Cereal polysaccharides as sources of functional ingredient for reformulation of meat products: A review

Journal of Functional Foods 62 (2019) 103527

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Cereal polysaccharides as sources of functional ingredient for reformulation of meat products: A review

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Ramandeep Kaur , Minaxi Sharma Department of Food Technology, Eternal University, Baru Sahib, Himachal Pradesh, India

A R T I C LE I N FO

A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Cereal polysaccharides Meat products Emerging diseases Functional characteristics

Nowadays, consumer perceptions towards meat products are changing and seeking health-related aspects through diet. Owing to the fat and cholesterol content, reformulation of meat products is needed, by incorporating bioactive ingredients or through elimination/ diminution of harmful ingredients to alter their image among health-conscious meat lovers. Thus, numerous bioactive components like antioxidants, dietary fiber, phytochemicals, vegetable proteins, etc. can be used to ameliorate the characteristics of the meat products. Cereal polysaccharides, as a dietary fiber source, are gaining tremendous attention and having documented health implications to eradicate emerging diseases. Their positive role as an antioxidant, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and antidiabetic agent has been proved by in vitro and in vivo clinical researches. Recent researches emphasized on the exploitation of cereal polysaccharides in various food sectors, this review will open a new horizon towards the incorporation of cereal polysaccharides in meat products and influence on functional characteristics of developed novel meat products.

1. Introduction In the 21st century, reformulated or functional products have acquired tremendous interest as a successful candidate fulfilling the consumer perceptions of healthier foods. Regarding meat products, recent epidemiological studies (Alshahrani et al., 2019; Virtanen et al., 2019) documented the association of consumption of meat products with prevalence of wide range of emerging diseases, like obesity, heart related diseases, cancer, and various other disorders (Boada, HenríquezHernández, & Luzardo, 2016; International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2015). Although mechanisms are not clarified yet, it is considered that precursors can be excess fat, protein and iron, heat-processing compounds (heterocyclic amines) and numerous substances incorporated during the technological process (salt and nitrates) (Botez, Nistor, Andronoiu, Mocanu, & Ghinea, 2017). Owing to growing evidence on the detrimental influence of meat diet on human health, international and national nutrition programs and policies strive to reformulate the meat products, by incorporating bioactive ingredients or through elimination or diminution of harmful ingredients to alter their image among health-conscious consumers. For instance, World Health Organization (WHO) recommended that fat should provide only 15–30% of the calories in the diet; in which saturated fat should cover only 10% of the calories and cholesterol intake should be restricted to

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the 300 mg per day. Consequently, it is imperative to reduce the total quantity of fat in the meal. Moreover, Food Standards Agency of the UK recommended reducing the average intake of saturated fat from the current level of 13.3% to less than 11% of food energy by 2010 (Grasso, Brunton, Lyng, Lalor, & Monahan, 2014; Food Standards Agency, 2008). Therefore, food technologists are an endeavor to reformulate the meat products by incorporating bioactive components such as dietary fiber, monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) or polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), antioxidants or by replacing the harmful components (incorporating proteins of vegetable origin) (Fernández-Ginés, Fernández-López, Sayas-Barberá, & Pérez-Alvarez, 2005; OlmedillaAlonso, Jiménez-Colmenero, & Sánchez-Muniz, 2013). The polysaccharides, which possess healthy characteristics in the form of dietary fiber and prebiotics, with specific physicochemical behavior can be used to ameliorate the nutritional and technological profile of meat products. For instance, cell wall bioactive polysaccharides from cereals especially β-glucan and arabinoxylan has been confirmed for their positive physiological effect as a good source of soluble dietary fiber and have beneficial effect on maintaining the blood glucose, insulin and cholesterol levels remarkably (Cui & Wang, 2009). It is well known that meat products lack dietary fiber, so the fiber can be incorporated to make these products more healthful. In Japan, Food for specified health uses (FOSHU) meat products prepared by the addition of dietary fiber

Corresponding author at: Department of Food Technology, Eternal University, Baru Sahib, Himachal Pradesh 173101, India. E-mail address: [email protected] (R. Kaur).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2019.103527 Received 12 June 2019; Received in revised form 22 August 2019; Accepted 22 August 2019 1756-4646/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Journal of Functional Foods 62 (2019) 103527

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Fig. 1. Main mechanisms through which different cereal polysaccharides improve the technological functionalities of meat products.

type and linkage pattern of monomers (Wang et al., 2017). Apart from structural characterization, physical properties such as solubility, viscosity, and gelation also have a great influence on the biological activities of polysaccharides (Zhang et al., 2017). Hence, based on the tissue of origin, structure, composition, and organization within the cereal grain tissue, these polymers exhibit different functionalities, which explains their use in food formulations and processing (Saulnier, 2019). The non-starchy polysaccharides found in the cereals are collectively termed as fiber (Hervik & Svihus, 2019). According to the Codex Alimentarius Commission ‘Dietary fiber is defined as the carbohydrate polymers with three or more than three monomers, which are not digested or absorbed in the human small intestine (Codex Alimentarius Commission, 2019). Inclusion of the dietary fiber in the diet reduces the occurrence of cardiovascular disease, diabetes and certain types of cancer (The Lancet, 2019). To get all these potential health advantages, World Health Organization recommends 25 g of dietary fiber in everyday diet from multiple sources such as cereals and beans, fruits and vegetables (FDA, 2004; WHO, 2003). Additionally, from an industrial point of view, other than the health properties, these polysaccharides have also acquired a specific place for their functional characteristics in the diverse food formulations. They have well-renowned applications as thickeners, stabilizers, emulsifiers, textural agents and gelation agents, which make them a suitable candidate for incorporation into milk and milk products, bakery products, meat products, and extruded products (Ahmad & Kaleem, 2018; Nakashima et al., 2018). Incorporation of the dietary fiber in meat products also provides texture related characteristics such as juiciness by retaining water and further decline the cooking loss (Chevance et al., 2000). The numerous other mechanisms through which different cereal polysaccharides improve the technological functionalities of the meat products are shown in the Fig. 1. In literature, cereal polysaccharides in the form of fibres from numerous sources have been studied alone or in combination with other ingredients for the manufacturing of low fat reformulated meat products, especially ground and restructured meat products and meat emulsions (Sandford & Baird, 1983). The main cereal polysaccharides are the starch, cellulose, hemicellulose (βglucan, arabinoxylan) which are discussed in this article for their potential role in meat and meat products.

has been approved and also marketed. Apart from the approved FOSHU products, numerous meat products with the incorporation of the fibers, calcium and proteins have also marketed in Japan (Arihara, 2006). The cereal polysaccharides have also acquired a specific place for their functional characteristics in the diverse food formulations. They can function as thickener, stabilizer, emulsifier, textural agent and gelation agent, into milk and milk products, bakery products, meat products, and extruded products (Ahmad & Kaleem, 2018; Nakashima et al., 2018; Sandford & Baird, 1983). The commercial exploitation of functional components in case of dairy and extruded products has been reported abundantly in the literature, but in meat products there is still a room, urging further investigations in the foreseeable future. This review aims at reformulations of meat products utilizing cereal bioactive polysaccharides as a functional ingredient and their effect on the functional characteristics of these products. 2. Cereal polysaccharides Polysaccharides are the auspicious macromolecules, composed up of monomers through glycosidic bonds and exist in the animals, plants, and microorganisms. In the case of cereals, polysaccharides are categorized into two different classes, (1) the starch in the endosperm portion and (2) Non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) contained in the cell wall of endosperm as well in the bran layers (Hamaker, Tuncil, & Shen, 2019). Starch is the predominant carbohydrate reserve accounted for 65–75% of the carbohydrate portion of grain (Bajaj, Singh, Kaur, & Inouchi, 2018) followed by some cell wall polysaccharides such as cellulose, β-glucan, and arabinoxylan (Lafiandra, Riccardi, & Shewry, 2014). The non-starch polysaccharides serve in the form of structural polysaccharides by closely interacting with each other and/or with noncarbohydrate moieties like proteins and lignin (Hamaker et al., 2019). These bioactive polysaccharides from the whole grain cereals have been gaining tremendous attention nowadays, owing to their potential health benefits. Recently, numerous researches confirmed their potential health implications as an anticancer (Khan, Date, Chawda, & Patel, 2019), antioxidant (Li et al., 2017), antidiabetic (Chen & Raymond, 2008), in both in vitro as well as in vivo models (Nie, Cui, & Xie, 2018). The bioactivity of the polysaccharides is usually based on conformation and molecular weight. Here, the conformation of polysaccharides means the shape and size of polymer in solution as well includes the 2

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ameliorated the desirable properties favorably. Enhanced levels of corn starch incorporation as a fat replacer resulted in a rising trend in water binding capacity of meat sausages, just because of the ability of the starch to absorb and bind more water (Jairath et al., 2018). This promising ability prevents moisture loss in meat products and circumvents unwanted crunchy and flaky texture (Ali, El-Anany, & Gaafar, 2011). An investigation by Khalil (2000) also reported the remarkable increase in water holding capacity (WHC) in low-fat buffalo patties by using corn starch as a fat replacer. Owing to the attainment of the threshold level, WHC of emulsion did not exhibit any variation as level enhanced from the 6 to 9%. However, Zhang et al. (2013) reported the negative effects of starches on the cooking loss of Surimi beef meat gels. In this study, corn starch had the highest cooking loss whereas during sol–gel transitions it showed the highest storage modulus. The starches in their native state have limited applications due to the tendency of the starch gels to retrograde and have consequences on the end product quality characteristics (Santana, Angela, & Meireles, 2014). Owing to the restricted applications of unmodified (native) starches in the food industry these are uneconomical due to the poor quality, hence need some modifications. It can be modified by some physical and chemical methods to meet the industrial requirements (Song et al., 2010). Octenyl Succinic Anhydride (OSA) starch is an example of chemical modified starch prepared by using esterification reaction of native starch with octenyl succinic anhydride in aqueous slurry systems. The produced OSA starch is better in terms of emulsifying properties, because of the addition of bi-functional hydrophilic and hydrophobic ends (Tesch, Gerhards, & Schubert, 2002). The native and acid hydrolyzed starch after OSA modification had been observed with more viscosity, higher paste clarity, and freeze-thaw stability than the parent starch. When the OSA starch derivatives were used in sausages formulation it improved the textural characteristics favorably. The OSA starch incorporated sausages had more compact sausages as compared to native starch, which provided larger and uneven pores to the sausage (Song et al., 2010). When four different types of chemically modified starches were added into the meat blocks by Cierach, Idaszewska, and Niedźwiedź (2014), it caused a decline in the purge and cooking loss, by improving the hydration properties. These changes further resulted in the improvement of textural and color properties. The chemically modified waxy maize starch influenced the red color, palatability and the overall acceptability of the beef sausages in a positive way (Mohammadi, Oghabi, Neyestani, & Hasani, 2013). In the case of meat batters when the addition of two commercial available modified starches, Crispfilm (Modified high amylose corn starch) and Crispfat (a mix of high amylose corn starch and tapioca dextrin) compared, the former starch had lower water absorption power than the later one. Moreover, Crispfilm had higher amylose content, peak viscosity, batter pick- up, which proves it effective substitute in batters (Vongsawasdi, Nopharatana, Srisuwatchree, & Pasukcharoenying, 2008). Research by Prestes et al. (2014), on the addition of native and modified (physically and chemically) starch in meat, reported that 2.5% of the modified starches to the formulation gave better performance as compared to the 5% native cassava starch. The modified starch exhibited better interaction with the structure of the product and altered the technological characteristics especially reheating loss in a favorable manner (Prestes et al., 2014). The physical (extruded) and chemical (phosphorylated) modified starch also confirmed as a good fat substitute, as it did 55% diminution in the fat content and around 28% reduction in total calorific value. Other than acting as a good fat replacer, these starch derivatives also enhanced the texture acceptability of the meat sausages (Limberger et al., 2011). The incorporation of the physical modified (gelatinized, retrograded and solubilized) starch in a meat batter ameliorated the emulsion stability and declined the jelly and fat separation, by forming a more stable complex (Aktaş & Gençcelep, 2006). Sometimes starches were also used in combination with other ingredients such as carrageenan isolated soy protein and milk protein to

2.1. Starch Among all the carbohydrates, starch is the most abundant polysaccharide present in cereals and legumes (Pietrasik, Pierce, & Janz, 2012). It provides approximately 4 cal/g of energy and is digestible in the human gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Chemically, starch is composed of two major components namely amylose and amylopectin. Both components are made up of same monomer (D-glucose), but owing to the difference in the molecular weight, glycosidic bonds, and shape (unbranched vs. branched), they show different functional characteristics (Petracci, Bianchi, Mudalal, & Cavani, 2013). The native starch isolated from the various botanical origins usually differs in shape, particle size, and amylose, and amylopectin ratio, which imparts specific functions to each starch type (Peng & Yao, 2017; Petracci et al., 2013). Starches having more amylose content provide more gel strength. The reason may be the linear amylose molecules which dissolve easily in the solution and during the heating process arrange themselves with each other by linking the hydrogen bonding in the gel matrix and provides texture to the meat and meat products. However, the branched amylopectin components remain unable to align themselves as easily as amylose and consequently impart weaker hydrogen bonding and less gel strength in food products. The starches having more amylopectin fractions produces more viscous, elastic gel and are easier to cook, and generally gelatinize at low temperatures than amylose-rich starches (Feiner, 2006). Regarding to the isolation/extraction techniques of starch, numerous methods have been utilized, like in case of wheat dough hand-washing method (Park, Wilson, Chung, & Seib, 2004), the enzymatic (Bechtel & Wilson, 2000) and chemical buffer method (Park, Bean, Wilson, & Schober, 2006; Zhao & Sharp, 1996). Starch offers a good stabilizing effect, because of which it is commonly utilized in the food industry. What is more, starch can be modified very easily by physical or chemical treatments and act as a versatile food ingredient (Mohamad Yazid, Abdullah, Muhammad, & Matias-Peralta, 2018). With regard to meat formulations, it is a vital multifunctional ingredient that has various applications in the form of binding agent (Pietrasik, 1999), emulsifying agent, fat replacer (Jairath, Sharma, Dabur, Singh, & Bishnoi, 2018), adhesive, gelling and water retention agent (Song, Zhu, Li, & Zhu, 2010). Literature documenting the exploitation of potato starch, tapioca starch (Skrede, 1989; Totosaus, 2009) and cereal starch (Bortnowska, Krzemińska, & Mojka, 2013; Jairath et al., 2018; Khalil, 2000; Li & Yeh, 2003) in meat products are abundant as shown in Table 1(A). A study by Bortnowska et al. (2013) documented that model beef meat sausages prepared with waxy maize starch (WMS) and potato starch (PS) had more consistency index, yield stress, apparent viscosity, and declined flow behavior index in comparison with control sauces (without starch addition). The addition of both polysaccharides (waxy maize starch (WMS) and potato starch (PS)) can be used to change the physiochemical characteristics of the sauces, but WMS exhibited more pronounced effects and resulted in the more stable sauce. Another study by Li and Yeh (2003) examined the influence of ten starches including the corn, waxy corn and high amylose corn starch on the starch meat complexes. They reported that the addition of starches resulted in increased storage modulus and loss modulus, which leads to less cooking loss. In addition, starch incorporation declined the leaching out of the meat proteins. Among all the five type starches (Potato, wheat, tapioca, corn and modified potato starch) tested, wheat starch was reported as best suited against freeze-thaw stability in the case of meat sausages, as documented by Skrede (1989). It has been proposed that starches having the same granular size as fat emulsions can potentially be used as fat replacers in low-fat food systems to overcome the side effects of low-fat (Lindeboom, Chang, & Tyler, 2004; Malinski, Daniel, Zhang, & Whistler, 2003). Hence, meat and meat products can be reformulated by incorporating cereal starch and their derivates (modified form) as a fat replacer. The corn starch has been successfully used as a fat replacer in calf meat sausages and 3

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Table 1 Studies with key findings on cereal polysaccharides evolved in the formulation of meat products (A) Starch (B) Cellulose (C) Hemicellulose (C-1) β-Glucan. Cereal sources of polysaccharides (A) Starch type Corn starch (CS)

Products

Buffalo Calf Meat Sausages

Research highlights levels of corn starch incorporation as a fat replacer • Enhanced resulted in a rising trend in the water-binding capacity of meat

References

Jairath et al. (2018)

sausages.

Modified starch (acetylated distarch adipate, mono starch phosphate, acetylated adipate with a high degree of cross-linking, acetylated distarch phosphate)

Meat blocks

Waxy Maize Starch (WMS) and Potato Starch (PS)

Beef Meat Sauces

Physical (Extruded) and Chemical (Phosphorylated) Modified Starch

Cierach et al. (2014)

hydration properties.

Sausages

Octenyl Succinic Anhydride Starch (OSA)

Chicken Breast Meat Sausages

Crispfilm (Modified high amylose corn starch) and crispfat (a mix of high amylose corn starch and tapioca dextrin)

Meat batters

Ten starches(Corn, Waxy Corn and High Amylose Corn Starch

Starch Meat Complexes

Corn starch

Buffalo Meat Patties

(B) Cellulose type Regenerated Cellulose Fibres Cellulose Nanofibers and Palm Oil

starch added sausages had 43% lower calorie content. • Corn yield, physicochemical characteristics, and sensory • Cooking scores improved favorably. of the modified starches into the meat blocks caused a • Addition decline in the purge and cooking loss, by improving the

Meat Batters Emulsified Sausages

textural and color properties. • Improved beef meat sauces prepared with waxy maize starch • Model (WMS) and potato starch (PS) had improved rheological

• • • • • • • • • • • •

characteristics in comparison with control sauces (without starch addition). Incorporation of waxy maize starch have more pronounced effects than potato starch and resulted in the more stable sauce. Incorporation of the physical (extruded) and chemical (phosphorylated) modified starch in sausages resulted in 55% and 28% diminution in the fat content and total calorific value respectively. Starch derivatives also enhanced the texture acceptability of the meat sausages. OSA starch had more viscosity, higher paste clarity, and freeze–thaw stability than the parent starch. Incorporation of OSA starch in sausages had improved the textural characteristics favorably. OSA starch added sausages had more compact and evenness in structure as compared to native starch added sausage. Crispfilm added batter had lower oil absorption. Crispfilm had higher amylose content, peak viscosity, batter pick- up, which proves it effective substitute in batters. The addition of starches resulted in increased storage modulus and loss modulus, which leads to less cooking loss. Starch incorporation declined the leaching out of the meat proteins. A remarkable increase in water holding capacity (WHC) of lowfat buffalo patties were observed. WHC of emulsion did not exhibit any variation as level enhanced from the 6 to 9%, owing to the attainment of the threshold level.

droplet size decreased and emulsion stability improved. • Oil of cellulose resulted in reduced fat content, cooking • Addition loss and provided high moisture content and lightness value to

Bortnowska et al. (2013)

Limberger et al. (2011)

Song et al. (2010)

Vongsawasdi et al. (2008) Li and Yeh (2003)

Khalil (2000)

Zhao et al., 2019 Wang et al. (2018)

the prepared sausages.

Carboxymethyl cellulose and microcrystalline cellulose

Beef Patties

in more elastic and compact nature sausages. • Resulted sausages had more sensory acceptance as compared to • Prepared the control (full-fat sausages). incorporation of MCC in beef patties provided the good • The microstructural, textural, and sensory profile as compared to

Gibis et al. (2015)

the control.

Amorphous cellulose

Emulsified cooked sausages.

Amorphous cellulose

Fermented sausages

Carboxymethyl cellulose, sodium nitrate carrageenan

Low Salt Sausages

Three cellulose gums (Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and two kinds of microcrystalline gums)

Low-Fat Frankfurters

Four types of CMC (having different molecular weight and degree of substitution)

Low-Fat Frankfurters

sensory acceptance was obtained by adding maximum • Highest levels of MCC (2%). concentration more than 0.5 wt% caused disturbances in • CMC the microstructure, sensory and textural properties. of amorphous cellulose caused a reduction in fat • Incorporation and cholesterol levels of the emulsified cooked sausages. substitution of pork fat with amorphous cellulose leads to • Full declined contents of the n-6/n-3 ratio and enhanced the

Almeida et al. (2014)

conjugated linoleic acid and vaccenic acid.

substitution (50%) of the pork back fat with amorphous • Half cellulose resulted in about 45% and 15% diminution of the fat

Campagnol et al. (2012)

and cholesterol levels in the fermented sausages respectively.

Declined the frying loss and enhanced flavor intensity and • juiciness. CMC reduced the moisture loss whereas color • Only characteristics remained unchanged by all the three gums. the products having low or high fat had acceptable. sensory • All scores composition and processing yield of the • Physicochemical frankfurters remain unchanged, whereas the decrease in

Ruusunen et al. (2003) Barbut and Mittal (1996)

Lin et al. (1988)

emulsion stability of frankfurters was observed. (C) Hemicellulose type

(continued on next page) 4

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Table 1 (continued) Cereal sources of polysaccharides

Products

Research highlights

(1) β-Glucan type Barley

Beef Emulsion

A combination of β-glucan (1.5%) and microcrystalline • cellulose (1.5%) produced the emulsions with appropriate and

N/A

Beef Emulsions

with higher levels of β-glucan and starch had a low • Emulsions cooking loss, intermediate and greater hardness, cohesiveness

Oats

Meat Product

Oats

Beef meat burgers and patties

Oats

Meatball

Oats

Sausage

Oats

Cooked meat batters Chicken breast meat

References

Vasquez Mejia et al. (2019)

acceptable technological characteristics.

Vasquez Mejia et al. (2018)

and springiness values.

Oat

in the calorific value by 30% as compared to the • Reduction Pork backfat water holding capacity, • More cooking yield • Increased lightness • Decreased textural and color properties • Improved β-glucan exhibited a decline in apparent viscosity • Hydrolyzed appearance • Improved overall acceptability • Enhanced • Improved sensory, physical characteristics in the cooking loss • Reduction the appearance, texture of the meat emulsions • Improved could be used in the diminution of salt and • β-glucan polyphosphate content of chicken products by using elevated

Pintado et al. (2016) Afshari et al. (2015)

Liu et al. (2015)

Sarteshnizi et al. (2015) Alvarez and Barbut (2013) Omana et al. (2011)

pressure processing

Barley

Beef Emulsion

A combination of β-glucan (1.5%) and microcrystalline • cellulose (1.5%) produced the emulsions with appropriate and

N/A

Beef Emulsions

with higher levels of β-glucan and starch had a low • Emulsions cooking loss, intermediate and greater hardness, cohesiveness

Oats

Meat Product

in the calorific value by 30% as compared to the • Reduction Pork backfat

Vasquez Mejia et al. (2019)

acceptable technological characteristics.

Vasquez Mejia et al. (2018)

and springiness values.

Pintado et al. (2016)

1996). It can be extracted from the cereals by alkaline or acidic procedures (Gupta et al., 2019). In order to make it water-soluble, Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) is formed from cellulose after heating with alkali. This mixture further reacts with monochloroacetic acid leading to a change of glycopyranose by the etherification reaction of the hydroxyl groups with methyl carboxyl groups (Gibis, Schuh, & Weiss, 2015). Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) is also a type of cellulose obtained from the wood pulp, cotton or liner to by treatment with a mineral acid to produce α-cellulose. Furthermore, this cellulose is partially depolymerized and purified to produce the α-cellulose (Schuh et al., 2013). Before its utilization as a food additive in meat products, it is treated with severe mechanical shearing, physically breaking it down into the colloidal crystalline aggregates, which are then co-dried with caboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and/or other functional ingredients (Lucca & Tepper, 1994). The utilization of both cellulose types (Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and microcrystalline cellulose (MCC)) has been approved in the food products in the form of food additives (Holtzapple, 2003). The incorporation of the cellulose to the meat products is not common; few studies in the literature have made an investigation of the effect of MCC on the meat products as a fat replacer, as presented in Table 1(B) (Barbut & Mittal, 1996; Mittal & Barbut, 1993). Gibis et al. (2015) examined the influence of carboxymethyl cellulose and microcrystalline cellulose on the beef patties. In the case of former cellulose beef patties, concentration of CMC more than 0.5 wt% caused disturbances in the microstructure, sensory and textural properties. The reason may be the higher concentrations of the CMC, declined the strength of the protein network created after heat treatment. However, incorporation of MCC in beef patties provided the good microstructural, textural, and sensory profile in contrast to the control. The maximum sensory acceptance was obtained by adding maximum levels of MCC (2%). Similarly, Mittal and Barbut (1993) reported that MCC was retained the water more effective as compare to CMC. In another study, among the three cellulose gums (Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and two kinds of microcrystalline gums), only CMC reduced the moisture

obtain the desirable physiochemical textural, rheological, sensory characteristics, which are demanded by the consumers (Dexter, Sofos, & Schmidt, 1993). Combination of the rice starch with apple fiber and citric acid did not affect the meat tenderness negatively but may improve the health profile of a meat product. It represents a feasible alternative to traditional ingredients utilized for the beef injection purpose and the end products can be beneficial for the consumers especially old populace (Botinestean et al., 2019). A research study by Carballo, Barreto, and Colmenero (1995) examined the effects of the starch and egg white on the Bologna sausage. They found that starch affected the binding and textural characteristics positively by reducing the cooking, purging loss and increasing the hardness, chewiness and penetration force. The starch and its derivatives (modified and unmodified) are valuable functional ingredients and a choice for the meat analog systems. To improve the storage and processing of meat and meat products, the use of native starch and its derivatives (unmodified and modified form) have been permitted. In the US and it is regulated by the US Department of Agriculture’s food safety and inspection service. Not only modified starches, but unmodified starches can also be used in combination with one or modified starches to provide desired functional characteristics in the analog. Undoubtedly starch has a plethora of functions in meat products but meat analogs are a complex formulation that needs knowledge about the functionality of starches prior to their selection for use. The end product being processed and the desired texture determines the types of starches used. It could take various evaluations and testing to find out the ideal mix of starches or its modified forms to obtain a commercial meat analog (Luallen, 2018). 2.2. Cellulose In recent years, with growing awareness of fiber intake, cellulose has become one of the most popular additives for the food formulations (Moncel, 2019). It is a non-digestible fiber, exists in the bran portion of some cereals such as wheat, rice, and oats (Claye, Idouraine, & Weber, 5

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suitable. Incorporation of the sodium nitrate, carboxymethyl cellulose, and carrageenan in low salt sausages declined the frying loss, enhanced the flavor intensity and juiciness (Ruusunen et al., 2003).

loss in reduced fat frankfurters. In contrast to this, color characteristics of the low-fat frankfurters were remained unchanged by the addition of all the three gums. However, sensory scores documented all the products having low or high fat were acceptable (Barbut & Mittal, 1996). The molecular weight and concentration of the incorporated cellulose are of vital importance, which may alter the structure and quality attributes of the prepared meat product in an unexpected way. This documented that interactions at the molecular level are of chief importance when incorporating these novel ingredients such as in the uncharged or charged fibers form. Though both forms of cellulose are auspicious, as CMC may decline the textural firmness of high protein reduced-fat sausage formulations and MCC may help to maintain the integrity of the protein gel network. This combination could be utilized to produce healthier meat sausages having reduced fat content (Schuh et al., 2013). Lin, Keeton, Gilchrist, and Cross (1988) examined the influence of four kinds of carboxymethyl cellulose having different molecular weight and degree of substitution on the low-fat frankfurters. They reported that a decline in molecular weight caused a decrease in emulsion stability, whereas physicochemical composition and processing yield of the frankfurters remain unchanged. Amorphous cellulose is also a non-calorific, non-digestible fiber having no taste, which is generally obtained from the cereals source (Chung & Min, 2004). Owing to its good water retention power, it enhances the viscosity and provides a sensory characteristic of juiciness and texture the same as fat (Torres, 2002). When it is incorporated in the Bologna type sausages along with the replacement of pork back fat with pork skin, it favorably ameliorated the physicochemical and sensory properties. This combination (amorphous and pork skin) also provided emulsion stability and technological profile to the prepared sausages by reducing the cooking loss (De Oliveira Faria et al., 2015). Not only in non-fermented sausages, but amorphous cellulose also exhibited good performance in the fermented sausages also by reducing the fat and calorific content. The half substitution (50%) of the pork back fat with amorphous cellulose resulted in about 45% and 15% diminution of the fat and cholesterol levels in the fermented sausages respectively (Campagnol, dos Santos, Wagner, Terra, & Rodrigues Pollonio, 2012). Another investigation by Almeida, Wagner, Mascarin, Zepka, and Campagnol (2014) documented the same results, but in the case of emulsified cooked sausages. Additionally, they observed that full substitution of pork fat with amorphous cellulose leads to declined contents of the n-6/n-3 ratio and enhanced the conjugated linoleic acid and vaccenic acid. Recently, cellulose nanofibers have also acquired tremendous attention as an auspicious filler and fat substitute in reduced fat meat products. These nanofibers have distinguishing characteristics such as large surface area, great stability, high strength, good rheological and emulsifiability characteristics (Wang et al., 2018). Owing to these properties it is an ideal candidate for food applications. In one study, four different concentrations of regenerated cellulose fibers (0%, 0.4%, 0.8%, and 1.2% w/w basis) in the meat batter emulsion system were examined. It was observed that oil droplet size was decreased and creaming stability was improved by enhancing the regenerated cellulose fibers level. The 0.8% concentration resulted in a satisfied threedimensional network structure in the continuous aqueous phase and provided maximum viscosity and steric hindrance to immobilize the oil droplets and prevented creaming. Thus, regenerated cellulose fibers can act as an effective stabilizer in the meat batters (Zhao et al., 2019). In addition to palm oil, when these fibers are incorporated into the emulsified sausages, this combination results in diminution the fat content, cooking loss and provided high moisture content and lightness value to the prepared product. Moreover, it provided a more elastic and compact nature, just because of the rheology of the cellulose nanofibers and the prepared sausages had more sensory acceptance as compare of the control (full-fat sausages) (Wang et al., 2018). The cellulose along with other ingredients can be used to manufacture the low salt sausages, where no food additive alone salt is

2.3. Hemicellulose Hemicellulose is a group of cell wall polysaccharides, accounts for about 20–30% of the total mass of annual and perennial plants (Spiridon & Popa, 2008). This group of polymers is basically made up of pentose and/or hexose sugars like xylose, glucose, mannose, and galactose in the backbone as well as arabinose, galactose, glucose, and glucuronic acid in the branches (Hamaker et al., 2019). Unlike cellulose, hemicelluloses have chiefly β-(1, 4) glycosidic bonds. Depending upon the plant and extraction process, it includes xylans, xyloglucans, arabinoxylans, mannans, glucomannans, and β-glucans (Butardo & Sreenivasulu, 2016; Pauly et al., 2013; Scheller & Ulvskov, 2010). In the case of cereals, the extraction of hemicellulose using water may have difficulties, because hemicellulose is bound to the lignin or cellulose through ferulic acid bridges and/or because of hydrogen bonding between the non-substituted xylose residues and the cellulose chains. Hence, on the basis of solubility, extraction is carried out using neutral or alkaline solutions. Hemicellulose may be water-soluble or water-insoluble in nature. Numerous processes have been utilized to isolate hemicellulose from the cereal bran and grains such as alkali extraction and other combinations like alkali and hydrogen peroxide, alkali and chlorite solutions or dimethyl sulphoxide (Sarossy, Egsgaard, & Plackett, 2011). In recent times hemicelluloses rich dietary fiber from cereal bran source has acquired remarkable interest, owing to potential health implications (Sarossy et al., 2011). Hemicellulose from rice bran source may help to lower the blood cholesterol and eradicates the colon cancer (Hu & Yu, 2013; Hu, Yang, Ma, & Zhou, 2007). In technological terms, the replacement of fat with rice bran hemicellulose resulted in a reduced concentration of overall fat and trans fatty acids in contrast with the control sample (Hu & Yu, 2013). Hemicellulose occurs either in βglucan or arabinoxylan form in the cereal bran and has been exploited in meat products. 2.3.1. β-Glucan In the 21st century, the reorganization of β-glucan as a functional and bioactive ingredient has created the new interests and customer demand insists the food industries reinforce its use in various novel functional foods. β-glucan is a type of dietary fiber and polysaccharide, structurally, made up D-glucose monosaccharide joined to each other by β-(1, 3), (1, 4) or (1, 6) glycosidic linkage (Bashir & Choi, 2017). It is found in cell walls of microorganisms, bran, and endosperm of cereal grains and in some varieties of mushrooms (Sofi, Singh, & Rafiq, 2017). In the case of cereals, different methods such as acidic, alkali and enzymatic methods are used to extract and/or isolate β-glucan and further used in the food formulation (Ahmad & Kaleem, 2018). Recently, numerous researches elaborated the potential health implications of βglucan as immune stimulator (Kim, Song, Lee, Cho, & Roh, 2006), fighter against microbial infections (Ina, Kataoka, & Ando, 2013), antitumor agent (Chen, 2013), hypo-cholesterol agent (Liatis et al., 2009), antioxidant (Slamenova et al., 2003) and anti-diabetic agent (Liatis et al., 2009) etc., to prevent lifestyle-related diseases. Other than as an essential food supplement, it also received tremendous attention as an immunostimulant and potential drug (Vetvicka, Vannucci, Sima, & Richter, 2019). Just because of its health-related potentiality, FDA recommended its utilization in functional foods and made it a mandatory need for food labeling to obtain health claim (Ahmad, Anjum, Zahoor, Nawaz, & Dilshad, 2012). Additionally, from an industrial point of view, other than the health properties, β-glucan as a functional ingredient is acquiring great consideration. It has well-renowned functional applications as thickener, stabilizer, emulsifier, textural agent and gelation 6

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meat product having less fat content and having less cost. Replacement of meat ingredient with barley fiber also improved the taste of the product (Ktari, Trabelsi, Bkhairia, Triki, & Taktak, 2016). Thus, these ingredients seem a promising ingredient in meat formulations to main the nutritional profile and functional profile. Besides, the use of oat emulsion gels and oil-free gels containing β-glucan have 30% less calorific value as compare to pork backfat, which is a basic ingredient in meat products. It has been suggested that these gels can be used in meat products to enhance their nutritional value whilst maintaining the quality and safety parameters of the product (Pintado, Herrero, Jiménez-Colmenero, & Ruiz-Capillas, 2016). The other carbohydrates such as starch and carrageenan hydrocolloids also have technological characteristics in meat products, but their upper limits are restricted by the legislation (Brazil, 2000). Hence, it would be substantial to evaluate the behavior of β-glucan in a mixture with these hydrocolloids in meat products with the aim of enhancing the fiber content in the diet and at the same time obtaining the improved technological results. Vasquez Mejia et al. (2018) observed the effects of β-glucan in beef emulsions along with the starch and carrageenan by utilizing optimal mixture modeling system and reported that emulsions with higher levels of β-glucan and starch had a low cooking loss, intermediate and greater hardness, cohesiveness and springiness values. In their next study, it has been documented that combined use of β-glucan (1.5%) and microcrystalline cellulose (1.5%) produced the emulsions with suitable technological characteristics and the consumption of 100 g of these emulsions in daily diet can provide 3% of the total dietary fiber intake (Vasquez Mejia, de Francisco, & Bohrer, 2019).

agent, which make it a suitable candidate for incorporation into dairy, bakery and meat industry (Ahmad & Kaleem, 2018; Nakashima et al., 2018). The commercial exploitation of β-glucan in the case of dairy and extruded products has been reported abundantly in the literature, but in meat products, it has not been explored yet. Regarding meat products, dietary fiber β-glucan also exhibits numerous functions as a filling agent, binding agent, extending agent and as a fat replacer to work synergistically with other nutrients. Recent researches, incorporated βglucan from diverse sources such as cereals, microbial and mushroom into the meat products as presented in Table 1(C-1) (Afshari et al., 2015; Alvarez & Barbut, 2013; Liu, Wang, Li, & Zhang, 2015). In studies by Alvarez and Barbut (2013) inulin and β-glucan be used to ameliorate the rheological and textural properties of meat batters, without compromising the organoleptic characteristics. Owing to good water retention and fat binding properties, the incorporation of βglucan in meat emulsions results in a reduction in cooking loss. Similarly, in low-fat beef burgers, the addition of β-glucan and inulin enhanced cooking yield, water retention, and overall acceptability by providing desirable textural characteristics to the burger patties (Afshari et al., 2015). Another product, oat β-glucan mixed with wheat resistant starch, was investigated in sausages. This incorporation favorably influenced the physical and sensory characteristics of sausages as well as enhanced cooking yield (Sarteshnizi, Hosseini, Bondarianzadeh, Colmenerob, & Khaksar, 2015). Another study by, Morin, Temelli, and McMullen (2002) illustrated the possibility of the production of low fat cooked sausages with 0.8% β-glucan having the same moisture content as high-fat sausages, where sausages with carboxymethylated cellulose (CMC) exhibited highest cooking loss. Nowadays, customers continue to seek low-fat meat products to maintain better health. When low-fat meatballs are produced, undoubtedly, they are superior from a health viewpoint, but fat reduction caused inferior texture, appearance, flavor, and aroma as compared to high-fat meatballs. Thus, there is an urge to the incorporation of fat substitute during their production process to compensate for fat reduction changes. The β-glucan as a fat substitute in meat products has well-renowned applications. The molecular weight of β-glucan is a vital parameter influence the overall quality parameters of the meatballs. After hydrolysis, low molecular weight β-glucan is produced, which provides a smooth surface to meatballs with respect to blank meatballs as well as improved textural and sensory properties (Liu et al., 2015). βglucan from different sources has different applications in diverse food sectors. β-glucan from yeast and mushroom source is not only good from a nutritional point of view but also acts as a natural alternative for the reformulation of meat products (Apostu, Mihociu, & Nicolau, 2017). Incorporation of yeast β-glucan helps in the stabilization of meat batters by retaining the structural cohesiveness and water content. Currently, the use of bioactive carbohydrates as a salt replacer in meat products is an auspicious solution to the problem of increased incidences of hypertension in humans. The microbial and cereal βglucan also deserves special attention as a perspective partial salt replacer in meat products, due to its gel-forming power. It was anticipated that β-glucan could be used in the diminution of salt and polyphosphate content of chicken products by using elevated pressure processing (Apostu et al., 2017; Omana, Plastow, & Betti, 2011). Incorporation of β-glucan with low levels of sodium chloride and without the addition of sodium tripolyphosphate can produce similar gels as prepared with 2.5 NaCl addition in meat products by using temperature assisted highpressure processing (Omana et al., 2011). Furthermore, the inclusion of mushroom extract (source of βglucan, other type's dietary fiber, and several natural antioxidants), acted as antimicrobial and antioxidant, when used in meat products. Moreover, this addition stabilized the color of meat products and enhanced storage life (Aida, Shuhaimi, Yazid, & Maaruf, 2009). In an experiment, the incorporation of barley β-glucan along with other ingredients in Tunisian turkey meat sausage provided a healthier

2.3.2. Arabinoxylan Arabinoxylan is the most abundant hemicellulose type polysaccharide that exists in the cell walls of cereals. In the case of cereals, arabinoxylan exists in the cell wall material of the endosperm as well as in the bran. Based on the source it exhibits variations in the chemical structure (Hamaker et al., 2019). In the case of wheat bran, 60–69% of the non-starchy polysaccharides are arabinoxylan (Lu, Gibson, Muir, Fielding, & O’Dea, 2000). For its extraction from the cereal grains or bran, different chemical solvent extraction, and enzymatic methods have been used and further modification treatments have used to achieve the required properties (Zhang, Smith, & Li, 2014). In recent times, arabinoxylan has gained considerable interest just owing to their functional and biological characteristics (Mendez-Encinas, CarvajalMillan, Rascon-Chu, Astiazaran-Garcia, & Valencia-Rivera, 2018). The feruloylated arabinoxylan, in which ferulic acid is linked to the arabinoxylan chain with the help of ester bond and has an 85% soluble dietary fiber (Herrera-Balandrano et al., 2019). The arabinoxylan has the unique ability to form covalent gels by the oxidative coupling of the ferulic acid. Owing to the covalent nature, these gels have good water absorption power and are stable against pH, temperature and ionic charges (Izydorczyk & Biliaderis, 1995). The antioxidant and prebiotic characteristics of phenolic or ferulic acids of arabinoxylan have been confirmed in both in vitro as well as in vivo models (Malunga & Beta, 2016). These two properties are linked to its anticancer characteristics (Cao et al., 2011). Numerous studies in literature documented the potential health advantages of arabinoxylan as an anti-inflammatory and anti-carcinogenic agent. Regarding food products, the inclusion of arabinoxylan helps to retard the lipid peroxidation and subsequent oxidative spoilage (Herrera-Balandrano et al., 2018). The incorporation of 0.15% and 0.30% feruloylated arabinoxylan in frankfurter meat sausages resulted in increased phenolic and antioxidant power as compared to the control samples. Moreover, physicochemical properties such as water holding capacity, titratable acidity, pH, Hardness, shear force, and diameter are also improved favorably in sausages sample (Herrera-Balandrano et al., 2019). This supplementation resulted in reduced fat sausages having enhanced nutritional and nutraceuticals properties. 7

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3. Cereal bran as a source of polysaccharides for meat products

barley are studied for their effect on the frankfurter-type sausages and meatballs, they provided desirable physicochemical, textural and sensory characteristics to these meat products. Owing to the good gelling capacity of the oat bran on heating, it declined the processing and frying loss and provided good values of firmness and sensory scores to the sausage. Similarly, in meatballs, it resulted in smooth texture as compared to the control of meatballs. The reason may be the presence of non-starchy polysaccharides like β-glucan. The treated rye bran also decreased the frying loss and firmness of the prepared sausages (Petersson, 2012).

Owing to increased consumer awareness of cereal bran as an affluent source of dietary fiber (cell wall non-starchy polysaccharides) and functional components, fiber-rich products and ingredients are getting a keen interest in the market. The cereal bran has good amounts of insoluble fiber, minerals, lipids, vitamins, and pigments (Alan, Ofelia, Patricia, & Rosario Maribel, 2012; Fulcher & Miller, 1993; Jayadeep, Singh, Sathyendra Rao, Srinivas, & Ali, 2008). The cereal brans or hulls contain good amounts of cellulose, lignin, and insoluble arabinoxylan, whereas β-glucan exist in wheat and rye brans (Knudsen, 2014). The insoluble dietary fiber is maximum in oats bran followed by the rice, wheat, and corn respectively (Kahlon, Edwards, & Chow, 1998). Wheat bran and rye bran contain a high content of insoluble arabinoxylan and cellulose, whereas oat bran and barley bran are rich in soluble β-glucan fiber (Petersson, 2012). Wheat bran also contains some bioactive compounds like phenolic acids, phytosterols, arabinoxylans, and alkylresorcinol, which helps in the deterrence of lifestyle-related diseases (Onipe, Jideani, & Beswa, 2015). The bioactive polysaccharides extracted from the rice source elicited excellent physiological characteristics in maintaining health and deterring diastases, stimulated immune function. Antioxidants from diverse sources have exhibited antioxidant activities and help in tumor prevention (Hefnawy & El-Shourbagy, 2014). For example, in one research study, a polysaccharide from rice bran suppressed the tumor growth carcinogenesis in rats and enhanced their survival rate (Wang, Zhang, Zhang, & Chen, 2008). In the production of meatballs, replacement of the tapioca with rice bran resulted in enhanced antioxidant and total phenolic content. Moreover, meatballs prepared by half substitution of tapioca starch with rice bran obtained the best sensory scores (Kartikawati & Purnomo, 2019). In the case of cooked meat products, cereal bran as a source of fiberenhanced water holding capacity, which makes it a suitable food additive in meat products (Confrades, Guerra, Carballo, FernandezMartin, & Jimenez-Colmenero, 2000). This characteristic is further responsible for the increase in both emulsion stability and cooking yield. Using increased levels of oat bran, more water is retained in the low fatfrankfurters (Chang & Carpenter, 1997). The commercial exploitation of cereal bran in meat products has been reported abundantly in the literature. Numerous another research studies were also observed the influence of incorporation of cereal bran of rice (Oryza sativa) (Jung et al., 2018; Choi et al., 2015; Malekian, Khachaturyan, Gebrelul, & Henson, 2014; Petridis, Raizi, & Ritzoulis, 2013; Mehta, Ahlawat, Sharma, Yadav, & Arora, 2013; Álvarez et al., 2011; Choi et al., 2010; Choi et al., 2008a, b; Crowley & Halliday, 2008; Choi et al., 2007; Huang, Shiau, Liu, Chu, & Hwang, 2005; McKee & Latner, 2000), oats (Avena sativa) (Chang & Carpenter, 1997; Garcı́a, Dominguez, Galvez, Casas, & Selgas, 2002; Talukder & Sharma, 2010; Yılmaz & Dağlıoğlu, 2003), barley (Hordeum vulgare) (Petersson, 2012), wheat (Triticum aestivum) (Choi et al., 2007; Fomenko & Ptichkina, 2010; Huang, Tsai, & Chen, 2011; Sarıçoban, Yılmaz, & Karakaya, 2009; Šulniūtė, Jaime, Rovira, & Venskutonis, 2016; Talukder & Sharma, 2010; Yadav, Pathera, Islam, Malik, & Sharma, 2018; Yılmaz, 2005), rye (Secale cereale) (Šulniūtė et al., 2016; Yılmaz, 2004), corn (Zea mays) (Rose, Inglett, & Liu, 2010), and sorghum (Roybal, 2010; Waters, 2017) in meat products. The inclusion of bran ameliorated the sensory and textural characteristics positively in the findings of these studies. The cereal bran also provides desirable technological characteristics to the food products in which it is incorporated. For instance, wheat bran has been documented with a high content of insoluble material, larger particle size and higher water-binding capacity as compared to the rye bran (Petersson, 2012). Cereal bran as a source of dietary fiber, when incorporated in meat products, exhibited improvement in cooking yield and texture, just owing to its good water and fat binding characteristics (Choi et al., 2014, 2015). When four different types of cereal bran such as oats, wheat rye, and

4. Prospective futures and research opportunities Reformulation of the meat products by incorporating cereal polysaccharides should consider the nutritional, organoleptic, safety and technological profile of the end product (Grasso et al., 2014; Jiménez Colmenero, 2000). Simply reduction of the fat content of the meat products can cause increased toughness and associated cost, especially in case of comminuted meat products, which may influence the consumer acceptability of the product. For this reason fat replacers have been used in the meat products, which can ameliorate the texture in case of reduced fat meat products. Polysaccharides from the cereal sources have well renowned applications as fat replacer and texture improver in case of meat products as well as have good nutritional profile. Previous research work emphasizing on the processed meat products by incorporation of the cereal polysaccharides has confirmed the possibility to manufacture healthier meat products and was also attractive to the consumers. Despite their nutritional and functional characteristics in meat products, commercialization of these fortified products is limited owing to the research gap and lack of advanced technologies. Thus, technology portfolio should be expanded and more advanced to valorize knowledge about the needs and acceptability of these polysaccharides added meat products, to alter the negative opinion of customers towards meat products. The meat industry should enter the functional food market by development of the functional ingredients incorporated meat products, that are safe, flavorsome, easy to prepare and affordable, by complying with the necessary laws and regulations, and by targeting the right market. However, successful delivery of the functional meat products is not an easy task and need a broad multidisciplinary approach. Not only meat industry will require exceptional quality raw materials but also engagement in the innovative marketing strategies. Moreover, the pharmaceuticals and meat food ingredients industry also needs to be collaborate by developing and producing novel healthy ingredients suitable for incorporation in the meat formulations. 5. Concluding remarks In the case of cereals, starch and non-starch polysaccharides are the predominant carbohydrates. Non-starch polysaccharides exist in the cells walls of the endosperm and bran portion and having documented health implications to combat chronic diseases in the form of fiber. Cereal Polysaccharides from different sources slightly vary in its conformation, molecular weight, and functionality, which subsequently define its applications in the food industry and bioavailability in the human body. Literature suggested that the application of diverse polysaccharides from cereal source positively influenced the textural, Organoleptic, functional and nutritional profile of food products. Regarding meat products, the inclusion of these polymers leads to a reduction in calorific content and cooking loss, color stabilization, improved sensory, rheological and textural related parameters. Ethics statement The authors whose names are listed immediately below certify that this article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects. 8

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Declaration of Competing Interest

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