Changing stakeholder relationships in nature reserve management: A case study on Snake Island-Laotie Mountain National Nature Reserve, Liaoning, China

Journal of Environmental Management 146 (2014) 292e302

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Journal of Environmental Management journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman

Changing stakeholder relationships in nature reserve management: A case study on Snake Island-Laotie Mountain National Nature Reserve, Liaoning, China Dan Zhou a, *, Ziyan Wang b, James Lassoie c, Xiaoping Wang d, Lixin Sun d a

Management of Science and Technology, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, Liaoning 116023, China School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, Liaoning 116023, China Department of Natural Resources, Cornell University, 14853-3001 Ithaca, NY, USA d Liaoning Snake Island-Laotie Mountain National Nature Reserve Authority, Dalian, Liaoning 116041, China b c

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 19 October 2013 Received in revised form 14 March 2014 Accepted 15 July 2014 Available online 2 September 2014

The number and total area of nature reserves in China has increased rapidly over the past couple of decades; however, the ability to effectively manage these reserves has not kept pace and conflicts between conservation efforts and economic development have emerged. The Snake Island-Laotie Mountain National Nature Reserve (SILMNNR) currently is experiencing the challenges of balancing conservation with local community development. This paper uses components analysis of human ecosystems (HEC) to examine conflicts arising from the management of the nature reserve and uses a stakeholder analysis to identify and better understand stakeholder inter-relationships in the SILMNNR-HEC. The goal of this study is to identify critical factors influencing stakeholder relationships in order to find ways of relieving conflicts between the reserve management and development. The stakeholder analysis revealed that the key stakeholders in the SILMNNR-HEC are natural resources, the Liaoning SILMNNR Authority, local residents, and enterprise developers; however, there was unequal power among stakeholders in the decision making process affecting the nature reserve. The paper evaluated the conditions and processes of SILMNNR-HEC through a framework of stakeholder relationships where critical factors, such as policy, finance, technology, and labor, and their respective strengths and feedbacks among stakeholders, were assessed and showed unequal flows of power among stakeholders. Two approaches are provided for transforming the unbalanced relationships into a stable and sustainable framework to sustainably manage the nature reserve: the first is by changing stakeholder relationships from opposition to cooperation; and the second by enhancing feedbacks and dynamics among stakeholders. The analysis used in this paper can be used as a model to assess conflicts around other protected areas in China and elsewhere. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Nature reserve management Stakeholder analysis Participation level Stakeholder relationship Evaluation framework

1. Introduction The number and total area of nature reserves in China has increased rapidly over the past couple of decades. The first nature reserve was established in 1956. By 1978, there were 34 nature reserves covering 126.5
104 ha in total area representing about 0.13 percent of China's total land area (Xue and Jiang, 1994). Today

* Corresponding author. Room 515, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Dalian University of Technology, No. 2 Linggong Road, Ganjingzi District, Dalian, Liaoning 116023, China. Tel.: þ86 18640592150. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (D. Zhou), [email protected] (Z. Wang), [email protected] (J. Lassoie), [email protected] (X. Wang), [email protected] (L. Sun). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2014.07.018 0301-4797/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

the number of nature reserves in all categories has increased to over 2500 coving more than 15% of China's land mass (Zhou and Grumbine, 2011). However, the ability to effectively manage nature reserves has not kept pace with their creation. Of particular concern in China is balancing conservation efforts with the needs of local people. Most of China's reserves are designed to protect biodiversity only and strict regulations greatly limit human activities in reserves; however, as many as 60 million people live in and around China's reserves many of whom depend on the resources within the reserve for their livelihoods (Zhou and Grumbine, 2011). As a result, many reserves are highly controversial and direct conflicts between local communities and reserves have arisen. Although, there are some instances where local communities have participated in the management and planning of nature reserves

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(Liu et al., 2008; Liu, 2011; Su, 2004), there is no tradition of citizen participation in governance in China and most nature reserves are managed top-down. Hence, conflicts between the conservation of natural resources and socioeconomic development in and around China's nature reserves remain an important issue that needs to be resolved (Fei, 2003; Luo, 2007; Zhuge et al., 2000). In many parts of the world, there is now an emphasis on local involvement in park management to help resolve conflicts between parks and people (IUCN and Lewis, 1995; Warner, 1997). Humans are perceived as being integral components of ecosystems rather than separate entities to be excluded, as embodied in the concept of the “human ecosystem”. The human ecosystem is defined as a “coherent system of biophysical and social factors capable of adaptation and sustainability over time, which includes critical resources and flows regulated by social system that can be described at several spatial and temporal scales that are hierarchically linked” (Force and Machlis, 1997; Machlis et al., 1997). More recently, the human ecosystem model has been incorporated into the concept of coupled human and natural system (CHANS) defined as systems in which human and natural components interact (Liu et al., 2007a, 2007b, 2007c). This paper addresses conflicts in CHANS arising from the management of the Snake Island-Laotie Mountain National Nature Reserve (SILMNNR, UNESCO, 2013) in northeast China. Specifically, we report a stakeholder analysis that provides a better understanding of the inter-relationships that are influencing the reserve's conditions within its current operative framework and identifies critical factors that influence potential interactions needed to improve reserve management in the future. This analysis will not only prove useful to managers of the SILMNNR but will also be relevant to those faced with similar CHANS conflicts elsewhere. 2. Methodology 2.1. Stakeholder and analysis The concept of “stakeholders” was first defined by Freeman (1984) as individuals and groups who are affected by decisionmakers' decisions and actions and who have the power to influence their outcomes. Later, the definition was broadened to include any naturally occurring entity that is affected by organizational performance, meaning that it includes living and non-living entities and even mental-emotional constructs, such as respect for past generations or the wellbeing of future generations (Hubacek and Mauerhofer, 2008; Starik, 1995). As such, stakeholder analyses are conducted to better understand power dynamics and enhance the transparency and equality among stakeholders in the decisionmaking progress related to development projects (Reed et al., 2009). Stakeholder analyses in development and natural resource management projects have often focused on inclusivity, being used to empower marginal groups (e.g., women), those without access to well established social networks, the under-privileged or the socially disadvantaged, and those who are not easily accessible (Johnson et al., 2004). Reed et al. (2009) defines stakeholder analysis as a process that: a) defines aspects of a social and natural phenomenon affected by a decision or action; b) identifies individuals, groups, and organizations who are affected by or can affect those parts of the phenomenon; and c) allows involvement by these individuals and groups in the decision-making process.

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detailed descriptions of stakeholders involved in conflicts between ecological conservation and socioeconomic development in the study area. We then analyzed relationships between stakeholders by mapping their respective levels of potential for conservation and influence, and inspecting their interest-influence linkages, which identifies their critical roles and other key factors and outlines the main problems and their causes. Consequently, this provides a practical application and evaluation of the human ecosystem framework at the scale of the nature reserve and its management process. Finally, by examining these conditions and processes we offer suggestions for changing key stakeholder relationships so that the reserve's current unstable framework could be transformed into a balanced and sustainable one. 2.3. Study site The SILMNNR was established in 1980. It is located in Lvshunkou district in Dalian City, Liaoning Province, in northeast China (Fig.1). It is composed of Snake Island (latitude38 560 2800 e38 5704100 N,longitude 120 580 0000 e120 590 1500 E), which is 5.3 miles off shore, and Laotie Mountain (latitude 38 430 0200 e38 5701600 N, longitude 121040 5300 e 1211501900 E). Snake Island is the only habitat worldwide for about 20,000 Gloydius Shedaoensis (GS), which is a poisonous snake categorized as crotalinae, serpent. Laotie Mountain is one of the most important avian stopovers on the East Asian migratory path (Zhang and Wen, 2006). Annually, about two-million birds stop on Snake Island to rest and feed (Li, 2005) in addition to those landing in and around reserve. A total of 307 bird species have been recorded, which includes 57 families of 19 orders. Nine of them are under first-class national protection, 46 are under second-class national protection, and 39 are raptors accounting for almost 48 percent of the national total. Laotie Mountain is also the home for many other animals and plants. Its forest coverage is about 35 percent. Hence, the SILMNNR has played a significant role in conservation and management of species and ecosystems since its establishment over 30 years ago. The protection and management of the SILMNNR is based on the policies published by the Ministry of Environmental Protection, PRC (MEPPRC) and Dalian Municipal Government (DMG). The two policies are ‘Regulations of the People's Republic of China on Nature Reserves’ (published in 1994), which is China's first law regulating nature reserves issued by MEPPRC and still the only law for nature reserves, and ‘Regulations of the Snake Island-Laotie Mountain National Nature Reserve’ first published in 1997 and amended in 2009 by DMG, which establishes regulations regarding the construction and management of the reserve and punishment for illegal activities. In addition, there are specific laws and regulations published by MEPPRC related to this reserve, including ‘Law of the People's Republic of China on Environmental Protection’ (published in 1989), ‘Law of the People's Republic of China on the Protection of Wildlife’ (first issued in 1988 and amended in 2004), ‘Regulations of the People's Republic of China on the Protection of Wild Vegetation’ (published in 1997), and ‘Forest Law of The People's Republic of China’ (first published in 1984 and amended in 1998), which provide rules for the management of different natural resources, protection and legal responsibility. Thus, development and progress of the SILMNNR is under a series of comprehensive laws and regulations on nature reserves and natural resources. 3. Research

2.2. Study design

3.1. Conflicts in the Snake Island-Laotie Mountain National Nature Reserve

This study considers stakeholders of the SILMNNR to include living and non-living entities as research objects. First, we used a literature review, interviews, and field observations to develop

3.1.1. Scale and changes in functional zones According to the policies and regulations promulgated by MEPPRC, three functional zones were designed for the SILMNNR in

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Fig. 1. Location of SILMNNR, Liaoning, China.

1999: the core zone, which included Snake Island and part of Laotie Mountain; the buffer zone, and the experimental zone (Table 1). In 2003, a train ferry between Yantai City in Shandong Province and Dalian City was designed to pass across the Laotie Mountain buffer zone. This was a very important project for both DMG and national government, so the reserve's functional zones were compromised for the first time (Fig. 1, Table 1). In 2005, an oil and chemical industrial park was constructed next to the harbor, which was on the reserve land and the functional zones were further compromised reducing its total area (Table 1). Local economic development has

continued at a rapid pace utilizing more and more of the resource base of the SILMNNR, further reducing the size of the reserve in 2010 (Fig. 1, Table 1). The initial planning process for the creation and management of the SILMNNR focused on conservation and did not consider any development needs of local communities; however, subsequent planning has focused almost solely on economic development. The size of the core, buffer, and experimental zones has been modified to the extent that they no longer provide adequate habitat for migratory birds. Moreover, there is concern that this also may lead

Table 1 Change in the total area of the SILMNNR in 1999, 2003, 2005, and 2010. Year

Areas in functional zones Core zone

1999 2003 2005 2010

Experimental zone

Total area of SILMNNR

Area (ha)

Percentage (%)

Area (ha)

Buffer zone Percentage (%)

Area (ha)

Percentage (%)

Area (ha)

Percentage (%)

6073 3305 3565 3565

35.57 19.35 24.43 39.30

3800 5445 2815 1947

22.26 31.89 19.29 21.46

7200 8323 8215 3560

42.17 48.75 56.29 39.24

17073 17073 14595 9072

100 100 100 100

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Table 2 Density of enterprises in the SILMNNR. Year

Enterprises in functional zones Core zone

2008 2010

Buffer zone

Experimental zone

Total enterprises in SILMNNR

No.

Density (no./100 ha)

No.

Density (no./100 ha)

No.

Density (no./100 ha)

No.

Density (no./100 ha)

3 5

0.08 0.14

96 18

3.41 0.92

366 57

4.46 1.60

465 80

3.19 0.88

to a population decline in GS, because 90 percent of this snake preys on migratory birds for food (Li, 2005). Therefore, the reserve ecosystem has become increasingly fragmented, which jeopardizes the integrity of the habitat for wildlife and influences the functioning of natural processes (Margules and Usher, 1981; Usher, 1986). 3.1.2. Social and economic development Although the social and economic conditions in the area have greatly improved since the reserve was established over 30 years ago, development has come with a cost to the reserve. There are different regulatory agencies at different levels of government involved in the management of the reserve with overlapping and often conflicting management goals of environmental protection and development. Regulatory oversight is complicated and confusing, which has contributed to degradation of the reserve. The local governments are primarily concerned with socioeconomic development and have encouraged development efforts in and around the reserve. Although, the number of enterprises has decreased in the buffer and experimental zones (Table 2), there has been a concurrent decrease in the area of the zones (Table 1), and they remain a source of pollution and environmental damage. Development in the core zone has been particularly harmful to the reserve. Human population densities have increased in the buffer zone and experimental zones between 2008 and 2010 (Table 3), mostly because of the increase of exploitation activities in the zones (Table 1), while the core zone has remained stable. The local governments wanted the land around villages to attract outside investment for economic development. Hence, population densities increased around the core zone, which further escalated pressure on the reserve. We found that about 24 percent of the reserve was being used for production and local livelihoods in 2011 (Table 4, Fig. 2) representing a critical loss of resources for protection and sustainability. 3.1.3. Illegal hunting Hunting migratory birds has been a long-term tradition in local villages. People who bought the wild birds for meat came from other provinces and even overseas. The height of this activity was reached in the 1970s when 10,000 birds of one species might be hunted in a single day (Tang, 2007). The selling of birds could account for 30 to 50 percent of a local family's total income (Chu and Zhou, 2007). Hunting was banned after the establishment of the SILMNNR. However, many local residents did not understand why bird hunting had become illegal when it was a way of making a

living in earlier times. Hence, conflicts between staff from the Liaoning SILMNNR Authority (LSILMNNRA) and local residents over the illegal hunting arose and have lasted for over 30 years. Although the level of illegal hunting has lessened, it has continued to operate through a black market where poachers can gain even greater profits than before because of the danger of arrest and fines associated with the law. Hence, the density of avifauna during migratory seasons, including large raptors (Tang, 2007), has been declining over recent years, likely because of similar hunting pressures all along the migratory path. 3.2. Stakeholder analysis 3.2.1. Defining stakeholders To emphasize the dominant influence of humans on the reserve, we refer to the study area as the SILMNNR-HEC. We adopted an inclusive definition of stakeholders with living and non-living entities as those affecting the SILMNNR human ecosystem (SILMNNRHEC) as well as those being affected by its processes and outcomes. Both key entities directly impacting or being impacted by the reserve, including natural resources, LSILMNNRA, local residents, and local enterprises, and secondary entities that indirectly impact or are impacted by the reserve, such as local governments, scientists, and MEPPRC are considered (Fig. 3). Detailed descriptions of these stakeholder groups based on our analysis are provided below. Natural resources are included as a group of stakeholder in SILMNNR-HEC chiefly to acknowledge the critical importance of protected species, land, vegetation, and seawater to the nature reserve and overall research project. The population of GS initially increased after the establishment of the nature reserve. However, they eventually will be in jeopardy if their main food source, migratory birds, has been declining continually. In addition, industrial and agricultural activities are occupying and destroying woodlands, and polluting seawater, which is negatively impacting the people who greatly rely on them conversely. Another identified stakeholder, LSILMNNRA is a local authority subordinate to MEPPRC, whose responsibility are promoting wildlife conservation, protecting species and the ecosystem from illegal activities, and constructing protection facilities in the reserve. Although, the staff manages daily affairs according to regulations, they still have limited power and consequently often punish insufficiently when faced with policy violations and conflicts involving local people. The first reason is that LSILMNNRA does not have law enforcement powers, so staff cannot execute strict punishments to restrain illegal activities and they requires coordinate with other local regulatory sectors to any actions against

Table 3 Population density in the SILMNNR. Year

Population in functional zones Core zone

2008 2010

Buffer zone

Experimental zone

Total population in SILMNNR

No.

Density (no./100 ha)

No.

Density (no./100 ha)

No.

Density (no./100 ha)

No.

Density (no./100 ha)

46 46

1.29 1.29

320 332

11.37 17.05

4700 4687

57.21 131.66

5066 5065

34.71 55.83

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Table 4 Land dedicated to human habitation and production in the SILMNNR in 2011. Land-use for living and production

Area (ha) Percentage in the zones (%)

Functional zones Core zone

Buffer zone

Experimental zone

Total area in SILMNNR

180.71 5.07

365.21 18.76

1611.14 45.26

2157.06 23.78

illegal activities. The second is that local governments own the management rights of the land and sea in the buffer and experimental zones and can thus, rent these areas to enterprises and families for revenue. Nevertheless, LSILMNNRA can manage and control activities in the core zone because it has management rights

of that land. In addition, the LSILMNNRA lacks the professional and technical staff and equipment necessary for effective management. This is partly due to the fact that the wage and social benefits for staff is not high, and they cannot participate in and be promoted through the technical title evaluation program, which consequently

Fig. 2. Map of land use in the SILMNNR in 2014.

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Fig. 3. Geographical distance of stakeholders involved in the SILMNNR.

limits their own career development. Recently, LSILMNNRA has cooperated with some research institutions and universities to conduct studies in order to enhance their level of management and scientific research. Local residents are clear stakeholders and both affect and are affected by the SILMNNR. Locals primarily make their living from agricultural production and cultivating and harvesting of seafood. The heavy use of the chemical fertilizers and pesticides is an environmental issue in some areas. Regulations and policies focused on the protection of wildlife and the ecological integrity of the nature reserve, such as those that restrict bird hunting and the construct factories, directly limit livelihood activities in the SILMNNR-HEC. Since 2010, when the size of the functional zones of the reserve was further reduced (Table 1, Fig. 1), LSILMNNRA has greatly restricted any new development of enterprises. Industrial enterprises included factories of machine operation, and chemical, food, and timber production, and restaurants and tourism facilities. Current environmental threats to the reserve are untreated wastewater, gas and noise mainly from a seafood processing plant, a kelp processing plant, and an electroplate factory. So far, these enterprises do not take measures to improve their technical process environmental friendly, but follow the national environmental standards to control pollution only. While most of the factories treat their wastewater, a few of them discharge untreated wastewater directly into the sea. Since 2011, the number of local enterprises has decreased from 465 in 2008 to 80. Most of the enterprises are small with about ten workers, while a few larger ones have about 50 workers. Local enterprises contribute to socioeconomic development and are a stakeholder, but they have not

been involved in any management or planning activities surrounding the reserve and also have largely negative effects on the ecosystem and wildlife habitat. Local governments, which include Local Village Committees (LVC) and their upper government agency, Lvshunkou District Government (LDG), promote economic development. Two important approaches for increasing financial revenues in rural China have been to attract outside investments for building local industries and to directly set up new enterprises by local communities. With the approval of the LDG, LVCs commonly establish agreements with enterprises to rent village land for the construction of factories and for building relative production and living facilities. Local governments then provide financial support for constructing hospitals, schools, roads, facilities for removing trash, and other services in local communities. Scientists from universities and institutes carry out planning and ecological studies and advise management sectors. They offer recommendations for ecosystem and species conservation based on the current development framework but do not necessarily push for greater conservation measures. A CHANS research approach that adequately addresses social, economic, and ecological issues has not been undertaken. MEPPRC is a cabinet level ministry in the national government and uses a “top-down” management approach to establish policies for nature reserves. Its primary function is to protect species and ecosystem. However, when unresolvable conflicts arise between local communities and the LSILMNNRA, it must step in and try to resolve the issue. Typically a compromise is reached and economic development activities are allowed to move forward compromising conservation priorities.

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3.2.2. Stakeholder mapping Stakeholder mapping is a way to categorize different stakeholder groups by classifying them in terms of their potential for cooperation and support among key objectives or their potential for conflicts (Freeman, 1984; Savage et al., 1991; Carroll, 1996). We categorized each stakeholder group in the SILMNNR-HEC with respect to their current potential to enhance the conservation of natural resources and species based on their descriptions presented in 4.1 and their level of influence in the decision making process presented in a twodimensional Matrix (Fig. 4). First, the stakeholders with high potential for conservation and high influence on decisions were natural resources, LSILMNNRA, and MEPPRC. The goals of these management sectors are to promote natural resources and ecosystem conservation, so these groups of stakeholders are supporters. Second were the local residents, local enterprises, and local governments who are developers with low conservation potential and high influence. Local communities have rights to use and manage parts of the reserve land, but do not take care of land or natural resources in other parts of the reserve. The local communities are relatively poor, and their interests are focused on satisfying their immediate livelihood needs more than conservation. Thus, they have a low level of conservation potential and are viewed as opponents most of the time. Third, scientists are marginal conservationists with high potential and low influence. They are a neutral body who can offer suggestions concerning the planning and management of the reserve but are not involved with the decisionmaking process. Finally, there are no stakeholder groups classified as marginal opponents with low potential and low influence. Based on this analysis, we can conclude that promoting the sustainability of SILMNNR-HEC would require not only that local residents, local enterprises, and local government change their behaviors so that they are more conservation friendly, but also enhance their engagement in the management process and encouraged to have a greater say in conservation issues. 3.2.3. Evaluating stakeholders' relationships Key stakeholders who directly participate in determining the eventual state of SILMNNR-HEC are natural resources, the LSILMNNRA, local residents, and enterprises. However, policies, financial resources, and technologies that come directly from local governments, scientists, and MEPPRC also are key factors that influence outcomes. Reed et al. (2009) developed an approach for illustrating key relationships among different stakeholders with respect to their interests and influences. Using this approach, we developed summaries for each stakeholder group that illustrate how each stakeholder behaves and in turn influences other stakeholders (Table 5). Influence High High

Stakeholder

Low

Conservationists:

Marginal

Natural resources

conservationists:

LSILMNNRA

Scientists

MEPPRC

potential for conservation

Developers:

Low

Marginal developers

Local residents Local enterprises Local governments

Fig. 4. Mapping of the SILMNNR stakeholders.

We used the information from Table 5 to design a map that visually represents key interrelationships among different stakeholders (Fig. 5). Arrows represent the direction of influence among stakeholders and conservation targets. Although the LSILMNNRA constrains development activities by local residents and enterprises that are supported by local governments, LSILMNNRA's management actions are largely constrained by MEPPRC. Consequently, MEPPRC resolves conflicts between the local governments and the LSILMNNRA and typically makes concessions to the local governments by changing the reserve's size and functional zones. In addition, local residents are poor and exploit the reserve to expand agricultural production as well as hunt birds for income generation. Except for that, the local governments need to raise revenues through taxation and thus promote economic development with little regard for the reserve. 4. Results and discussion 4.1. “Three-legged stool” framework for SILMNNR-HEC It would be relatively simple to assess and correct the current relationships among different stakeholders in Fig. 4 if the only goal was to protect SILMNNR-HEC's natural resources. However, a more holistic approach is needed that takes into account the realities of the situation including the government structure and needs of local people. Elevating the standing of natural resources and the roles of LSILMNNRA and MEPPRC within the governmental management sector, enhancing the role of local residents in socioeconomic development, and improving the effectiveness of local enterprises in economic development are all needed to improve the current situation. Envisioned as a “three-legged stool” with protecting the natural resources as the primary objective, the management sector, society, and economy would form the supportive foundation to provide a viable conservation and development framework for SILMNNR-HEC (Fig. 6a, b). Critical factors affecting the organizational legs (i.e., LSILMNNRA and MEPPRC, local people, and enterprises) and functional stays (i.e., management, society, and economy) determine outcomes from the framework that affect the SILMNNR-HEC. Flows in this human ecosystem framework involve individuals, information, energy, nutrients, materials, and capital, connecting critical resources and social systems within SILMNNR-HEC, and it to other human ecosystems (Machlis et al., 1997). Ecosystem functions provided through regulation, production, habitat, carrier, and information are used to identify and classify stakeholders based on their interests in the goods and services (de Groot et al., 2002; de Groot, 2006). Therefore, it is concluded that key factors influencing the dynamic state of the SILMNNR-HEC framework according to their specific relationships are information, technology, finance, management, policy, labor, and production. Flows from natural resources that promote management, social progress, and economic development are driven by the interests of stakeholders, whereas negative feedbacks determine whether the use of natural resources is sustainable. Excessive negative feedbacks weaken the effectiveness of these three supportive components (i.e., the stool's stays), disrupting the ecological balance of the area's natural resources (i.e., the three-legged stool) (Fig. 6a). In SILMNNR-HEC, the exploitation of natural resources by stakeholders far exceeds their conservation practices, and only the management sector greatly focuses on maintaining natural resources sustainability. The ability for local residents to engage in conservation practice is limited due to their overriding needs to meet basic day-to-day needs whereas enterprises are overly focused on the exploitation of natural resources for economic gain.

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Table 5 Interest-influence relationships among stakeholders. Stakeholder

Goal/Interest

Activities and actions

Influence

Key relationships with other stakeholders

Natural resources

Maintaining themselves and living in the SILMNNR

e

e

LSILMNNRA

Conserving natural resources

Restricting illegal hunting, and improving public environmental awareness, and planting trees, and touring for public observation and research

Local residents

Living and producing for their families

Agriculture and sea food production, and daily life

Population of GS being increased, and the phenomenon of illegal hunting being reduced, and local communities' environmental awareness being increased, but management level being low with limit power Reducing habitat, and increasing pollution, and weakening ecosystem functions

Being used and damaged by local residents and local enterprises, and being protected by LSILMNNRA and MEPPRC Being subordinate to MEPPRC, and restricting local residents and enterprises’ utilization activities, and trying to relive the conflicts with local governments

Local enterprises

Getting more profits with less investment

Opening factories to produce

Reducing habitat, and increasing pollution, and weakening ecosystem functions

Local Government

Improving local socioeconomic development

Attracting investments for increasing financial revenue, and constructing basic facilities

Reducing habitat, and increasing pollution, and weakening ecosystem functions

Scientists

Doing research and offering suggestions

—

MEPPRC

Conserving natural resources

Making policies, and planning the scale and functional zones, and relieving conflicts between stakeholders, and investing finance, and providing management and technological trainings for staff

Most of their suggestions based on changing the size and functional zones Enhancing the management level of SILMNNR, and making the protective actions more scientific and professional, but putting economic development ahead of conservation based on the current conditions in China

Fig. 5. Key relationships among different stakeholders in the SILMNNR.

Being restricted from using natural resources by LSILMNNRA, and obtaining job opportunities from local enterprises and services from local governments Being restricted from using natural resources by LSILMNNRA, and providing job opportunities for local residents, and paying taxes and rents to local government annually Supporting local residents and enterprises exploiting natural resources, and conflicting with LSILMNNRA’s protection Providing professional suggestions for MEPPRC Making policies and guidelines for LSILMNNRA, and relieving the conflicts between LSILMNNRA and local governments

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(a)

(b)

Sustainable development of natural resources

LSILMNNRA

I T/P1/M/F MEPPRC

Local residents

P2/I

Local enterprises

F/T

L/K/T

P2/I

Management sector

Economic development

P1

F

L

L P1

Social development

F

Fig. 6. a). Current “Three-legged stool” framework for SILMNNR-HEC nature reserve, and b). Balanced “Three-legged stool” framework for SILMNNR-HEC nature reserve.

4.2. Approaches to change stakeholder relationships

and economic actions by local residents and enterprises based on conservation policies and regulations, despite the fact that both need local natural resources for survival and to improve economic conditions and are thus inherently in conflict. Moreover, the economic status of local residents has not improved despite the local governments having been successful in attracting investment and economic construction to the region following each of the three changes in the size and functional zones in the SILMNNR-HEC. Although some households relied on jobs provided by enterprises, all residents were impacted by the environmental pollution that resulted. Local residents thought well of these enterprises because their short-term survival needs were placed ahead of longterm environmental needs, such as amenities and enjoyment arising from a healthy landscape. Thus, it is a valid approach to change their relationships from opposition to cooperation in order to reach their different goals through a cooperative project. It is necessary to enhance the participation level of key stakeholders (see Fig. 6b) when they change their effects on the SILMNNR-HEC from opposition to cooperation. This could be achieved by promoting local residents and enterprises' potential for conservation from low to high with respect to the sustainable development of SILMNNR-HEC, which would also meet their individual interests to enhance income generation. At the same time, the management sector needs to give more decision-making power to other stakeholders, especially to those whose activities directly affect SILMNNR-HEC. If stakeholders derive their livelihoods directly from SILMNNR-HEC, they will be more concerned about the state and future of its natural resources. Enhancing their participation and cooperation in conservation and social and economic development will empower stakeholders to increase their participatory capacity (Greenwood et al., 1993; Okali et al., 1994; Wallerstein, 1999), and lead to behavioral changes that will assure the sustainability of the region.

4.2.1. Conflict to cooperation Relationships between key stakeholders who directly influence the SILMNNR-HEC are not in balance. LSILMNNRA constrains social

4.2.2. Weak feedbacks to strong supports An important reason for the current unbalanced framework of SILMNNR-HEC is that the dynamics of key factors and the feedbacks

Therefore, the model for the utilization and conservation of the natural resources is unbalanced in SILMNNR-HEC (Fig. 6a). Relationships between the management sector, social development, and economic development are viewed as an interacting triangle of factors that have equal influence on natural resources. The strength and dynamics of these relationships determine the stability of this triangle. Nevertheless, in SILMNNR-HEC as well as in other nature reserves in China, social and economic development is often the highest priority for different sectors of government, while environmental and species protection is often ignored or marginalized because of the dire need for poverty alleviation in rural communities (Liu, 2008). Hence, policies frequently favor capital investment and industrial production and, consequently, local people typically benefit far less than those seeking capital profits. Social development that relies on outside sources to assist local governments in providing services and the construction of new infrastructure may bypass the cultural, education, health, and safety needs of local people. Hence, current dynamics from supportive factors of management and social and economic development is leading to an unstable operational framework in SILMNNR-HEC. Such unbalanced and unequal feedbacks and benefits between natural resources and stakeholders do not lead to a sustainable state. Sustainable development focuses on promoting social, economic, and ecological progress without jeopardizing options available to future generations, which highlights issues of equality and justice (WCED, 1987). A balanced and sustainable framework for SILMNNR-HEC that provides strong reciprocal support and equal feedbacks is illustrated in Fig. 6b. We consider this to be a model representing mutual reasonability, fairness, and coordination for all key stakeholders in the SILMNNR and one that should be adopted and followed.

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flowing between different stakeholders are unequal (see Fig. 6a). People and nature interact reciprocally and form complex feedback loops in CHANS like SILMNNR-HEC (Liu et al., 2007a). When other stakeholders derive benefits from the utilization of natural resources it can weaken ecological functioning, perhaps to a point where short-term self-recovery is not possible. The resulting deterioration of ecosystem functioning owing to be a lack of positive feedbacks from other stakeholders would consequently influence future processes (Liu et al., 2007a) in SILMNNR-HEC. Hence, improving feedbacks from other stakeholders to the ecosystem for strengthening and stabilizing the framework of SILMNNR-HEC is an urgent need that must take both theory and practice into account in order to modify complicated situations in a timely manner. Some ecosystems can only be sustained through management practices, whereas many conservation efforts preclude such human interference (Liu et al., 2007a). Key factors that flow back from the management sector, social, and economic development to the ecosystem initially come from natural resources and complete an entire loop. Proper decisions, labor, finance, technology, and local experiences provided by residents and enterprises help natural resources as a fundamental and sustainable stakeholder and create a continuous and dynamic process for developing SILMNNR-HEC. In addition, reasonable policy-making, financial investment, and labor supply from the management sector, social development and economic development to one another could assure that their relationships are balanced and impartial. By changing the current weak and unbalanced relationships among stakeholders to those that are equal and strongly supportive would alleviate conflicts, improve cooperation, and meet the interests of all stakeholders. Above all, six relationships illustrated in Fig. 6b and mutual supports between stakeholders provide critical linkages to sustain and improve SILMNNR-HEC into the future. Changing their relationships implies the transformation from opposition to cooperation based on projects that take into account different interests as well as enhance and balance feedbacks between stakeholders to maintain their own development. This is an effective way for balancing stakeholder relationships for understanding complicated CHANS conditions and managing the nature reserve more sustainably. 5. Conclusions Problems and conflicts among stakeholder groups and conservation efforts examined in the SILMNNR-HEC exist in other nature reserves in China and elsewhere, especially with respect to migratory bird flyways where multiple reserves, often in different countries, are involved (Baker, 1997; García-Frapolli et al., 2009; Gude et al., 2006; Jiang et al., 2007; Liu and Li, 2008, 2009). Our study indicates that a stakeholder analysis is a valid method for understanding what happens within a CHANS, and how particular stakeholders behave and are in turn affected by the conditions and processes that arise from such behaviors. Key stakeholders in SILMNNR-HEC are natural resources, LSILMNNRA, local residents, and enterprises. When the main reasons and key factors, such as policy, finance, technology, and labor, were examined through a stakeholder analysis, an unbalanced support system was observed between stakeholders and the ecosystem, which included weak feedbacks between different stakeholders. Hence, two approaches for changing current conditions are suggested based on the analysis of stakeholders in SILMNNR-HEC. The first is to transform relationships between ecological conservation and socioeconomic development from opposition to cooperation in order to meet the different goals of various stakeholders through participation in a same project. The second is to enhance feedbacks to complete relational loops within the entire CHANS that will strengthen and

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