blue was being used in the southern Maya lowlands as it was in the northern Maya lowlands, then it should not seem too shocking that some southern lowland Maya (perhaps ritual specialists) may have learned the technology and specialized knowledge behind the manufacture of Maya Blue. In the northern Maya lowlands, palygorskite is not only important because it identifies a place on the Maya landscape, but it is white clay (Arnold, 1971, 2005; Arnold et al., 2007). White and cream-colored6

6 Cream-colored pottery wares made throughout prehistory in Guatemala are often the result of the presence of iron in an essentially light/white clay base which tends to discolor the pottery to make it appear cream instead of white. Creamcolored pottery is present in the Guatemala highlands in the Formative Period (Rice, 1978) and in the Guatemalan lowlands throughout the Classic and Postclassic periods (Culbert, 1993; Gifford, 1976; Rice, 1979, among others).

clays have a special significance for many Maya groups throughout the lowlands and the highlands of Guatemala. Arnold (1978a,b), Reina and Hill (1978), and Rice (1978) discuss the unique white pottery production centered in Chinautla, Guatemala. Arnold (1978b: pp. 364–366) states that Chinautla potters believe that the white clays obtained from a deep cave source (13.1 meters in depth) are the most important clays for pottery production and that the mine has ‘‘espirit ak’al’’ or underground spirit associations. Potters from other communities such as Sacojito and Durazno either seek out the white clay from this mine because of its high quality and preferred characteristics, or they slip their darker colored pottery with a white slip in order to mimic the Chinautla white clay production (Arnold, 1978b; Reina and Hill, 1978). In addition to highland Guatemala potting traditions, the Colonial period Annals of the Cakchiquels state that white earth was a tribute item and had bleaching properties (Recinos and Goetz, 1953). White clays are not only important to the 10th–21st century northern Yucata´n Maya potters and highland Guatemala Maya potters, but they were an essential element for displaying identity for the Postclassic Kowoj of central Pete´n. The Kowoj of Topoxte´ Island manufactured a cream-colored pottery (Clemencia Cream Paste Ware), to the exclusion of other pastes, and traded that pottery within the central Pete´n lakes region. At least three of these cream-colored vessels excavated by Bullard (1970) were coated in Maya Blue (no gray- or orange-red-colored ware vessels were coated in Maya Blue) (analyses of these Maya Blue samples are forthcoming). As stated previously, three distinct paste recipes were made and used according to various distinct decorative programs (Cecil, 2001, 2008; Cecil and Neff, 2006). The majority of this pottery was traded within the Kowoj territory (east of Lake Pete´n Itza´), but some vessels were traded to western sites within the Itza territory. This is the same clay that was the base for the Ixlu´ Maya Blue sample. The Topoxte´ Island Kowoj potters had a specialized knowledge of pottery manufacture using clays that resulted in a cream-colored base and decoration. The technical knowledge of these clays and their manufacturing properties might have aided the Maya who manufactured Maya Blue. Therefore, the Kowoj of central Pete´n

1016

L.G. Cecil / Journal of Archaeological Science 37 (2010) 1006–1019

Table 3 INAA elemental data (ppm) for sites/samples reported by Arnold et al. (2007) and the Ixlu´ blue pigment. ANID

MB001

MB002

MB003

MB015

MB022

MB023

MB024

Site

Yo’ Sah Kab

Yo’ Sah Kab

Yo’ Sah Kab

Yo’ Sah Kab

Yo’ Sah Kab

Yo’ Sah Kab

Yo’ Sah Kab

As La Lu Nd Sm U Yb Ce Co Cr Cs Eu Fe Hf Ni Rb Sb Sc Sr Ta Tb Th Zn Zr Al Ba Ca Dy K Mn Na Ti V

25.3382 4.5472 0.0750 4.8039 0.7685 0.9642 0.4948 11.6373 5.2843 44.0363 2.8359 0.0926 27,195.5 6.6364 23.73 43.07 2.6508 7.9461 0.00 0.8654 0.0000 12.3313 22.27 134.03 68,405.8 0.0 1177.9 0.5974 5676.9 80.91 443.7 2306.5 198.20

18.5390 8.2526 0.0835 8.0532 1.5724 0.7636 0.4806 25.0029 5.9819 39.9773 2.4948 0.1754 31,943.5 6.4096 40.96 33.46 3.2148 7.6091 0.00 0.8112 0.1266 11.5867 22.58 122.82 66,510.5 47.3 8886.2 0.5912 6399.7 83.71 474.4 2262.5 182.98

17.1379 10.2272 0.1582 9.1378 1.8316 0.0000 1.1187 25.7729 4.6770 40.3843 2.3830 0.2022 27,910.4 6.0389 26.90 31.43 2.4906 8.0832 0.00 0.8095 0.1827 13.8372 20.70 120.11 66,841.2 0.0 1830.1 1.2566 3667.1 69.88 398.8 2174.3 152.65

13.5870 5.3020 0.1131 2.5911 1.0388 1.4085 0.8237 22.4503 7.4524 58.0063 3.2380 0.1424 21,782.7 6.3299 20.42 47.72 1.5513 10.4475 0.00 0.8861 0.1292 13.3802 24.54 119.62 69,604.4 0.0 5325.7 0.6991 5974.6 109.79 3835.8 2100.5 141.88

0.0000 1.6197 0.0628 0.0000 0.2553 0.0000 0.2380 3.3090 2.3397 58.1796 1.3047 0.0361 22,627.0 3.7756 25.77 13.18 0.6881 7.7001 0.00 0.5066 0.0207 1.7892 12.38 74.95 60,287.7 0.0 5822.2 0.0000 1261.5 30.88 199.9 1961.7 88.00

48.2098 24.6974 0.1515 29.5892 5.2025 0.5769 1.1135 54.4015 6.3604 59.2942 2.8464 0.5923 33,368.5 6.7470 59.83 37.44 4.8183 10.0092 0.00 0.9023 0.4075 20.2545 32.35 150.99 68,517.2 0.0 0.0 2.3207 5393.4 74.69 6372.8 1628.7 221.28

1.8471 4.2512 0.0861 5.1053 0.7604 0.7706 0.5149 7.7616 2.2245 33.5906 0.7499 0.1206 8301.7 2.0580 0.00 7.58 0.3919 3.8737 138.70 0.2727 0.1717 3.3351 12.79 49.19 26,864.4 0.0 173,950.1 0.7372 0.0 70.56 5509.5 1154.6 28.85

ANID

MB005

MB006

MB007

MB008

MB011

MB013

MB014

MB016

MB027

Site

Sacalum

Sacalum

Sacalum

Sacalum

Sacalum

Sacalum

Sacalum

Sacalum

Sacalum

As La Lu Nd Sm U Yb Ce Co Cr Cs Eu Fe Hf Ni Rb Sb Sc Sr Ta Tb Th Zn Zr Al Ba Ca Dy K Mn Na Ti V

5.2762 6.6753 0.1421 7.1922 1.2408 0.7039 0.9274 17.9625 6.7937 84.7268 5.0545 0.1566 22,368.3 6.2660 50.79 74.71 1.0716 10.1422 0.00 0.8458 0.2040 12.2296 30.30 112.23 70,891.5 61.7 1243.3 0.7668 8585.6 74.36 437.8 2146.2 59.96

10.2312 25.8193 0.4207 30.2449 6.0725 1.5424 3.0330 63.5450 5.1359 71.4251 3.9889 0.7807 21,665.8 6.7673 30.69 49.26 0.8900 9.9083 0.00 0.9259 0.7986 14.3226 45.47 132.70 70,755.7 139.0 4227.3 5.5199 5944.8 85.59 434.4 1913.0 59.00

8.6889 4.0826 0.1228 0.0000 0.7259 1.0528 0.7614 10.8547 5.4668 83.0030 4.0890 0.1152 22,367.5 5.5840 35.21 62.25 1.1484 9.5397 0.00 0.7767 0.1025 5.8448 28.31 101.97 69,059.3 121.8 8732.6 0.7868 6586.9 62.33 490.3 2526.5 59.60

7.0672 30.3131 0.3031 36.7094 6.7380 1.7865 2.1613 71.8882 5.2448 59.2921 3.5475 0.8482 21,192.2 6.8207 62.39 53.48 0.9787 9.5622 0.00 0.8969 0.8139 14.4805 37.27 142.75 73,910.5 126.0 1903.1 4.4093 7788.2 72.15 444.3 2164.0 76.64

7.9998 23.4022 0.2378 27.6262 5.2269 1.1465 1.7200 55.5000 5.2337 58.7038 3.6001 0.6712 20,938.4 6.5557 61.76 57.00 1.0706 8.4977 0.00 0.8331 0.5882 11.3869 32.49 150.10 71,483.1 147.0 3343.1 2.9586 8501.0 73.83 431.0 2135.3 57.38

10.2143 10.0050 0.3042 10.6702 2.4867 1.0825 2.1716 22.9311 5.5615 69.4621 4.1016 0.3129 21,394.1 6.5209 64.09 61.09 1.1709 9.9517 0.00 0.9172 0.3814 11.3524 35.13 131.18 75,512.0 73.7 1866.2 2.7339 6834.1 70.58 342.2 2318.2 54.78

9.7284 17.1574 0.4950 18.4746 4.0144 1.5509 3.2764 44.1022 5.7015 75.5426 4.0998 0.4671 21,760.7 6.3860 51.00 52.79 0.8553 11.3571 0.00 0.8818 0.5859 13.4495 39.70 127.74 73,578.7 66.9 677.2 4.2795 7462.0 68.52 250.8 2227.4 73.05

7.2143 26.6000 0.2237 31.2657 6.4373 5.6982 1.0405 69.4437 5.1449 52.6357 4.3469 0.7550 20,958.1 7.5418 73.49 79.53 0.9482 8.8684 0.00 0.9618 0.4732 15.8569 46.45 196.25 82,010.5 177.2 3097.0 2.5446 13,404.3 66.02 688.4 2927.2 34.72

15.9849 18.0417 0.4341 18.8551 4.1018 1.0781 2.9427 44.8193 6.3411 86.8102 4.4506 0.4691 22,975.5 6.7483 96.67 59.52 1.1925 11.9482 0.00 0.9845 0.5235 15.0984 38.16 104.02 74,445.2 36.9 758.5 4.1054 8252.9 63.07 301.4 2297.7 67.97

L.G. Cecil / Journal of Archaeological Science 37 (2010) 1006–1019

1017

ANID

MB018

MB019

MB020

MB021

MB004

MB010

MB017

MB026

Site

Chapab

Chapab

Chapab

Chapab

Uxmal

Uxmal

Uxmal

Uxmal

As La Lu Nd Sm U Yb Ce Co Cr Cs Eu Fe Hf Ni Rb Sb Sc Sr Ta Tb Th Zn Zr Al Ba Ca Dy K Mn Na Ti V

0.0000 7.3721 0.2329 6.0057 1.6771 0.0000 1.7805 25.1943 3.3047 48.4213 2.6368 0.2161 19,720.1 5.6631 46.88 37.99 0.7714 11.0455 0.00 0.8383 0.2847 9.4341 23.62 90.64 68,059.2 0.0 1135.0 2.3843 4891.9 53.43 346.3 1839.6 41.48

0.0000 3.8818 0.0835 4.3279 0.6869 0.7844 0.3513 12.7497 4.6580 75.5236 4.0485 0.0934 25,093.9 6.0414 31.88 43.56 0.8188 10.3635 0.00 0.9403 0.0000 7.1007 22.69 106.78 68,323.9 37.1 3680.6 0.5903 5188.0 57.73 397.6 2429.1 43.48

0.0000 4.1496 0.1442 3.6180 0.7626 0.0000 0.7638 10.8148 3.5719 57.0443 3.1426 0.0945 18,379.5 5.9747 41.82 41.71 0.5586 9.8928 0.00 0.8181 0.1063 6.4441 23.25 130.23 69,126.3 0.0 3516.8 0.9748 4250.4 54.54 352.2 1649.9 28.13

3.9398 5.9675 0.0844 5.1915 1.0178 0.0000 0.4565 14.9674 6.5889 52.1245 3.4710 0.1237 29,838.7 5.1042 49.56 40.09 1.2962 8.2130 0.00 0.7563 0.0822 8.4493 19.01 95.10 64,871.5 39.7 7484.2 0.4246 4942.2 66.84 367.9 1638.3 47.31

1.9071 1.7131 0.0648 2.2506 0.2804 1.1666 0.2795 3.6895 1.7420 47.7895 1.5298 0.0403 14,399.9 4.5737 19.97 8.72 0.8681 5.9703 0.00 0.7549 0.0000 1.4600 10.36 94.31 58,712.8 0.0 2695.7 0.0000 1787.2 51.25 941.0 1619.5 99.11

0.0000 1.6192 0.0368 0.0000 0.2679 0.6851 0.1666 3.2424 4.4034 45.3063 1.1530 0.0348 10,931.3 4.1894 35.54 8.08 0.7925 5.3148 0.00 0.6982 0.0000 1.2285 9.71 102.39 54,654.9 0.0 2308.5 0.0000 2431.6 43.21 232.4 1588.0 187.29

1.9448 1.4809 0.0281 0.0000 0.2038 0.0000 0.1482 3.0964 1.4972 45.4891 1.5821 0.0309 14,767.8 3.8923 21.75 12.46 0.7503 5.7862 0.00 0.7198 0.0000 1.3413 11.30 96.06 58,075.3 0.0 1651.1 0.0000 3327.1 36.77 1015.2 1545.3 148.60

3.2843 3.2547 0.0687 3.3924 0.7602 0.6538 0.3421 10.9298 1.4356 34.5063 1.2895 0.1200 12,548.5 3.5974 20.45 8.01 0.7397 4.9825 58.62 0.6435 0.0637 2.5221 11.61 60.80 47,788.8 0.0 57,235.1 0.4785 1305.1 35.10 285.5 1324.3 104.52

ANID

MB009

MB025

MB028

MB032

MB033

LCG121

Site

Maxcanu

Maxcanu

Mani

Pete´n B

Pete´n A

Ixlu´

As La Lu Nd Sm U Yb Ce Co Cr Cs Eu Fe Hf Ni Rb Sb Sc Sr Ta Tb Th Zn Zr Al Ba Ca Dy K Mn Na Ti V

10.0758 3.4337 0.1082 0.0000 0.5274 1.0969 0.3217 24.9684 2.9394 149.2593 5.7239 0.0851 35,239.9 6.1105 31.04 105.79 1.7122 10.5591 0.00 0.8846 0.0000 11.4263 22.94 99.53 96,788.6 85.4 2473.8 0.5958 16,533.9 69.69 2300.9 3841.7 71.30

55.8596 3.8287 0.0788 2.8395 0.7166 1.2120 0.6349 94.4916 4.3950 126.5533 5.5418 0.1003 50,121.3 5.8277 0.00 105.80 4.6895 10.2865 0.00 0.8540 0.1036 15.1684 26.06 127.53 93,617.3 59.4 3822.9 0.8020 16,476.6 134.75 2625.3 3748.2 125.64

6.4531 9.8715 0.2123 10.4070 2.2022 0.7787 1.5019 20.2021 2.3856 19.4798 2.4628 0.3777 11,513.7 2.4193 0.00 50.26 0.5986 5.1984 429.69 0.3806 0.3414 4.2998 21.23 52.02 35,287.8 106.2 277,231.2 2.0640 9909.6 153.69 886.4 1326.3 33.26

0.0000 1.8632 0.0538 2.1466 0.5108 0.3259 0.3468 4.1799 13.7602 252.2635 0.2437 0.1298 10,464.5 0.4049 203.05 0.00 0.0539 3.6191 264.59 0.0338 0.0633 0.4435 10.80 0.00 12,606.7 0.0 97,568.7 0.5997 0.0 270.94 289.5 0.0 75.57

0.0000 7.2305 0.1437 9.3840 1.7414 0.6711 1.0479 16.7505 32.9140 958.8843 2.0008 0.3726 35,579.7 2.0224 690.53 33.94 0.3042 10.8538 144.76 0.2748 0.2140 2.7271 42.05 43.94 41,629.6 112.3 78,766.6 1.5525 5324.0 425.49 605.3 1399.4 69.84

1.5010 3.1053 0.0570 2.6485 0.7237 0.7128 0.3507 6.9203 2.1405 15.0579 1.5213 0.1471 8823.5 1.2312 0.00 21.09 0.2983 4.0370 145.59 0.1537 0.1031 1.2426 41.21 42.99 32,265.8 278.9 152,363.3 0.4141 3521.4 510.01 375.3 757.9 20.85

who may have manufactured this Maya Blue sample were ‘‘selecting, mining, and moving the raw material’’ (clays in the Yaxha´-Nakum region and Maya Blue excavated at Ixlu´), were using it for ritual purposes and had specialized knowledge (found in

a temple and made with similar specialized knowledge of Clemencia Cream Paste Ware pottery manufacture), and were establishing/maintaining a ‘‘sense of place’’ (the central Pete´n Kowoj heartland and Kowoj identity). Additionally, the Yaxha´-Nakum clay

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L.G. Cecil / Journal of Archaeological Science 37 (2010) 1006–1019

source(s) have occupational history (clays and pottery manufactured at Topoxte´ Island) because the clays were known and utilized by the Maya throughout prehistory and were not ‘‘discovered’’ by archaeologists as a result of a road cut. Another possible example of the occupational history of white clays in Pete´n comes from Dome´nech-Carbo´ and Va´zquez de Agredos Pascual’s (2006: pp. 135–138) discovery of various borrow pits of white clay near La Blanca, Pete´n, Guatemala used to make various pigments (including blue). Although Maya archaeologists in Pete´n cannot attest to the ‘‘religious significance’’ of the clay source in the Yaxha´-Nakum area as in northern Yucata´n (Arnold et al., 2007:54), it does not detract from the argument that these clays were culturally-known by the Postclassic Maya of central Pete´n. Additionally, the source for the clay used to manufacture the Ixlu´ Maya Blue pigment must have been substantial because it is the same clay used to manufacture the majority of the Clemencia Cream Paste Ware pottery for more than 100 years. Therefore, the hypothesized manufacturers of the Ixlu´ Maya Blue pigment were not haphazardly making a pigment color, but ‘‘made choices using cultural and social criteria based upon the dramatic physical properties’’ of the clays (Arnold et al., 2007: p. 47). Finally, this Ixlu´ Maya Blue pigment demonstrates that is possible that Littmann’s hypothesis of multiple locations of palygorskite and the spread of technological knowledge to manufacture Maya Blue also may be correct and can be contextualized in ‘‘behavior, human agency, and the social embeddedness of technology’’ (Arnold et al., 2007: p. 54). The Kowoj of central Pete´n Maya transferred technologies and used different white clays and indigos to form the Maya Blue pigment excavated from the Postclassic temple at Ixlu´. I agree with Arnold, Neff, Sa´nchez del Rı´o, and other researchers studying Maya Blue, that more actual artifacts need to be analyzed to better understand the complexity of its manufacturing locations and/or trade. Other manufacturing locations/zones may come to light when more artifacts and Maya pigments are analyzed and compared to the growing database. Acknowledgments Funding for this research was supported by National Science Foundation grants BCS-0228187 and SBR-9816325 and US Department of Energy Office of Nuclear Energy, Science and Technology Award No. DE-FG07-03ID14531 to the Midwest Nuclear Science and Engineering Consortium under the Innovations in Nuclear Infrastructure and Education program. I am grateful to Dean Arnold, Hector Neff, and the anonymous reviewers for their comments. Any errors are my own. References Alexander, R.T., 1998. Postclassic settlement pattern at Isla Cilvituk, Campeche, Me´xico. Paper presented at the 63rd Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Seattle, Washington. Arnold, D.E., 1967. Saklu’um in Maya Culture and Its Possible Relationship to Maya Blue. Department of Anthropology Research Reports No. 2. University of Illinois, Urbana. Arnold, D.E., 1971. Ethnomineralogy of Ticul, Yucata´n potters: etics and emics. American Antiquity 36, 20–40. Arnold, D.E., 1978a. Ceramic variability, environment and culture history among the Pokom in the Valley of Guatemala. In: Hodder, I. (Ed.), The Spatial Organisation of Culture. University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, pp. 39–59. Arnold, D.E., 1978b. Ethnography of pottery making in the Valley of Guatemala. In: Wetherington, R.K. (Ed.), The Ceramics of Kaminaljuyu, Guatemala. Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, pp. 327–400. Arnold, D.E., 2005. Maya blue and palygorskite: a second possible pre-columbian source. Ancient Mesoamerica 16, 51–62. Arnold, D.E., Bohor, B.F., 1975. Attapulgite and Maya blue: an ancient mine comes to light. Archaeology 28, 23–29. Arnold, D.E., Bohor, B.F., 1976. An ancient attapulgite mine in Yucata´n. Katunob 8, 25–34.

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