Chagyrskaya Cave:A Middle Paleolithic Site In The Altai

ARCHAEOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY & ANTHROPOLOGY OF EURASIA Archaeology Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 41/1 (2013) 2–27 E-mail: [email protected]

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THE SIBIRYACHIKHA FACIES OF THE ALTAI MIDDLE PALEOLITHIC A.P. Derevianko1, S.V. Markin1, V.S. Zykin2, V.S. Zykina2, V.S. Zazhigin3, A.O. Sizikova2, E.P. Solotchina2, L.G. Smolyaninova2, and A.S. Antipov1 Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pr. Akademika Lavrentieva 17, Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] 2 Institute of Geology and Mineralogy, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pr. Akademika Koptyuga 3, Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia E-mail: [email protected]; zykinɚ@igm.nsc.ru; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] 3 Geological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pyzhevsky Per. 7, Moscow, 119017, Russia E-mail: [email protected] 1

CHAGYRSKAYA CAVE: A MIDDLE PALEOLITHIC SITE IN THE ALTAI

This article presents the results of multidisciplinary studies conducted at Chagyrskaya – an Upper Pleistocene karst cave in the northwestern Altai where Middle Paleolithic stone tools and fossil remains of Neanderthals were found. Taphonomic aspects of the site are addressed, and results of science-based analyses including radiocarbon and paleomagnetic dating are presented. The deposits are similar to loess-like Upper Pleistocene loams of Western Siberia. Among the Middle Paleolithic industries of the Altai, the Chagyrskaya industry is paralleled only by that of Okladnikov (formerly Sibiryachikha) Cave. Both represent a local Middle Paleolithic Mousteroid facies, named Sibiryachikha after the eponymous site. Keywords: Geology, granulometric analysis, chemical analysis, micromorphological analysis, paleomagnetic analysis, loess, small mammals, Middle Paleolithic.

Introduction In North Asia, the Middle Paleolithic is primarily represented by the sites located in the Altai and contiguous regions of southern Siberia. The Middle Paleolithic began to form in the Altai at the end of the Middle Pleistocene (282–133 ka BP). Most sites date to 100.0–44.8 ka BP; the latest assemblages are 33.5 thousand years old

(Arkheologiya…, 1998; Prirodnaya sreda…, 2003). The material culture of the Altai Middle Paleolithic is generally homogenous (Prirodnaya sreda…, 2003). However, the technocomplexes from Okladnikov Cave dated to 44.8–33.5 ka BP possess speci¿c technological and typological features (Derevianko, Markin, 1992). It was previously believed that the speci¿city of Okladnikov industries was mostly determined by both environmental

© 2013, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.aeae.2013.07.002

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factors and cultural speci¿city. The analysis of lithics from the recently discovered Chagyrskaya Cave (Derevianko, Markin, Zykin, 2008; Derevianko et al., 2009) which are close to those from Okladnikov Cave, suggest that the cultural factor was critical. Geological structure of the Charysh River valley in the Chagyrskaya Cave region The cave is located in the ‘middle elevation’ mountain zone of the northwestern Altai, on the left bank of the Charysh River which drains the offshoots of the northern slope of the Tigirek Ridge (Fig. 1). The river elevation in the vicinity of the cave is 337.3 m asl. In the cave environs, approaching subhorizontal valley surfaces (50– 70 m high and over 70 m wide) based on the Paleozoic bedrock are clearly observed. The elevated surfaces have smooth rear seams and indistinct edges. The cave faces north and is situated at the elevation of 25 m above the Charysh water level. The cave mouth opens on the vertical surface of an erosion terrace 50–60 m high. The terrace is composed of gray, thick Lower Silurian sandstone of the Chagyrskaya suite. The cave consists of two chambers measuring approximately 130 m 2. Running from one of these chambers are three horizontal and vertical galleries

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that are nearly completely filled with soft sediments. Well-rounded pebbles and boulder fragments of various rocks occur under a thick layer of modern soil on the horizontal terrace surface right above the cave. Rounded stones are also available in the ¿lling of the cave and the vertical galleries. These stones were associated with the unpreserved ancient alluvium that originally occurred on high terrace-like surfaces. The secondary depression in the left bank of the river valley opposite the cave is ¿lled with Pleistocene deposits, suggesting that the high terraces formed no later than the late Middle Pleistocene. They apparently mark the subsequent rise of the river, after which the karst cave emerged. Cave sediments, their characteristics and deposition conditions Numerous pro¿les, made to the depth of 3.6 m near the entrance and inside Chamber 1 of the cave revealed the following succession of strata: Stratum

Thickness, m

1. Light sandy loam of gray and dark greenish-gray color, non-carbonaceous, slightly compacted, with abundant small and well-rounded pebbles and rubble; contains

Fig. 1. General view of Chagyrskaya Cave.

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Stratum

Thickness, m

clayey sand with a distinct lower border . . . 2. Gray, well-rounded and poorly sorted pebbles with inclusions of small boulders and sandstone fragments up to 0.15 m in size; cemented with sandy loam and loose, noncarbonaceous clayey sand of light gray color. The lower margin of the stratum is distinct as the amount of debris decreases . . . . . . . . . . 3. Light sandy carbonaceous loam, particolored (gray with whitish laminations in the upper portion, brownish-gray in the middle part, and yellowish-gray in the lower portion), with the admixture of ¿ne gravel and pebbles as well as fragments of carbonaceous rocks. The lower border is wavy and marked by whitish carbonaceous laminations . . . . . 4. Lenses of gray and lumpy aleurolite, poorly sorted, with a considerable admixture of clay sand and gravel consisting of loess and soil grains. Small and less numerous large sandstone fragments and small pebbles are observed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. Brownish-gray sandy loam with a white tint, denser than in the overlying strata, with a considerable admixture of clay sand, with a low content of carbonates (rare spots and thin intercalations), slightly porous; contains ¿ne rubble, gravels up to 0.005 m, pebbles up to 0.05 m, and sandstone fragments more than 0.1 m in size. Schliere structures occur around rock fragments and pebbles. The upper portion of the stratum comprises a small sublayer of denser, light brown loam with clay sand. The color of this sublayer seems to result from the larger amount of sesquioxides and clay fraction. The stratum has rodent burrows up to 0.15 m in diameter ¿lled with the loam from strata 1 and 3. The stratum differs from the underlying unit in its color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6a. Sandy grayish-brown loam, darker and denser than the overlying sediments, carbonaceous, porous, and with abundant sandstone fragments of varying size, rounded pebbles of 0.01 – 0.07 m, and grit up to 0.01 m in size. The upper margin of the stratum is wavy, with wedge-shaped depressions; the lower margin is more even and indistinct. The stratum contains burrows 0.07–0.1 m in diameter ¿lled with the loam from stratum 3. It demonstrates indistinct lamellosity oriented along the stratum’s dip, possibly caused by cryogenic processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.01–0.1

0.05–0.55

0.02–0.56

0.02–0.54

0.06–1.42

0.6–0.45

Stratum

Thickness, m

6b. Brownish-gray sandy loam, denser and less porous than the overlying layer, with a low content of carbonates. Only decomposed limestone fragments react with HCl. The stratum comprises clay sand – poorly sorted, mostly fine-grained, with solitary large sand grains. The sediment structure is laminar, which suggests freezing processes in the course of sedimentation of this stratum. Limestone fragments, pebbles, small gravel and rubble are few. The stratum contains burrows up to 0.12 m in diameter. This stratum differs from the overlying one in that it has a lesser proportion of debris as well as a different color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.09–0.56 6c/1. Sandy loam, slightly grayer than the overlying sediment, with a low content of carbonates, and less porous. The stratum contains a small amount of crystal rock fragments up to 0.05 m in size (some of them weathered), small pebbles, grit, and rubble. Rounded quartz grains similar in size to large grains of sand and ¿ne gravel are present. The stratum has rodent burrows up to 0.1 m in diameter. The stratum differs from the underlying unit in its color . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.05–0.44 6c/2. Yellowish-green loam spreading over the uneven bottom of stratum 6c/1. In the longitudinal wall of the excavation, it is traceable in a hollow-like dipping, and contains rubble and pebbles oriented along the walls of the hollow. Below this sublayer, the hollow is ¿lled with light, ashy-gray, noncarbonaceous, loose loam with beds of debris and pebbles on the hollow’s sides . . . . . . . . 0.05–0.56 7a–c. Heavy, dense, and mixed loams of dark brown (stratum 7b), brownish-gray (stratum 7c), and black (stratum 7a) colors. The sediments comprise large and dense clots. The admixture of hydroxides of iron and manganese add colors to the sediments. Also, spots of black and particolored montmorillonite clay along with well-rounded and slightly weathered pebbles and boulder fragments, decayed limestone, quartz grains, and coarse and poorly sorted clay sand are present. The upper part of the stratum has glide planes. The upper margin of the stratum is marked by fine, oblique fissures filled with sediment from the overlying stratum. The upper border shows small oblique ¿ssures that are ¿lled with sediments from the overlying stratum that also injects small

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Stratum

Thickness, m

amounts of heavy loam to stratum 6c/2. This possibly represents cryogenic processes . . . 0.04–1.37

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x-ray, and paleomagnetic analyses, and quartz grains were subjected to morphological and morphometric analyses. Granulometric analysis

The stratigraphic sequence contains Holocene (strata 1–4) and Pleistocene formations. The Holocene sediments include a stratum (2) of poorly sorted and wellrounded pebbles that penetrated into the cave through sinkholes and vertical cavities of erosion above the cave. A long hiatus in sedimentation is traceable between the Holocene and underlying units. The Pleistocene deposits can be divided into two distinct parts. The upper part is primarily composed of subaerial sediments and includes two horizons (stratum 5 and strata 6a, 6b, 6c/1 and 6c/2) of loess-like sediments. These horizons are represented by loess-like loam, as evidenced by their color, porosity, and grain size matching that of the contemporaneous subaerial deposits in the Charysh valley opposite the cave. Heavy loams with grains of quartz and clay sand (strata 7a–c) at the bottom of the pro¿le represent another cycle of cave sedimentation associated with the active manifestation of physical and chemical processes. Samples from Upper Pleistocene strata 5, 6a, 6b, 6c/1, and 6c/2 were subjected to grading, chemical,

ɚ

b

Grading was conducted using a Fritsch Analysette 22 laser particle analyzer. The size of dust and clay particles suggests that the deposits consist of loess (Konert, Vandenberghe, 1997). The granulometric composition of stratum 5 represented by loam contains coarse-grained dust (31.5–36.25 %), medium dust (up to 29.35 %), and ¿ne-grained dust (up to 11.35 %). The proportion of the clay fraction (< 0.005 mm) is 25.7–30.0 % and gradually decreases in the lower stratum (Fig. 2). Bulk chemical composition includes silicon oxide, iron and aluminium sesquioxides as well as phosphorous and calcium oxides (Table 1). The loam of stratum 6a is also characterized by a high content of dust fractions: coarse-grained dust forms 35.4 %; medium dust, 28.35 %, and ¿ne-grained dust, 11.2 % (Fig. 2). The proportion of clay fraction in stratum 6 is slightly higher than that in stratum 5 (28.3–32.7 %). The percentages of iron and aluminium sesquioxide,

c

d

e

Fig. 2. Granulometric composition of the Chagyrskaya sediments. a – coarse-grained dust fraction (0.063–0.016 mm); b – medium dust fraction (0.016–0.008 mm); c – ¿ne-grained dust fraction (0.008–0.005 mm); d – clay fraction (< 0.005 mm); e – mean grain size.

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Table 1. Bulk chemical composition of Chagyrskaya strata Strata

Sampling depth, m

% of heated sample Loss on heating

SiO2

Fe2O3

Al2O3

CaO

MgO

K 2O

Na2O

P2O5

TiO2

MnO

BaO

5

1.80

9.38

47.76

4.89

11.53

12.89

1.73

2.51

1.34

5.08

0.59

0.16

0.06

6a

1.70

13.73

48.79

4.62

11.10

11.41

1.87

2.36

1.58

2.92

0.65

0.09

0.04

6b

1.30

8.85

45.87

4.37

10.64

14.01

1.48

2.47

1.58

6.71

0.54

0.22

0.04

6c/1

0.70

13.32

43.30

4.10

9.75

13.96

1.39

2.23

1.68

7.32

0.52

0.13

0.05

6c/2

0.60

7.14

55.89

5.60

12.67

5.62

1.17

3.11

2.07

3.72

0.70

0.13

0.06

0.40

5.85

56.76

5.58

13.07

4.62

0.99

3.39

2.26

4.61

0.70

0.08

0.07

0.50

10.69

50.34

9.11

17.30

1.40

1.55

3.77

0.42

1.56

0.70

0.63

0.50

0.70

9.66

47.48

10.07

18.89

2.38

2.12

3.66

0.28

0.92

0.75

2.31

0.19

7a–c

calcium and phosphorus oxides are also low, while the share of SiO2 is larger (Table 1). The loam of stratum 6b consists mostly of coarsegrained dust fracture. Its proportion increases downward through the stratum and reaches 53.65 % at the lowest part. The proportion of medium-sized dust is half that of the coarse-grained dust, while the portion of finegrained dust is minor (11.0–7.05 %) and decreases down through the pro¿le. The percentages of the dust fraction with grains < 0.005 mm varies within the range of 21.1– 32.4 %, which is roughly the same as in stratum 6a. The proportion of iron and aluminium sesquioxide, and silicon oxide in stratum 6b is lower than that in the overlying stratum, while the percentages of calcium, phosphorus, and manganese oxides are higher (Table 1). The composition of loam in stratum 6c/1 is also dominated by dust fractions, the greatest being the coarse-grained dust fraction (Fig. 2). The percentage of coarse-grained dust is highest in the upper portion of the stratum and gradually decreases towards the bottom. In contrast, the proportions of medium-size and ¿ne-grained dust increase towards the stratum bottom. The share of the dust fraction with grains < 0.005 mm varies in the range of 24.0–27.6 % and increases toward the bottom of the stratum. As the bulk chemical analysis has shown, this stratum is characterized by a minimum content of silicon oxide and iron and aluminium sesquioxide, as well as by a rather high portion of calcium oxide and by the highest percentage of phosphorus oxide (Table 1) Stratum 6c/2 is represented by loam, in which the fraction of coarse-grained dust reaches 52.3 % close to that in stratum 6b. The fraction of medium-size grained dust is half that in stratum 6b, while the portion of ¿negrained dust is the minimum (Fig. 2). The fraction of dust with grains < 0.005 mm forms 17.3 % in the upper portion and 26.8 % in the lower portion of the stratum. The proportion of silicon oxide is the highest (56.76 %);

the percentage of iron and aluminium sesquioxide is slightly higher than that in the overlying stratum, while those of phosphorus oxide and calcium oxide are much lower (Table 1). The granulometric composition of stratum 7a–c is dominated by the dust fractions. The fraction of coarsegrained dust prevails among them (Fig. 2). The fraction of dust with grains < 0.005 mm constitutes 28.5 %. Results of bulk chemical analysis show that this stratum differs from the others in its unusually high content of ferrum oxide, aluminium oxide, manganese, oxide and barium oxide, while the portion of calcium oxide in this stratum is the lowest (Table 1). Thus, the granulometric composition of Upper Pleistocene sediments in Chagyrskaya Cave is characterized by the predominance of the dust fraction; the bulk chemical composition of silicon oxide, iron, and aluminium sesquioxides is similar to that typical of the Upper Pleistocene loess-like loam of Western Siberia (Zykina, Volkov, Dergacheva, 1981; Zykina, Zykin, 2012). These observations make it possible to regard the cave sediments as analogous to loess deposited by aeolian processes. Morphoscopy and morphometry of quartz sand grains In order to reconstruct the environmental conditions that existed during the deposition of sediments in the cave, strata were examined using the morphoscopic and morphometric method elaborated by the Institute of Geography RAS (Velichko, Timireva, 2002). Quartz grains 0.5–1.0 mm in size were analyzed. The degree of roundedness was assessed using A.V. Khabakov’s ¿ ve-grade scale (1946) and L.B. Rukhin’s template (1969).

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ɚ

b

c

7

d

Fig. 3. Histogram of roundness and degree of the surface dullness of quartz sand grains in the Chagyrskaya sediments. Degree of the surface dullness: a – glossy surface; b – quarter-matted; c – half-matted; d – matted.

ɚ

d

b

c

e

f

g

h

Fig. 4. Quartz grains from strata 5 (ɚ–e) and 6a (f–h) of Chagyrskaya Cave. a – matted grain with micropits; b, c – matted grains; d – glossy grain with a conchoidal fracture; e – conchoidal fracture of a grain; f – half-matted grain with micropits; g – traces of mechanical abrasion on the grain surface; h – glossy grain with conchoidal fractures.

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In stratum 5, quartz grains of roundness classes 1 and 2 prevail (30–35 %); grains of classes 3 and 0 make up 15–18 %; several ideally rounded grains of class 4 are available (Fig. 3). The coef¿cient of roundness is 40 %, suggesting that virtually all grains are worn. The angular shape of some grains can be explained by short distance of transportation and the time of their occurrence in the air medium. Grain surfaces vary in the degree of the surface dullness: 10 % of grains are glossy, 30 % are matted, and the rest are quarter-matted or half-matted (Fig. 4, ɚ–c). The average degree of the surface dullness is 53 %. This relatively high value suggests aeolian abrasion of the material. Differences in the degree of dullness observed on grain surfaces also point to aeolian transportation of sand. The sand grain surfaces show traces of mechanical damage such as micropits, shallow grooves, and ¿ssures. Such damage resulted from collision of sand grains in the air Àow (Velichko, Timireva, 2002). Many grains have a ¿ne-grained aleurolite material ¿lling the cavities on the surface. The grains that have a low level of roundness exhibit conchoidal fractures resulted from frost weathering (Fig. 4, d, e). In stratum 6a, subrounded sand grains form 56 %; class 2 rounded, 28%; well-rounded, 10 %; and angular, 6 % (Fig. 3). The coef¿cient of roundness is 27.5 %; the average degree of dullness is 52 %. Most grains are halfmatted (40 %), the proportions of grains with quartermatted (32 %) and matted (24 %) surfaces are lower. The proportion of glossy grains is minor (Fig. 3). Almost all grains have a micropit texture (Fig. 4, f). Some grains demonstrate conchoidal fractures resulting from frost weathering (Fig. 4, h). These features in combination with grooves, traces of collision, scratches, and “adhering particles” suggest the aeolian transportation of these grains (Fig. 4, f, g). The quartz grains from stratum 6b are characterized by a relatively low degree of roundness: approximately 15 % represent the zero class; grains of classes 1 and 2 form 40 %, respectively; the proportion of well-rounded grains is small. The sample does not contain grains of the highest degree of roundness (Fig. 3). The coef¿cient of roundness is 33 %. Matted grains constitute 21.5 %; glossy grains, 10 %; and half- and quarter-matted, 68.5 % (Fig. 5, a, c, d). The average degree of dullness is 45 %. Despite the comparatively low degree of aeolian surface abrasion, the grain surfaces show traces of wind transportation in the form of micropits and scratches, especially on grains with matted surfaces (Fig. 5, b, e, f). This is a reliable source of proof for wind transportation of the sand. Fine-grained aleurolite ¿lling the hollows also points to wind as a means of sand transportation. Some grains exhibit conchoidal fractures caused by cryogenic processes. In stratum 6c/1, angular sand grains form 16 %; rounded, 38 %; subrounded of class 1, 36 %; well-rounded

of class 3, 10 % (Fig. 3). The coef¿cient of roundness is moderate – 38 %. The grain surfaces, with the exception of well-rounded grains, demonstrate varying degrees of dullness. The percentages of grains with half- and quartermatted surfaces are roughly equal. The portion of matted grains does not exceed 25 % (Fig. 3). The average degree of dullness is high and equals 50 %. The grain surfaces exhibit micropits left by mechanical abrasion associated with the presence of aleurolite materials in the air during wind transportation (Fig. 5, h). Some grains have adhering particles of aleurolite. Conchoidal fractures (Fig. 5, g, h) are observed on some grains. Such fractures were caused by frost weathering: water solutions Àowing into the grains along the cracks freeze, splitting the grains (Velichko, Timireva, 2002). The hollows and fractures on the surfaces of sand grains bear secondary formations of quartz and plagioclase evidencing the development of chemical processes during the post-depositional period (Ibid.). All the sand grains examined from the loess-like loam of Chagyrskaya Cave (strata 5, 6a, 6b, and 6c/1) are moderately rounded (27.5–40 %). Most are attributable to roundness classes 1 and 2. Almost no grains display mechanical damage. The degree of dullness is within the range of 45–52 %; the number of grains with an entirely matted surface does not exceed the average values. Many grains have a micropit texture resulting from damage caused by aeolian transportation. In many cases, cavities on the grain surface are ¿lled with ¿ne-grained aleurolite – a feature typical of grains from loess horizons. Conchoidal fractures on some grain surfaces are indicative of frost weathering (Ibid.). It should be noted that the moderate degrees of dullness and a relatively small number of grains with matted surfaces indicate short exposure to air during transfer. Morphoscopic and morphometric indexes are lower than those estimated for the Bagansk–Eltsovka (MIS 2) and Tulinskoye (MIS 4) loess of Western Siberia (Sizikova, Zykina, 2011). This clearly evidences shorter exposure to air, implying that the source of transfer was situated nearby. Micromorphology of loams The sediments of stratum 5 are brownish gray and have a sand-plasma microstructure. The sediments have low porosity; the pores are sinuous, interaggregate and interskeletal; the plasma is ferrous and clayey. The aggregates are round, 0.07–0.35 mm in size (Fig. 6, a). Unevenly distributed skeletal grains form 15–20 % of the thin section. The size of skeletal particles varies from 0.03 mm to 0.45 mm; one particle is 1.8 mm in size. The grains are mostly subrounded and angular; few grains are rounded. The surfaces of skeletal grains are covered with ferrous clay coating (Fig. 6, b). The mineral skeleton in

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ɚ

d

9

b

c

e

f

Fig. 5. Quartz grains from strata 6b (a– f) and 6c/1 (g, h) of Chagyrskaya Cave. a, c – quarter-matted grains; b – micropits and scratches on grain a; d – half-matted grain; e, f – matted grains with micropits; g – quartermatted grain with a conchoidal fracture; h – half-matted grain with micropits and a conchoidal fracture.

g

plasma is annular (Fig. 6, c). The thin section comprises a slightly elongated basalt fragment, elongated pieces of shale (1.5×1.0 mm), metamorphosed plagioclase, quartz, and potash feldspar (4 mm) (Fig. 6, d–f). The brownish-gray, porous loam of stratum 6a has a sand-dust-plasma microstructure. The pores are canalshaped, interaggregate, sinuous, and interskeletal; their size varies from 0.2 0.6 mm. No coating is seen on the pore walls. The aggregates are round and simple; their size varies from 0.08 to 0.45 mm (Fig. 7, a). The plasma is ferrous-clayey and patchy. Silt particles are few; combined with iron they are incorporated into microaggregates and coatings on the grains of mineral skeletal structures (Fig. 7, b). The clay and dust particles are irregularly distributed over the thin section. The mineral skeletal structure occupies 20–25 % of the thin section; it is composed of potash feldspar, basalt, quartz, epidote, plagioclase, and biotite. The large mineral debris is angular and subrounded; its size varies from 0.02 to 0.07 mm. Most minerals are 0.02–0.03 mm in size; some fragments are larger, measuring 1.13, 1.35, and 2.5 mm.

h

The base of the plasma exhibits a annular orientation of the mineral skeleton (Fig. 7, c). The micromorphological structure of the loam of stratum 6b is of the sand-dust-plasma type. It is white and grayish-brown. The loam is porous. The pores are canal-like, interaggregate, sinuous, and interskeletal. The aggregates are simple, round, and round-elongated in shape; the size varies from 0.06 to 0.35 mm. The aggregates are composed of ferrous-clayey, scalar, structure, isotropic, and weakly oriented plasma (Fig. 7, d). Grains of the mineral skeleton have a thin edging composed of optically oriented clay minerals. The plasma base shows a annular orientation of the mineral skeleton (Fig. 7, e). The mineral skeleton occupies 20– 25 % of the thin section and is composed of quartz, epidote of the potash feldspar, and plagioclase (Fig. 7, f; 8, a). The skeletal grains are non-rounded and angular; their size varies from 0.03 to 0.37 mm. The microstructure of the loam of stratum 6c/1 is of the sand-dust-plasma type and grayish-brown in color. The sediments are denser than those in the overlying

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b

ɚ

d

c

f

e

Fig. 6. Microstructure of stratum 5 of Chagyrskaya Cave. a – general structure of the stratum, PPL, × 2.5; b – ferrous clay coating on grains, XPL, × 20; c – annular orientation of skeletal grains, XPL, × 2.5; d – basalt fragment, PPL, × 10; e – shale fragment, metamorphic plagioclase, quartz, XPL, × 20; f – potash feldspar, XPL, × 10.

stratum. Pores are canal-like, sinuous, interaggregate, and interskeletal; aggregates are round and roundelongated; the size varies from 0.015 to 0.45 mm. The aggregates are composed of ferrous-clayey plasma of scalar structure (Fig. 8, b). The grains are coated with

optically oriented clay minerals (Fig. 8, c). The skeletal grains occupy 20–25 % of the thin section area and are irregularly distributed over the base. The sediments show a annular orientation of the mineral skeleton (Fig. 8, c). Non-rounded and subrounded grains

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ɚ

c

e

b

d

f

Fig. 7. Microstructure of strata 6a (a–c) and 6b (d–f) of Chagyrskaya Cave. a – general structure of the stratum, PPL, × 2.5; b – coatings of optically oriented clay minerals on the grain surface, XPL, × 10; c – annular orientation of skeletal grains, XPL, × 10; d – general structure of the stratum, PPL, × 20; e – annular orientation of skeletal grains, XPL, × 20; f – epidote, quartz aggregate, XPL, × 10.

measuring 0.03–0.33 mm prevail. Fragments of potash feldspar, biotite, epidote, and quartz aggregate measuring 1.5 mm are present (Fig. 8, d–f). This data suggests that the material was transferred from a single source. All strata demonstrate the

annular orientation of the mineral skeletal structure at the edges of the microstructural elements and in the interaggregate voids. According to I.T. Kosheleva (1958) and M.I. Gerasimova, S.V. Shubin, and S.A. Shoba (1992), this feature suggests that the

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ɚ

c

e

b

d

f

Fig. 8. Microstructure of strata 6b (a) and 6c/1 (b–f) of Chagyrskaya Cave. a – epidote, quartz, potash feldspar, plagioclase, XPL, × 10; b – general structure of the stratum, PPL, × 2.5; c – coatings of the optically oriented clay minerals on the grain surface, PPL, × 20; d – potash feldspar, quartz, XPL, × 2.5; e – metamorphic biotite, PPL, × 10; f – metamorphic biotite, epidote, quartz aggregate, XPL, × 10.

sediments were subjected to freezing. Subrounded, non-rounded, and angular grains prevail. The common features of the loams in the cave and contemporaneous loess horizons of Western Siberia are microaggregate structure, weak weathering of the

mineral substance, and the annular orientation of the mineral skeletal structure. The characteristics of the microstructure of the cave sediments include the absence of carbonaceous formations that results from the high humidity of the sediments in the karst cavity. Round

A.P. Derevianko et al. / Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia 41/1 (2013) 2–27

ɚ

b

Fig. 9. X-ray diffraction spectra of strata 5 (a) and 6b (b) of Chagyrskaya Cave.

13

14

A.P. Derevianko et al. / Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia 41/1 (2013) 2–27

Fig. 10. X-ray diffraction spectrum of stratum 7a–c of Chagyrskaya Cave.

accumulations and strips of decomposed sandstone fragments within the loamy rocks of the cave sediments should be regarded as inclusions. The loam sediments in the cave have a looser structure due to the admixture of small rock fragments in the plasma. Round pores are absent. The plasma is ferrous-clayey instead of clayeycarbonaceous, which is typical for loess sediments. X-ray analysis of the Upper Pleistocene sediments Analysis of the cave sediments was conducted using an ARL X’TRA diffractometer (Cu K Į radiation). The mineral composition of the uppermost stratum (stratum 5, the sample was collected from a depth of 1.7 m) is dominated by quartz; acidic plagioclase, calcite, dioctahedric mica of the 2M1 and 1M polytypes, and magnesium-ferrous 14ǖ-chlorite are present. A minor admixture of potash feldspar and apatite, and possibly of siderite and hematite was recorded (Fig. 9, a). Thorough X-ray analysis of the mineral composition of samples collected from strata 6a (depth, 1.6 m), 6b (depth, 1.2 m), 6c/1 (depth, 0.8 m), 6c/2 (yellowish-green loam), and 6c/2 (ashy gray loam) revealed just minor variations among them. Quartz prevails in all the samples. Acidic plagioclase, calcite, dioctahedric mica of the 2M1 and 1M polytypes, and magnesium-ferrous 14ǖ-chlorite are also present. Minor admixture of potash feldspar and apatite as well as traces of siderite and hematite were recorded (Fig. 9, b). The main difference between upper stratum 5

and the underlying strata is the higher proportion of calcite (up to 10 % of the composition of sediments) and plagioclase (Fig. 9, a, b). Stratum 7 (heavy dark brown loam) has a different mineral composition and hence another origin. Along with quartz, feldspar (plagioclase and potash feldspar), as well as traces of siderite and hematite, the sample from stratum 7 demonstrates a higher proportion of dioctahedric mica of the 2M1 and 1M polytypes, and turbostratic (unordered) smektite and galluasite (Fig. 10) that are absent in the overlying strata. Paleomagnetic analysis of sediments Paleomagnetic analysis was conducted using the standard method. The LDA-3A Demagnetizer (Czech Republic) was used for demagnetizing specimens by alternating the magnetic ¿eld. Natural remanent magnetization (Jn) was measured with a JR-6A Magnetometer (Czech Republic). The Bartington MS2 Magnetic Susceptibility Meter (Great Britain) was applied for evaluating the magnetic susceptibility (K) and frequency-dependent magnetic susceptibility K (K fd). In the analysis of the results, Jn components were set in the orthogonal projections (Zijderveld diagrams). The maximum K values were obtained for strata 6c/1 and 6c/2; the minimum, for stratum 7a–c (Table 2). The Kfd value was calculated as (Kfd)%=(Klf–Khf)/Klf×100, Klf denoting magnetizability at 460 Hz., Khf , with the same at 4600 Hz. This value reÀects the presence of ferrousmagnetic materials in the superparamagnetic state that

A.P. Derevianko et al. / Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia 41/1 (2013) 2–27

15

Table 2. Magnetic properties of Chagyrskaya sediments K (SI unit) *10–5

Jn (A/m) *10–3

Kfd(%)

3

85

16

5.29

5

79

23

4.42

6a

63

22

0.16

6b

59

26

0.85

6c/1

104

14

0.33

6c/2 yellowish-green

134

18

0

6c/2 ashy gray

180

33

0.50

Stratum

7a

24

5

3.80

7b

24

5

0.82

7c

36

4

0

Fig. 11. Stereographic projection of remanent magnetization vectors in geographic coordinates.

c

ɚ

b

Fig. 12. Stereographic projection (a), Zijderveld diagrams (b), and alternating ¿eld demagnetization (c) of the sample from stratum 6c/1.

c

ɚ

b

Fig. 13. Stereographic projection (a), Zijderveld diagrams (b), and alternating ¿eld demagnetization (c) of the sample from stratum 7a.

16

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are usually formed during the chemical reactions in the soil (Pilipenko et al., 2010). In strata 3, 5 and 7, the sharp increase of the Kfd value indicates the presence of superparamagnetic materials. The average magnetic inclination (Jn) before cleaning (Fig. 11) is 298ɨ; after cleaning it is 68ɨ. The coordinates of the magnetic pole are 65ɨ N, 14ɨ W. One sample from each stratum was demagnetized by an alternating magnetic ¿eld in order to determine the component of the natural remanent magnetization. Figures 12 and 13 show typical directions of the remanent magnetization vector during demagnetization. With a decreasing Jn value, the direction of the vector actually does not change. Upon demagnetization, the general pattern of distribution changed insigni¿cantly. Average declination, inclination, and pole coordinates remained the same. It seems that all the strata in the cave can be correlated with the Brunhes chron. As mentioned above, strata 5, 6a, 6b, 6c/1 and 6c/2 in Chagyrskaya Cave are represented by Upper Pleistocene loams accumulated through aeolian processes. Such an inference is supported by the large amount of dust in the granulometric composition of loams as well as by numerous quartz grains with traces of mechanical abrasion and micropits on their surfaces resulting from wind transportation. Fine-grained aleurolite dust ¿lling the micropits is an important diagnostic feature of the loess horizons. The microstructure of the cave sediments retains the features typical for the loess-like loam of Western Siberia: microaggregation, porosity, light state of weathering of the mineral substance, and the annular orientation of the mineral skeleton. Thus, the lithological characteristics of the subaerial cave sediments and their stratigraphic position make it possible to correlate the Chagyrskaya sediments with the loess-soil sequence established for the Western Siberian Plain (Zykina, Volkov, Dergacheva, 1981; Zykina, Zykin, 2012). It is possible that stratum 5 corresponds to the Eltsovka loess formed during the Sartan glaciation (MIS 2) of the Upper Pleistocene. The date 33,760 ± 170 BP (MAMS 14954) and the in¿nite date > 49,000 BP (MAMS 14955) generated on bones of Bison sp. from the upper part of the stratum is somewhat too early. The loam sediment of strata 6a, 8b, 6c/1, and 6c/2 can possibly be regarded as an analogue of the Tulinskoye loess that was accumulated during the Ermakovo glaciation (MIS 4). According to Bassinot et al. (1994), this stage corresponds to 57–71 ka BP. The following AMS- and 14C-dates were generated on Bison sp. bones (some of them bear cut-marks made by stone tools) in the Curt-Engelhorn-Center for Archaeometry in Mannheim (Germany) > 49,000 BP (MAMS 14957) for the roof of stratum 6a; > 49,000 BP (MAMS 14958) for the middle portion of stratum 6b; > 49,000 BP (MAMS 14959) and > 52,000 BP (MAMS 14353, MAMS 14354) for the bottom of stratum 6b; 45,672 ± 481 BP (MAMS

13033), > 49,000 BP (MAMS 14960), and > 52,000 BP (MAMS 14355) for the roof of stratum 6b; 48,724 ± 692 BP (MAMS 13034) for the middle portion of stratum 6c/1; 50,524 ± 833 BP (MAMS 13035), > 49,000 BP (MAMS 14961, MAMS 14962, MAMS 14963), and > 52,000 BP (MAMS 14356, MAMS 14357, MAMS 14358) for the bottom of stratum 6c/1; and > 49,000 BP (MAMS 14964) for stratum 6c/2. These dates suggest that the radiocarbon age of the loams corresponds to the late MIS 4 or the MIS 4/3 boundary. Small mammals All small mammal remains from the cave’s Holocene and Pleistocene sediments come from decomposed pellets of birds of pray. This is evidenced by the state of preservation of rodents’ limb bones and mandibular rami: epiphyses of long bones are destroyed and parts of the dental bone in the basis of the ¿rst lower molars are missing (resolved in the birds’ stomachs). Almost all strata contained small amounts of long bones and teeth of bats mostly attributable to the genus Myotis. Thirty-four species in 25 genera of insectivores, lagomorphs, and rodents as well as 3 species in 2 genera of small carnivores of the family Mustelidae are represented in the small mammal assemblage from the Upper Pleistocene and Holocene sediments (Table 3). The taxonomic composition of paleofauna generally corresponds to the modern composition of mammals in this Altai region. However, strata 6a and 7a comprised molars of the Ob lemming (Lemmus sibiricus), whose modern distribution is restricted to the Subarctic region. Solitary remains of the yellow steppe lemming Eolagurus luteus, a species uncommon for the modern Altai fauna, were recorded in all the strata. At the present, this animal inhabits desert steppes in the Lake Zaysan region (eastern Kazakhstan), Mongolia, and China. Cave sediments contained remains of great jerboa (Allactaga major), a species unusual for the modern Altai fauna. Small mammals of Chagyrskaya Cave are represented by teeth and postcranial bones of 1475 individuals. Shrews and moles (Insectivora – Soricidae, Talpidae) form 3.73 % of total amount; hares and piping hares (Lagomorpha – Leporidae, Lagomyidae) amount to 2.64 %. (Table 3) Most bone remains (over 90 %) belong to rodents (Rodentia) of four families: Sciuridae, Dipodidae, Muridae, and Cricetidae. Squirrels represented by species of the genera Sciurus, Marmota, Tamias, and Spermophilus form 6.03 %. Remains of steppe species (marmot and two species of ground squirrels) are predominant. The species indicating the forest zone (chipmunk and red squirrel) are represented by isolated bones: two squirrel bones were recovered from various Pleistocene strata; one chipmunk bone was found

A.P. Derevianko et al. / Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia 41/1 (2013) 2–27

17

Table 3. Taxonomic composition of the small mammal fauna from Chagyrskaya Cave, specimens Stratum 1

3

4

5

6a

6b

6c/1

6c/2

7a–c

Total number of individuals

Sorex araneus L.

1

1

1

4

2

3

–

–

–

12

S. minutus L.

–

2

–

–

1

–

1

–

–

4

Crocidura suaveolens Pall.

1

3

2

2

2

1

1

–

–

12

Talpa altaica Nik.

–

4

1

3

3

10

4

1

1

27

Lepus timidus L.

1

2

1

1

–

–

–

–

–

5

L. tanaiticus Gur.

–

–

–

2

1

1

–

1

–

5

Mammals Insectivora

Lagornorpha

L. tolai Pall.

–

–

–

6

5

4

2

1

–

18

Ochotona alpina Pall.

–

–

–

–

1

1

–

–

–

2

O. sp.

1

2

–

–

2

1

3

–

–

9

Sciurus vulgaris L.

–

1

–

1

1

–

–

–

3

–

Marmota sp.

–

1

–

–

1

5

–

1

–

8

Tamias sibiricus Laxm.

–

1

–

–

–

–

1

–

–

2

Spermophilus undulatus Pall.

1

5

2

13

10

11

11

3

1

56

S. erythrogenis Brandt

–

3

1

7

6

3

–

–

–

20

Sicista sp.

1

2

2

1

–

–

–

–

–

6

Allactaga major Kerr.

–

1

–

5

7

6

Rodentia

1

20

Apodemus uralensis Pall.

–

–

–

–

1

–

1

–

–

2

A. agrarius Pall.

–

4

1

–

–

–

–

–

–

5

Apodemus sp.

–

–

2

2

2

1

2

–

–

9

Cricetus cricetus L.

2

6

1

2

2

1

–

–

–

14

Allocricetulus eversmani Brandt

1

1

1

7

6

3

4

–

–

23

Cricetulus migratorius Pall.

–

2

–

4

4

3

–

1

–

14

Ellobius talpinus Pall.

–

–

1

–

2

–

1

–

–

4

Clethrionomys rufocanus Sandev.

2

7

1

6

5

6

7

–

–

34

C. rutilus Pall.

2

7

2

7

4

5

4

1

–

32

Alticola strelzovi Kastsch.

4

19

5

42

33

35

24

3

1

156

Lemmus sibricus Kerr

–

–

–

–

2

–

–

–

1

3

Eolagurus luteus Eversm.

1

2

1

6

7

6

2

–

–

25

Lagurus lagurus Pall.

5

10

4

42

27

21

13

3

1

126

Microtus gregalis Pall.

18

74

19

108

92

88

63

6

1

469

M. oeconomus Pall.

8

37

14

34

25

24

9

1

1

145

M. arvalis Pall.

–

24

15

27

19

13

8

2

–

93

M. agrestis L.

–

2

1

2

1

–

–

–

–

6

Arvicola terrestris L.

2

7

2

7

9

10

11

1

1

50

Myospalax myospalax Laxm.

1

2

–

9

10

12

7

2

1

44

Mustela erminea L.

–

1

–

–

–

1

1

–

–

3

M. nivalis L.

–

3

–

1

3

–

1

–

–

8

Martes foina Erxl.

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

1

Carnivora

18

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in the Pleistocene strata, another one, in the Holocene strata. This attests to the absence of forests in the vicinity of the cave. Squirrels and chipmunks sometimes enter the steppe zone via river valleys with thin arboreal and shrubby vegetation (Yudin, Galkina, Potapkina, 1979). Remains of great jerboa (A. major), a typical representative of the steppe mammal community, were recovered from nearly all the strata. Several groups inhabiting various biotopes can be distinguished among species of the subfamily Microtinae. Thus water vole and root vole inhabit Àoodplain meadow biotopes. Lemmings of the Lagurus lagurus and Eolagurus luteus species occupy steppe and semidesert areas on mountain slopes. The Àat-headed vole Alticola strelzovi lives among scattered stones, in scarcely vegetated areas. Clethrionomys rutilus and C. Rufocanus as well as several mice species of the genus Apodemus dwell in Àoodplain areas with sparse arboreal and shrub vegetation. The rodent fauna from Chagyrskaya Cave points to the continuous presence of the steppe zone on the watershed slopes during the Upper Pleistocene and Holocene. Remains of the steppe and yellow steppe lemming as well as of great jerboa throughout the pro¿le support this supposition. The Àoodplain areas were constantly populated by several vole and mice taxa. The small number of mice bones points to sparse arboreal-shrub vegetation in the Charysh Àoodplain. The presence of

Lepus tolai (Table 3), the animal that presently inhabits the vast desert zone in Asia and Africa, also suggests the absence of arboreal plants on the mountain slopes in the Upper Pleistocene. In contrast to what the pollen analysis reveals, none of the mammal bones from stratum 5 indicate a taiga environment (Rudaya, 2010). The composition of rodents from stratum 5 attests to the constant presence of steppe mammals (Lagurus lagurus, Eolagurus luteus) in all stratigraphic units (Table 4). As mentioned above, late Upper Pleistocene strata 6a and 7a contained remains of the Ob (Siberian) lemming. At the present, this animal can be found only in the Subarctic zone. However, during the coldest periods of the Middle and Upper Pleistocene, the lemming distribution area was located far south and coincided with the distribution areas of typical steppe taxa such as steppe and yellow steppe lemmings. Such communities named “mixed fauna” (Wangenheim, 1977) lived under speci¿c climatic conditions of “tundra-steppe” or periglacial “cold steppe.” In Chagyrskaya Cave, the “mixed fauna” of the periglacial “cold steppe” was recorded in strata 6a and 7a–c. Fauna remains associated with stratum 5 presumably also belong to this type. However, lemming remains are absent there. This can possibly be explained by the low population density of this animal at the periphery of

Table 4. Composition of the rodent fauna from Chagyrskaya stratum 5*, number of specimens Horizon 1, depth 94–148 cm

Horizon 2, depth 112–158 cm

Horizon 3, depth 113–156 cm

Horizon 4, depth 111–170 cm

Horizon 5, depth 153–182 cm

Horizon 6, depth 168–210 cm

Spermophilus undulatus

2

–

–

2

–

1

S. erythrogenis

1

1

2

–

1

1

Rodents

Allactaga major

1

–

1

–

–

–

Cricetus cricetus

11

–

1

–

–

–

Allocricetulus eversmani

2

1

1

–

–

–

Cricetulus migratorius

–

–

–

–

1

–

Clethrionomys rufocanus

4

1

1

1

1

–

C. rutilus

2

1

1

1

2

1

Alticola strelzovi

8

5

3

3

1

5

Eolagurus luteus

1

1

1

1

1

Lagurus lagurus

2

4

3

2

1

2

Microtus gregalis

18

13

11

6

4

14

M. eoconomus

3

3

2

1

–

3

M. arvalis

3

3

1

2

1

2

Arvicola terrestris

–

1

–

1

–

2

Myospalax myospalax

1

2

2

1

1

2

*Depth from the modern ground surface.

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its distribution. Lemming bones are often encountered in Upper Pleistocene layers of Altai caves. They were recorded at many Paleolithic sites. For instance, in Denisova Cave, remains of the common lemming, steppe lemming, hamster Allocricetus eversmanni Brandt, and jerboa of the genus Alloctaga were found in association with the remains of collared lemming (Dicrostonyx sp.) (Agadjanian, 2001). The small mammal fauna of Chagyrskaya reveal little change over the Upper Pleistocene. This points to the constant presence of floodplain, steppe, and semidesert communities and the absence of the forest zone during the period of accumulation of the late Upper Pleistocene sediments in Chagyrskaya Cave. The “mixed fauna” of strata 6a and 7a–c is indicative of a cold and dry climate in the periglacial zone and the absence of tundra biotopes.

19

either opposes the retouched working edge or adjoins it at an angle. Tools of the déjeté type are represented by a variety of double and triple forms. Denticulate tools, retouched notches, points, and bifaces make up small series. The nature of the lithic production can be inferred from the fact that cores are few in all horizons. They were selected and reduced outside the cave, apparently in the pebble alluvium of the Charysh. It is possible that the cave represents a long-term hunting camp where butchering and processing of game animals was executed. The fauna assemblage comprises remains of Equus (E.) ferus, E. ex. gr. hydruntinus, E. hydruntinus/ ferus, Coelodonta antiquitatis, Cervus elaphus, Rangifer tarandus, Bison priscus, Capra sibirica, Ovis ammon, Capra/Ovis, and others. Bison remains prevail, suggesting not only intense exploitation of resources provided by various environments, but also hunting specialization.

Archaeological materials Artifacts are unevenly distributed over the Upper Pleistocene sediments in the cave. Stratum 5 and the contact zone between strata 6c/2 and 7 a–c contained isolated lithics, which are dif¿cult to attribute. Large assemblages based on jasperoids, hornblende, aleurolite, and sandstone (Kulik, Markin, 2009) were recovered from strata 6a–6c/2. The artifacts are rather uniform, cores are few, and the share of tools amounts to 19 %. In most flakes the flaking axis does not coincide with that of the artifact itself, pointing to the radial technique. Tools were primarily shaped by retouch of various kinds. Traces of secondary reduction include removal of bulbs, leveling basal parts, smoothing the profile, flattening the edges, and adjusting the convergence angle on déjeté tools. Scrapers and tools of the déjeté type constitute the typological base of the tool kit. In some strata, they form 90 % of the tools (Fig. 14, 15). The category of scrapers is dominated by single side and transverse forms. Double, parallel, and convergent tools are less numerous. Scrapers with a thinned back, scrapers exhibiting traces of Àaking on their ventral surface and on the opposing face, and scrapers of the demi-Quina type are few. The assemblage contains scraper-knives with a natural or artificial back that

2

1

4

3

5

0

3 cm

6

Fig. 14. Various types of déjeté scrapers from stratum 6c/1 of Chagyrskaya Cave.

20

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horizons are separated by denudation hiatuses. They overlie a layer of buried soil at a depth of 10 m from the baulk. Its upper portion is represented by the fragments of the humus horizon (A1§ 0.4 m), containing dark-gray, carbonaceous, dense, and lightly porous 1 loam with a considerable admixture of grit and small rock debris. The lower border is uneven and indistinct. The illuvial horizon (ȼca § 0.6 m) consists of grayish-brown, carbonaceous loam that is denser and less porous than the humus. The stratum contains small rock debris and rodent burrows 7– 10 cm in diameter filled with the grayish-white, loose loam. The buried 3 soil is similar in morpho-typical features to the lower soil of the Berd pedocomplex of the Western Siberian Plain (Zykina, Volkov, Dergacheva, 2 1981; Arkhipov et al., 1995; Zykina, Zykin, 2012). The soil was formed 3 cm 0 during the Kazanstevo interglaciation, indicating an Upper Pleistocene age of overlying deposits. 4 Based on lithological criteria, color, and order of deposition these horizons can be tentatively correlated with those of Chagyrskaya. The horizon of loesslike, light brown, dense and porous 5 loam with root casts ¿lled with a dark 6 organic substance and carbonaceous pseudo-mycelium located at a depth Fig. 15. Stone tools from stratum 6b of Chagyrskaya Cave.. of 1.45–2.4 m from the baulk can be 1, 2, 5 – scrapers of various types; 3, 4, 6 – déjeté scrapers of various types. correlated with Chagyrskaya stratum 5 (Derevianko et al., 2009). The horizon Judging by human fossils, the inhabitants of the cave were of grayish-brown, dense and porous loam deposited at Neanderthals (Viola, Markin, Zenin et al., 2011; Viola, a depth of 2.4–4.75 m from the baulk is correlated with Markin, Buzhilova et al., 2012). Chagyrskaya stratum 6a. It contains small carbonaceous spots dispersed from a depth of 2.05 to 2.4 m from the top of the stratum. As opposed to the overlying horizon, Geological structure of loess sections it demonstrates an increasing number of sand sublayers in the valley of the Charysh from 0.5 cm to 2 cm thick. The horizon of brownishand its tributaries gray, carbonaceous loam at a depth of 4.75–5.75 m from the baulk corresponds to stratum 6b in the cave. It is Fragments of Pleistocene loess deposits formed under arid denser than the overlying sediment, less porous and has and cold climatic conditions have been preserved in the many numerous root casts. It contains rare inclusions of valleys of the Charysh tributaries. Thus, a loess sequence small rock debris measuring from 0.3 to 1.2 cm; sand was exposed on the right side of the Charysh valley, 1.6 km sublayers are absent. Small (not exceeding 0.7 cm) loose to the northwest from the cave. This section is 11.55 m gypsum concretions and thin gypsum beds are visible in high. It is located at the western border of Ust-Pustynka the upper part of the horizon. village, in a hollow in Paleozoic deposits drained by a The buried soil of this section is located at a level close small brook. The sequence comprises several horizons to the level of the modern high Àoodplain surface. Below of loess deposits underlying modern black soil. The loess the soil, loose, grayish-yellow, carbonaceous loam with

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hollow root casts and small rock debris up to 0.5 cm in size extends to a depth of 0.5 m. Another section is also located on the right side of the Charysh valley, near Ust-Pustynka village, on the right bank of the stream Rechka. In the lower portion of the slope, the lower buried soil of the Berd pedocomplex was found in subaerial loess deposits at a depth of 5 m from the baulk. It lies on the same level as the soil in the sequence described above and has similar characteristics, corresponding to the lower Berd soil. The good state of preservation of the soil makes it possible to distinguish two stages of soil development – meadow soil and meadow-chernozem soil. A layer of loose, grayish-yellow, carbonaceous loam with sand admixture underlies the soil. The loam is 1.5 m thick and represents the upper part of the sediments accumulated in the valley hollows. Thus, the examined sections are represented by subaerial deposits containing the lower soil of the Berd pedocomplex that was formed during the Kazantsevo interstadial corresponding to MIS 5e. It should be noted that despite the denudation and slope processes, the loess horizons retain the main structural and morphological features typical of Western Siberian loess. This makes it possible to correlate the loess horizons in the Charysh valley with the loess-soil sequences of Siberia (Zykina, Volkov, Dergacheva, 1981; Dobretsov, Zykin, Zykina, 2003; Zykina, Zykin, 2008; Markin, Zykin, Zykina, 2011; Zykina, Zykin, 2012). Reconstruction of climate and environment during loess formation Geological formations that fill Chagyrskaya Cave presumably belong to loess horizons of various ages. Loess covers are formed by the accumulation of windblown dust during the periods of active atmospheric circulation. In southern Siberia, they were formed during the glacial periods. Loess was formed during cool and arid periods, matching the cold stages of the marine isotope scale (Bassinot et al., 1994). Cold intervals of both the Antarctic (Fig. 16) and Greenlandic cores are marked by dust. Recent data on ice cores from Antarctica (Petit et al., 1990, 1999) and Greenland (Alley et al., 1995; Biscaye et al., 1997; Alley, 2000) have shown that the increase in the amount of atmospheric dust caused by intensi¿cation of wind blowing occurred during the glacial periods. The rain dust was thirty times higher during times of peak glaciations than during times of peak interglaciations (Broecker, 2000). The loess sequence is unique among the continental deposits of Upper Pleistocene Western Siberia, providing the most complete record of global climatic and environmental changes. The stratigraphic horizons in this sequence correspond to the marine oxygen isotope

timescale and to other global climatic records (Dobretsov, Zykin, Zykina, 2003; Zykina, Zykin, 2008, 2012). Hence, the Western Siberian loess-soil sequence can be used as an etalon scale for study of buried soils, loess horizons, and for regional and interregional correlations. Three loess horizons have been identi¿ed for the Upper Pleistocene: Bagan, Eltsovka, and Tulinskoye (Zykina, Volkov, Dergacheva, 1981; Zykin, Zykina, Orlova, 2000; Zykina, Zykin, 2012). The Bagan and Eltsovka loess deposits are associated with the Sartan horizon. The Bagan loess deposit underlies the modern soil layer. It is thin and strongly affected by soil formation processes. The Eltsovka loess overlies the deposits attributable to the Karga interglaciation. The Tulinskoye loess is overlain by the Karga horizon. The age intervals of each horizon were assessed by correlating contemporaneous loess horizons of Middle and Western Siberia and using radiocarbon and thermoluminescent dating. Dates for the bottom and roof levels of each of the Upper Pleistocene loess horizons were obtained (Zykina, Vokov, Dergacheva, 1981; Zander et al., 2003; Kravchinsky, Zykina, Zykin, 2008; Zykin, Zykina, 2012). We will now address the age of the Eltsovka and Tulinskoye loess because these deposits are apparently present in Chagyrskaya. The Eltsovka loess was formed during the Sartan glaciation. Its lower border corresponds to the lower border of the MIS 2 (Zykina, Zykin, 2012) dated to 24 ka BP (Bassinot et al., 1994). The deposit is 1.5 m thick. The Eltsovka horizon overlies the Iskitim pedocomplex, comprised of upper and lower soil layers. Radiocarbon and TL-dates are available for both of them (Zykina, Volkov, Dergacheva, 1981; Zander et al., 2003; Zykina, Zykin, 2012). Radiocarbon dates were obtained for the Iskitim upper soil in the southern part of Western Siberia (Novosibirsk Ob region, interÀuve of the Shipunikha and Koinikha rivers) (Zykina, Volkov, Dergacheva, 1981). Another date for the Iskitim upper soil was generated on humic acids from the Belovo section (Zykina, Volkov, Semenov, 2000; Zykin, Zykina, Orlova, 2000). In Middle Siberia, the Trifonovo loess, which is analogous to the Eltsovka horizon, began to form 24 ± 4 ka BP (Zander et al., 2003; Kravchinsky, Zykina, Zykin, 2008). Based on this data, the age of the Iskitim pedocomplex formation can be estimated in the range of 53–24 ka BP (Zander et al., 2003; Kravchinsky, Zykina, Zykin, 2008). Hence, the accumulation of the Eltsovka loess began 24 ka BP and terminated 18 ka BP. The TL-date obtained for the loess from the Kurtak section indicates that the deposits were formed 25–15 ka BP. The period of maximum loess accumulation was associated with a climatic change that occurred during the Pleniglacial maximum (MIS 2) in Central Europe. The Tulinskoye loess deposit (thickness, 2.5–4.0 m) covers the upper soil layer of the Berd pedocomplex. It

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Fig. 16. Correlation of the Western Siberian loess-soil sequence with global paleoclimatic events.

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is overlain by the Iskitim lower soil that began to form closed deÀation basin of Lake Aksor with a bottom 27 m 57 ka BP (Sizikova, Zykina, 2011; Zykina, Zykin, 2012). lower than the Irtysh water level points to high climate The Tulinskoye loess can be correlated with MIS 4 (71– variability during the last glaciation. Distinct cyclic 57 ka BP) (Bassinot et al., 1994). In Middle Siberia, the alternation of lacustrine sands, polygonal primaryChaninsky loess, analogous to the Tulinskoye deposit ¿ll sand veins, and horizons of desert weathering and began to form 68 ± 8 ka BP; its upper border is dated to selective blowing reÀect the sharp changes in temperature 53 ± 4 ka BP (Zander et al., 2003; Kravchinsky, Zykina, and humidity. Cryogenesis was associated with periods Zykin, 2008). Thus, the deposition of the Tulinskoye loess when the temperature dropped to –12...–20 °ɋ and occurred in the interval between 68 and 53 ka BP. mean precipitation did not exceed 10 mm (Karte, 1983). It was established that the average rate of accumulation Winters were characterized by strong winds and little of the Bagan loess was 0.31 mm per year; that of the snow. Large amounts of loose sediments were blown out Eltsovka, 0.3 mm per year; and of Tulinskoye, 0.26 mm from the lake basin. The mean annual temperature during per year (Fig. 17). Thus the accumulation rate increased the cold stages was 13–21 °ɋ below modern values. from the Tulinskoye deposit to the Bagan horizon. The This agrees with the results of paleoclimatic modeling data indicating the greater accumulation rate during (Kutzbach et al., 1998), suggesting that 21 ka BP the Bagan period of loess formation is well correlated the annual temperature at that latitude was 10–15 °ɋ with morphoscopy and morphometry of quartz grains. lower than now. Measurements of temperature in the The calculations of loess accumulation rates were made Greenland ice core borehole at the Summit station have by A.E. Dodonov (2002) for the loess-soil sections of shown that the temperature increase from average glacial southern Tajikistan. According to the calculations, the to Holocene conditions was large, approximately 15 °ɋ, wind intensity increased by the Late Glacial Period. with a 20 °ɋ warming from the late glacial to the However, despite the lower loess accumulation rate Holocene (Cuffey, Clow, 1997). During the period of during the Tulinskoye period, the Tulinskoye horizon is lacustrine sand accumulation, humidity increased and no thicker than the Eltsovka and Bagan deposits due to a polygonal-vein structures were formed. Given the cold longer period of formation. climate of the Sartan period (Arkhipov, Volkova, 1994), In Chagyrskaya Cave, sediments representing most it can be assumed that the lacustrine sediments without likely the analogues of the Elstovka and Tulinskoye loess frost structures were accumulated close to the southern were examined in detail. They were formed during the border of the cryolithic zone where the mean annual air cold climatic periods (MIS 2 and MIS 4). The available temperatures presently approximate –3 °ɋ (Duchkov AMS and 14C dates (> 52,000 BP) as well as the small et al., 1995). The horizons of desert weathering with carbonate formations on the surfaces of lacustrine mammal fauna do not contradict this assumption. The sediments and primary-¿ll sand veins were likely formed conclusion that the Chagyrskaya loess was accumulated under dry and moderately cold conditions. The good during cold stages was drawn from morphological state of preservation of the cryogenic formations such as, evidence and is upheld by the annular orientation of mineral grains along the edges of blocks and in cavities between the aggregates. According to I . T. K o s h e l e v a ( 1 9 5 8 ) a n d M.I. Gerasimova, S.V. Gubin and S.A. Shoba (1992), this feature was caused by cryogenic processes. The presence of conchoidal fractures on some quartz grains also suggests frost weathering (Velichko, Timireva, 2002). The climate of cold epochs is normally unstable. The most detailed reconstruction of climatic conditions accompanying the loess deposition was made on the basis of the Sartan sediments in the basin of Lake Aksor, Pavlodar Irtysh region (northern Fig. 17. Rates of accumulation of the Upper Pleistocene loess horizons in the Kazakhstan). The structure of southeastern part of Western Siberia. the Sartan sediments ¿lling the

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in particular concave parts of the primary-¿ll sand veins, suggests rapid changes in sedimentation conditions in the closed basin. At least eight short-term moderately cold and moist stages are present in the section. Those stages are marked by permafrost degradation accompanied by the discharge of primary-¿ll sand veins and lake transgressions. There were also eight stages of intense cooling and aridization, when the lake dried up, its bottom froze, primary-¿ll sand veins formed, and deÀation occurred. The latest lake transgression represented by sediments overlying the last dated soil probably coincided with the most recent deglaciation. Oxygen isotope records of cores from the central Arctic Ocean place the beginning of the last deglaciation at 15.7 ka BP (Stein, Nam, Schubert, 1994). The difference in temperature between periods of moderate and intense cold ranged within 9–17 °ɋ. Inaccurate age estimations for the lower border of the Sartan glaciation prevent establishing the duration of the rapidly changing cold and moderately warm episodes. Given that the lower boundary is 25–24 ka BP (Kind, 1974), that is between MIS 2 and 3, 24 ka BP (Bassinot et al., 1994), the radiocarbon date of the upper soil is 16,210 ± 850 BP, and that seven stages of abrupt warming and cooling are present in that interval, cycle length can be estimated at 1100–1300 years. If the boundary between MIS 2 and MIS 3 falls upon 28 ka BP (Bond et al., 1997), the duration of these climatic cycles increases to 1600–1700 years. Thus, the duration of climatic cycles established on the basis of the data from the section is well correlated with 100,000-year climatic cycles of warming and cooling that were originally recognized in climate records from North Atlantic sediments and Greenland ice (Bond et al., 1993; Dansgaard et al., 1993). This correlation is supported by the considerable increase in the amount of dust in the atmosphere of the northern Atlantic during intense cold periods (Broecker, 2001) and by drastic intensi¿cation of deÀation processes in the Pavlodar Irtysh region during the formation of the polygonal primary-fill sand structures. These cyclic climate changes are also traceable in European palynological records. In the beginning of glacial periods, the climate became more arid and drainage decreased, as evidenced by the coarse-grained facies in the upper part of Kazantsevo alluvium of the Irtysh downstream of Omsk. Subsequent cooling and drying of the climate during glaciation periods led to accumulation of subaerial, mostly aeolian sediments in river valleys and to termination of major water outÀow. Thus, the valley of the Inya River, the left tributary of the Charysh in the northwestern part of Gorny Altai, is mostly formed of loess deposits up to 10 m thick. This fact points to the absence of major water outflow in the valley during the time of loess sedimentation. These deposits overly the well-dated

Karga horizon (Butvilovsky, 1993), suggesting that they formed during the last Sartan glaciation. The loess deposit contains numerous lenses (up to 1.5 m thick and 7 m long) of subrounded shingle and rubble – mostly shale forming the valley sides. The lenses comprise a large amount of coarse-grained polymictic sand. The shingle gently slopes against the modern river current. Lenses of slightly rounded and inclined pebbles indicate recurrent weak drainage in the valley, when eolian material accumulated during the cool and arid stages of the last glaciation. Conclusions Artifacts recovered from Chagyrskaya Cave have a single parallel in the Altai – the Okladnikov Cave industry. The industries are similar both technologically and typologically, while differing from other known lithic traditions in the region such as Kara-Bom and Denisova (Prirodnaya sreda…, 2003). Lithic industries from the caves are based on radial Àaking aimed at mass production of angular blanks. They share similarities in shaping of working elements and some parts of tools, including various types of thinning. Tool kits are also similar. They main elements are scrapers of various sorts, whereas points, notched-denticulate tools, retouched Àakes, and bifaces are less numerous. The main distinctive feature of the industries is the representative series of backed scraper-knives and various angular tools such as double and triple déjeté scrapers. Human fossils suggest that these industries were associated with Neanderthals (Krause et al., 2007; Mednikova, 2011; Viola, Markin, Zenin et al., 2011; Viola, Markin, Buzhilova et al., 2012). Paleolithic assemblages from both caves are comparable with Mousterian industries recorded in some regions of Eurasia, especially in southeast Europe, Transcaucasia, and the Eastern Mediterranean. Based on a series of estimates, the Okladnikov industry falls within an interval from 44,000 ± 4000 BP to 33,500 ± 700 BP (Derevianko, Markin, 1992). The AMS date of the Chagyrskaya industry is slightly earlier. The scarcity of sites representing the Sibiryachikha facies of the Middle Paleolithic may be due to the fact that a small group of Neanderthals migrated to the Altai when an Upper Paleolithic tradition had already existed there. Apparently, the immigrants were assimilated by the natives shortly afterwards (Derevianko, 2011). This conclusion follows from the fact that no traces of the Sibiryachikha tradition can be detected in the Early Upper Paleolithic cultures of the Altai (Derevianko, 2012). Given that Denisova stratum 11 (ca 50,000 ka BP) is earlier than Okladnikov Cave while including typical Upper Paleolithic Aurignacean-like industries, the relationship between Neanderthals and other humans in

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the Altai during the Middle to Upper Paleolithic interface is an intriguing issue. Importantly, the Denisova genome was shown to represent a previously unknown variety of Homo (Krause, et al., 2010; Reich et al., 2010). How those hominins interacted, who were apparently associated with different cultural traditions, is an open question. References Agadjanian A.K. 2001 Spacious structure of Upper Peistocene fauna of mammals of North Eurasia. Archeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia, No. 2: 2–19. Alley R.B. 2000 The Younger Dryas cold interval as viewed from central Greenland. Quaternary Science Reviews, vol. 19: 321–326. Alley R.B., Finkel R.C., Nishiizumi K., Anandakrishnan S., Shuman C.A., Mershon G.R., Zielinski G.A., Mayewski P.A. 1995 Changes in continental and sea-salt atmospheric loadings in central Greenland during the most recent deglaciation. Journal of Glaciology, vol. 41: 503–514. Arkheologiya, geologiya i paleogeogra¿ya pleistotsena i golotsena Gornogo Altaya. 1998 A.P. Derevianko, A.K. Agadjanian, G.F. Baryshnikov, M.I. Dergacheva, T.A. Dupal, E.M. Malaeva, S.V. Markin, V.I. Molodin, S.V. Nikolaev, L.A. Orlova, V.T. Petrin, A.V. Postnov, V.A. Ulianov, I.K. Fedeneva, I.V. Foronova, M.V. Shunkov. Novosibirsk: Izd. IAE SO RAN. Arkhipov S.A., Volkova V.S. 1994 Geologicheskaya istoriya, landshafty i klimaty pleistotsena Zapadnoi Sibiri. Novosibirsk: Nauchno-izd. tsentr Obied. inst. geologii, geo¿ziki i mineralogii SO RAN. Arkhipov S.A., Volkova V.S., Zykina V.S., Bakhareva V.A., Guskov S.A., Levchuk L.K. 1995 Prirodno-klimaticheskie izmeneniya v Zapadnoi Sibiri v pervoi treti buduschego stoletia. Geologia i geo¿zika, vol. 36, No. 8: 51–71. Bassinot F.C., Laberyrie L.D., Vincent E., Quidelleur X., Shackleton N.J., Lancelot Y. 1994 The astronomical theory of climate and the age of the Brunhes-Matuyama magnetic reversal. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, vol. 126: 91–108. Biscaye P.I., Crousset F.E., Revel M., Van der Gaast S., Zielinski G.A., Vaars A., Kukla G. 1997 Asian provenance of glacial dust (stage 2) in the Greenland Ice Sheet Project 2 Ice Core, Summit, Greenland. Journal of Geophysical Research, vol. 102: 26765–26781. Bond G., Broecker W., Johnsen S., McManus J., Labeyrie L., Jouzel J., Bonani G. 1993 Correlations between climate records from North Atlantic sediments and Greenland ice. Nature, vol. 365, No. 6442: 143–147.

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Received December 17, 2012.

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