Chapter 19 Evolution of Quaternary to Modern Fluvial Network in the Mid-Hungarian Plain, Indicated by Heavy Mineral Distributions and Statistical Analysis of Heavy Mineral Data

Chapter 19

EVOLUTION OF QUATERNARY TO MODERN FLUVIAL NETWORK IN THE MID-HUNGARIAN PLAIN, INDICATED BY HEAVY MINERAL DISTRIBUTIONS AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF HEAVY MINERAL DATA EDIT THAMO´-BOZSO´a AND LAJOS O´.KOVA´CSb a

Geological Institute of Hungary, Stefa´nia u´t 14, 1143 Budapest, Hungary Hungarian Geological Survey, Stefa´nia u´t 14, 1143 Budapest, Hungary

b

ABSTRACT Heavy mineral data of 590 samples from ten cored boreholes, penetrated into Quaternary fluvial successions in the central part of the Hungarian Plain, and complemented by data from modern river sediments, have been evaluated using numerical methods. Cluster analysis and principal component analysis (PCA) have revealed appreciable similarities between the heavy mineral composition of modern river sediments and those from borehole samples, resulting in a more refined reconstruction of the Quaternary fluvial network and sediment provenance. Interpretation relied on the presumption that Quaternary physiography and the geological settings of the source regions were comparable to those of today. Comparative analyses showed that the modern Tisza River and its tributaries, draining the Hungarian Plain, carry pyroxene, hornblende, chlorite or garnet-rich sediments from the Carpathian Belt, Apuseni Mountains and North Hungarian Range, while the River Danube and its tributaries transport garnet-dominated heavy mineral assemblages mainly from the Alps, western Carpathians and the Bohemian Massif. During the Quaternary, sediments in the western part of the study area were deposited by the Palaeo-Danube, flowing then from the northwest and partly from the north. In the central part, the sediments of the Palaeo-Danube interfinger with deposits of the Palaeo-Tisza and its tributaries, arriving from the northeast or north. Closer to the Apuseni Mountains the direction of palaeodrainage changed frequently. PCA has provided a clear differentiation of the garnet-rich sediments of the modern Danube and Tisza rivers, but uncertainties remain with the older sands due probably to changing source areas and/or intermixing the loads of different palaeo-rivers with time. Both cluster analysis and PCA identified metamorphics-derived chlorite and garnet as well as volcanogenic hornblende and pyroxene as the dominant minerals of the Quaternary sands. A comparison of the heavy mineral composition of modern river sands and those deposited by their ancestors using PCA has revealed some differences, interpreted as the impact of tectonic and erosional changes during the Developments in Sedimentology, Vol. 58, 491–514 r 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. ISSN: 0070-4571/doi:10.1016/S0070-4571(07)58019-2 491

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Pleistocene. For example, chlorite-rich sands that are abundant in the Early Quaternary become less frequent in Late Quaternary deposits and are uncommon in the modern rivers, suggesting that their low-grade parent rocks have been progressively eroded. Variations in heavy mineral distributions also reflect tectonics-controlled fluvial channel switching. Keywords: detrital heavy minerals; cluster analysis; principal component analysis; Quaternary fluvial network; Hungary

1. INTRODUCTION Quaternary fluvial sediments in the central part of the Hungarian Plain have been studied in ten cored boreholes (Fig. 1). The penetrated 40–700 m thick successions consist mostly of fluvial sand, silt and clay, underlain by Pliocene strata. Studies, including sedimentology, geomorphology, hydrogeology and mineralogy have shown that during the Quaternary the Palaeo-Danube and Palaeo-Tisza distributary systems transported sediments from contrasting directions into the Hungarian

Fig. 1. Geological sketch map of the Carpathian–Pannonian region, with the locations of the studied boreholes and samples from modern river sediments.

2. Study Area

493

Plain (Su¨meghy, 1951, 1955; Urbancsek, 1960; Molna´r, 1967; Gedeon-Rajetzky, 1973a, 1976a, 1976b; Borsy, 1992). The aim of our study was to reconstruct the evolving Quaternary fluvial network of the Hungarian Plain by evaluating a large set of existing heavy mineral data, using numerical methods. Traditional heavy mineral analysis in Hungary started in the early 20th century, when Alada´r Vendl separated the heavy minerals of sand by using a heavy liquid and magnetic separator, and examined them under binocular and polarising microscopes (Vendl, 1910). He also used microchemical reactions to enable positive mineral identification. However, heavy mineral analysis was used at that time only by a few researchers (Melczer, 1913; Lengyel, 1930; Sztro´kay, 1935; Miha´ltz, 1937). Interest increased from the 1950s when several heavy mineral studies were undertaken (e.g. Hermann, 1954; Ravasz-Baranyai, 1962; Molna´r, 1963, 1964; Csa´nk, 1969; GedeonRajetzky, 1971, 1973a, 1973b, 1976a, 1976b; Rado´cz-Koma´romy, 1971). The first results were qualitative, but following the introduction of point counting, percentage-based compositional data were generated. In the mid-1960s the heavy mineral technique flourished, as shown by the approximately 50–70 publications and reports per year that included heavy mineral data. During the following decades the popularity of this method gradually declined, although it was not abandoned. In the 1980s, conventional optical mineral identification was complemented by other analytical techniques (X-ray diffraction, X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, electronprobe microanalysis, scanning electron microscopy). Data collected by Sallay (1984) show that up to that time, about 20,000 heavy mineral compositions had been determined from Cenozoic sedimentary rocks, reflecting an intensive use of the technique. Heavy mineral analyses were performed on a variety of sands and sandstones; sometimes the sand fractions of gravel, silt, clay, bauxite, loess and volcanic tuffs were analysed, traditionally, all in the 0.1–0.2 mm size fraction. Heavy minerals were distinguished and grouped according to their origin, such as metamorphic, magmatic and recycled sedimentary, and their provenance and source areas were evaluated (e.g. Molna´r, 1964; Gedeon-Rajetzky, 1973a). Results of heavy mineral analysis helped to understand better depositional conditions and diagenesis, the extent of reworking older sedimentary rocks, identifying volcanic ash falls and the platetectonic setting of source areas. Occasionally the combined heavy and light mineral composition of clastic sediments proved useful to reconstruct palaeoclimate. The study of heavy minerals proved as a suitable tool to delineate heavy mineral provinces (Molna´r, 1965) and to subdivide thick clastic successions by their distinctive heavy mineral associations (Gedeon-Rajetzky, 1973a, 1976a; Elek, 1979, 1980b). Several Hungarian handbooks provided useful information on the heavy mineral technique and its applications (Vendel, 1959; Molna´r, 1971, 1981; Wallacher, 1989; Balogh and Hajdu´-Molna´r, 1991). Data generated by the high number of heavy mineral analyses over decades were thus ideal for statistical analysis.

2. STUDY AREA The study area is situated in the central part of the Pannonian Basin, the largest intermontane basin in Europe, surrounded by the Alps, Carpathians and Dinarides.

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Chapter 19: Evolution of Quaternary to Modern Fluvial Network in the Mid-Hungarian Plain

(Fig. 1). The elevation of the basin is between 83 and 110 m above sea level, the western area being higher than the eastern and central parts. Major rivers draining the basin are the Danube and Tisza and their tributaries. The northern tributaries of the Tisza are the Szamos, Bodrog, Sajo´ (Bo´dva, Herna´d) and Zagyva rivers, originating in the northeastern Carpathians and in the Northern Hungarian Mountain Range. The eastern tributaries include the Berettyo´ and E´r, while the Sebes (fast)-, Fekete (black)- and Fehe´r (white)- Ko¨ro¨s rivers join downstream into the Ha´rmas (triple)-Ko¨ro¨s. These rivers, draining the Apuseni Mountains, display an approximately east–west transverse pattern. The confluence of Tisza and Danube, which are the major outflow, is in the southern part of the Pannonian Basin, in Serbia. Recent rivers in the Hungarian Plain carry mostly suspended load and there are marked differences in the size, geology and morphology of their catchment areas. The fluvial sediments under study were deposited in the latest phase of Pannonian Basin evolution. The basin originated in the Early-Middle Miocene by back-arc style rifting, coeval with the late stages of thrusting in the Carpathian belt. During the Late Miocene and Pliocene, two independent extensional phases with post-rift thermal subsidence occurred (Horva´th and Cloetingh, 1996; Csontos and Nagymarosy, 1999). The subsided basin was filled by the brackish Pannonian Lake that was in contact with the former Paratethys. After the complete isolation of the Pannonian Lake from the marine environment, it was gradually filled up by prograding delta systems flowing from the northwest and northeast during the Upper Miocene and Pliocene. This succession represents a time-transgressive facies change from offshore basin through basin slope and delta slope to delta front and then delta plain sediments, passing up into alluvial facies which represents the latest stage of the basin fill (e.g. Juha´sz, 1994). During the Quaternary, a still active basin inversion, starting at about the end of the Late Miocene, characterised by northwest–southeast and north–east compressions, resulted in significant uplift of the marginal parts, with local subsidence of the basin centre (e.g. Horva´th and Cloetingh, 1996; Csontos and Nagymarosy, 1999; Horva´th and Tari, 1999). This complex morphology initiated the development of the modern radial fluvial network, with rivers transporting detritus towards the central part of the Pannonian Basin from the northwest, north, northeast, east and southeast. In the Ko¨ro¨s sub-basin, in the eastern part of the study area, where the De´vava´nya (D-1) and Ve´szto+ (V-1) boreholes were drilled (Fig. 2), subsidence was uninterrupted, resulting in the accumulation of a 420–460 m thick continuous Pleistocene fluvial succession of fine-grained sediments, comprising predominantly silt and clay with minor fine-sand intervals (Ro´nai, 1985). Paleomagnetic data obtained from these two boreholes provide a chronostratigraphic framework for this area (Cooke et al., 1979; Ro´nai, 1985). High-resolution cyclostratigraphical and palaeoclimate analyses of the Pleistocene fluvial sediments in the Ko¨ro¨s sub-basin indicated that they represent Milankovitch cycles, 100 ka cyclicity for the upper section of the boreholes (younger than 1 Ma), and 40 ka for the older parts, consistent with the global palaeoclimate records (Na´dor et al., 2003). East of the Ko¨ro¨s sub-basin in the Koma´di borehole (Ko-1), fluvial siltstone, clay and sand build up the 450 m thick Quaternary succession. West and southwest of the Ko¨ro¨s sub-basin in boreholes Szarvas (SZ-1), Csonra´d (K-89) and Mindszent (K-88), palaeontological data suggest that the 450–690 m thick Pleistocene fluvial

3. Evolution of the Fluvial Network of the Hungarian Plain During the Quaternary

495

Fig. 2. Thickness of the Quaternary sediments (after Franyo´, 1992), with the locations of the studied boreholes.

record is more or less continuous. It comprises frequently alternating sand, siltstone and clay layers. In the western part of the study area in boreholes Nya´rlo+ rinc (NY-1), Kecskeme´t (Kecs-3), Kunadacs (Ka-3) and Kerekegyha´z (Ke-3) the Quaternary sediments attain a thickness between 40 and 370 m, with thickness increasing gradually towards the east. The fluvial sands contain fewer gravel, siltstone and clay beds and show intercalation of aeolian sand in the upper section (Ro´nai, 1985).

3. EVOLUTION OF THE FLUVIAL NETWORK OF THE HUNGARIAN PLAIN DURING THE QUATERNARY It was recognised as early as 1809 that the ancestral river network in the Hungarian Plain was different from the present one, concluding from abandoned fluvial channels and alluvial fans with no connection to any active river system (Somogyi, 1961 and references therein). Contrasting with the present north–south path of the Danube, geologists and geographers, using sedimentology, terrace-morphology, hydrogeology and borehole electric logs, proved that the channels of the ancestral Danube had a northwest–southeast flow direction (Fig. 3), and built up a large alluvial fan in the western part of the study area (Treitz, 1903; Schafarzik, 1918;

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Chapter 19: Evolution of Quaternary to Modern Fluvial Network in the Mid-Hungarian Plain

og

dr

Bo

jó Sa

a rc to La sa rz Bo

Eger

Tis

za

Ta rna

y Zag

tyó ret

Be

va

rös S e be s Kö

F

e k et

e K ör

ros Ma

rö

s

Danube

Danube

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Fe

Kö

Fig. 3. Late Pleistocene palaeo-river network reconstruction (after Urbancsek, 1960), based on electrical logs and palaeontological data from boreholes. Dotted lines show the major modern rivers.

Scherf, 1935; Su¨meghy, 1944, 1951; Bulla, 1953; Pe´csi, 1959; Urbancsek, 1960; Ro´nai, 1985; Borsy, 1989, 1992; Ga´bris, 1994). There is no uniform agreement about the time when the Palaeo-Danube changed its course to a west–east direction, cut across the Visegra´d Pass and then turned towards the southeast (Fig. 1), or when the modern river network developed. Urbancsek (1960) and Borsy (1989) postulated that the Palaeo-Danube cut through the Visegra´d Pass in the Late Pliocene and then flowed in a northwest–southeast direction until the Late Pleistocene. Later, the main channel of the Palaeo-Danube gradually shifted to a westerly direction, triggered by tectonic movements, and finally attained a north–south path (Urbancsek, 1960). Others argued that the Danube cut through the Visegra´d Pass only at the end of the Gu¨nz-Mindel interglacial (Mike, 1991; Neppel, et al., 1999). It is, however, well established that after incising the Visegra´d Gorge and developing a sharp bend, the Danube reached its recent north–south course during the Riss-Wu¨rm interglacial (Urbancsek, 1960), or in the Holocene (Somogyi, 1961; Ro´nai, 1985). Sedimentological and hydrogeological investigations indicated that the PalaeoTisza flowed south of its present course, in the valley of the modern E´r River (Su¨meghy, 1944, 1951, 1955; Urbancsek, 1960; Borsy, 1989). Urbancsek (1960) suggested the existence of a different large river that flowed from northeast to

4. Study Methods

497

southwest, more or less parallel with the Palaeo-Tisza, and collected the waters of rivers flowing from the north (Fig. 3). The Tisza and its tributaries may have occupied their recent course in the Gu¨nz-Mindel interglacial by shifting gradually towards the west (Molna´r, 1997) or, as suggested by Somogyi (1961), during the Holocene, caused by Holocene tectonic movements. Borsy et al. (1989) argued that this happened only 4500 years ago. In the debate on the palaeo-river network reconstructions (Su¨meghy, 1951; Urbancsek, 1960; Somogyi, 1961; Borsy, 1989; Borsy et al., 1989; Mike, 1991; Ga´bris, 1994; Neppel, et al., 1999), Borsy (1989) proposed the most acceptable model (Figs. 4A, B). He argued that until the beginning of the Late Pleniglacial, sediments were transported principally by the Palaeo-Danube from a northwesterly direction to the western part of the study area. The sites of boreholes K-89 and K-88 were reached by both the Danube and Tisza. In the central and eastern parts of the study area, the Tisza and its tributaries carried sediments dominantly from the northeast and north. Heavy mineral studies have contributed further evidence to the reconstruction of the provenance of the Quaternary fluvial deposits in the Mid-Hungarian Plain (e.g. Molna´r, 1964, 1965, 1980; Gedeon-Rajetzky, 1973a, 1976a, 1976b; Elek, 1979, 1980a, 1980b; Gheith, 1982). Results indicated that in the western part of the study area (Ka-3, Ke-3, Kecs-3, NY-1) the sediments bear signatures of the PalaeoDanube (Molna´r, 1976; Elek, 1980b). Aeolian reworking during dry periods was occasionally observed. In the central part (K-89 and K-88) the deposits of the Palaeo-Danube and Palaeo-Tisza alternated. The precursors of Zagyva, Tarna and Sajo´ rivers delivered material from the north to the area of borehole K-89, while at the site of borehole K-88 the sediments of the ancestral Ko¨ro¨s, Berettyo´ and Maros rivers were identified (Gedeon-Rajetzky, 1973a; Gheith, 1982). The succession penetrated by borehole SZ-1 was deposited by the Palaeo-Ko¨ro¨s, E´r, Berettyo´ and Tisza, and it is likely that the Palaeo-Danube occasionally reached this region (Gedeon-Rajetzky, 1973a, 1976b). To the eastern part of the study area (D-1, V-1, Ko-1) the ancestral Ko¨ro¨s, Berettyo´ and Tisza carried sediments, shifting their courses over the area in time and space (Elek, 1980a; Molna´r, 1980).

4. STUDY METHODS Heavy mineral data used in this study were generated during earlier projects (Szabo´, 1955, 1967; Molna´r, 1964, 1976, 1980; Gedeon-Rajetzky, 1973a, 1976a, 1976b; Elek, 1979, 1980a, 1980b; Kuti et al., 1987; Molna´r et al., 1989, 1990) when around 530 samples were analysed from ten boreholes, and 57 sand samples from modern rivers. Microscopy included the identification and point counting of
200 detrital grains in the 0.1–0.2 mm fraction. The frequencies of 27 detrital heavy mineral species, identified in the Quaternary samples, have been compared using cluster analysis and principal component analysis (PCA). Cluster analysis is a standard technique of numerical classification. It arranges samples into approximately homogeneous groups based on similarities in terms of multiple variables. After several tests of the different versions of cluster analysis, hierarchical classification was applied to the current case using Euclidean distance and the weighted pair-group

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498

A

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Danub

e

Szamos Tis

Rá

ba

be nu Da

za

a

sz

iz

rv

Sá

Ti

Dr

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a

ros

Ma

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va 0

50

100

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Sa

jó

He rná d

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Tis Danube

ba

Sza

mo

yva

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Rá

va

M ar

viz

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Sár va

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Tis

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za

0

50

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Fig. 4. Palaeo-river network reconstruction (after Borsy, 1989). Dotted lines show the major modern rivers. (A) At the beginning of the Pleistocene. (B) At the beginning of the Late Pleniglacial.

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average method (Davis, 1986). This method was successful in tracing the provenance of Recent fluvial sediments in Italy (Ibbeken and Schleyer, 1991) and determining the palaeotransport directions of Quaternary sediments in the Ko¨ro¨s sub-basin in Hungary (Thamo´-Bozso´ et al., 2002). In the present study each sample, characterised by the frequency of the 27 detrital heavy mineral constituents, represented a point in the 27-dimensional space. The Euclidian distance between the samples in this space was used as a measure of similarity. This type of cluster analysis was carried out using ‘‘Deli-Clus-Dend’’ in-house software of O´.Kova´cs (1986). Samples within a particular group have a similar detrital heavy mineral composition, i.e. the major heavy mineral species are the same, suggesting that, given the geological and geographical constraints of the region, they originate from the same source area. As the number of the samples is limited in the usage of cluster analysis, only data of two nearest boreholes have been compared with the composition of the modern fluvial sediments. PCA is one of the most frequently used multivariate statistical technique (Le Maitre, 1982). The calculated principal component coordinates, when plotted against each other, provide the optimum way of viewing the data, enabling both sample classification and variable interpretation. The principal component coordinates are derived from the principal components. Geometrically, if the set of samples is considered as a cloud of points, the first principal component is an axis through the cloud, along which there is the maximum amount of spread of the samples (the maximum of variance of the data). The second principal component defines the direction of maximum spread at right angles to the first, the third one has the maximum spread at right angles to the first and second, and so on. The principal component coordinates are obtained by projecting the sample points onto the axes representing the principal components. PCA was successfully used in numerical analysis of heavy mineral data by Pirkle et al. (1985), Stattegger (1982) and Ryan et al. 2007 (this volume). In the present study it was performed on all samples and on the same heavy mineral species used in the cluster analysis. The results clearly indicate the heavy mineral species that are the most significant in the differentiation of the sample groups. Plotting the samples in the plane of the two main components, the heavy mineral composition of samples that fall closer to each other have more similarities than those that are farther from them.

5. RESULTS 5.1. Characteristics of Heavy Mineral Suites Heavy mineral composition of Quaternary sands in the ten study boreholes shows meaningful differences in their average heavy mineral proportions (Table 1). In the western part, in boreholes Ka-3, Ke-3, Kecs-3, Ny-1, K-88 and K-89, garnet is the most frequent component. These sands contain a large amount (about 30–40%) of heavy minerals of metamorphic origin (epidote, zoisite, clinozoisite, chlorite, chloritoid, andalusite, sillimanite, kyanite, staurolite and calcic amphiboles, mostly tremolite, actinolite and antophyllite). Moreover, assuming that the garnet is predominantly from metamorphic rocks the proportion of heavy minerals sourced from

500

Table 1. Average abundance values of heavy minerals (%) in samples from the study boreholes Heavy minerals

Kerekegyha´z Ke-3 (14 samples)

36.43 7.43 2.29 2.94

12.66

30.29 7.29 0.29 2.50

3.43 15.04 8.60 5.15 0.86

6.01

Kecskeme´t Kecs-3 (29 samples)

10.08

32.46 7.37 0.43 2.61

6.21 18.43 13.57 1.46 0.86

2.32

Nya´rlo+ rinc Ny-1 (39 samples)

10.41

15.81 9.19 0.37 1.38

3.89 29.99 8.50 1.79 0.27

2.06

1.29

0.39

0.07

2.43 0.29 2.01 1.87

2.50 0.07 1.64 2.21 0.14 0.14

0.29 0.29

10.94

3.42 4.26

7.68

Mindszent K-88 (96 samples)

33.94 7.70 3.62 5.31

13.67 1.47 5.05

16.63

21.48 8.40 4.71 6.07

7.99 13.78 11.63 2.33 0.47

2.80

Szarvas SZ-1 (108 samples)

19.18

17.00 11.36 4.58 4.56 1.58

6.14

25.13

8.47 2.38

10.85

1.79 0.10 1.20 1.72 0.03 0.36

2.48 1.55 1.35 0.26 0.80 2.12 0.15 0.68

3.28 0.09 3.36 1.08 1.00 0.74 0.16 0.23

0.43

0.02 0.04

0.03

0.16 0.85

0.14 0.45

0.86 0.24

0.14

0.07

0.17 0.01 0.47

0.02 0.35 0.09

0.01 0.06 0.48 0.02 0.02

0.09 0.70 0.53 2.65 100.91

0.54 5.95 2.59 99.26

0.90 6.27 99.95

0.55 8.47 26.42 100.60

3.91 100.02

Ve´szto+ V-1 (80 samples)

10.38 4.66 5.97 1.19

15.65 7.65 7.91

0.73 0.65 1.51 0.05 1.81 2.77 0.30 0.69

1.93 0.14 9.21 99.89

De´vava´nya D-1 (43 samples)

17.29 13.90 8.68 2.55

1.07 0.77 0.77 0.02 1.57 0.73 0.24 0.19

0.07

0.85 0.29 7.85 99.63

Csongra´d K-89 (81 samples)

11.82

8.69 19.33 2.06 1.08

22.61 0.74 11.73 3.34 4.28

7.62 4.51 1.42 1.01 0.57 0.54 0.26 0.18 0.11 0.07 0.04 0.03

3.03 1.25 22.17 100.09

Koma´di Ko-1 (59 samples)

22.47

21.27 11.26 0.73 0.40

16.36 11.81 9.19 3.37 1.25

4.63

12.39

12.39 9.90 8.54 0.34 0.25

0.59

4.25 0.01 2.62 0.05 0.77 0.56

2.99

0.14

0.02

0.11 0.31 0.02 0.01

0.02 0.64

1.76

1.10 0.01 25.51 100.10

16.24 99.99

3.02 0.25 0.31 1.03

0.12

Chapter 19: Evolution of Quaternary to Modern Fluvial Network in the Mid-Hungarian Plain

Garnets Hornblende Oxyhornblende Other amphiboles Chlorite Epidote Magnetiteilmenite Orthopyroxene Clinopyroxene Biotite Apatite Tourmaline Rutile Clinozoisite Kyanite Staurolite Zoisite Topaz Sphene Zircon Olivine Piemontite Andalusite Chloritoid Spinel Sphalerite Sillimanite Pyrite Carbonate Altered minerals Total (%)

Kunadacs Ka-3 (7 samples)

5. Results

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metamorphics reaches up to 60–70%. In samples from boreholes SZ-1, D-1 and V-1 amphibole and/or chlorite are more common, while in the easternmost borehole (Ko-1) the main heavy minerals are garnet, hornblende and chlorite. The amount of altered grains is the highest in boreholes Ny-1, D-1, V-1 and Ko-1. 5.2. Result of Cluster Analysis Heavy mineral composition of paired nearest boreholes and modern river sediments, evaluated by cluster analysis, are illustrated by dendrograms (Fig. 5). They show that the samples group into two, three or four major clusters, and within these some subclusters can be distinguished. The labels of the clusters and sub-clusters (e.g. px-am) indicate which heavy minerals are the most common or most characteristic in the samples forming that particular cluster or sub-cluster. Table 2 shows the most frequent heavy minerals of the clusters and sub-clusters, including the sediments of modern rivers with similar heavy mineral composition. Their transport directions are also indicated. The distribution of different clusters and sub-clusters along the borehole logs can be seen in Figs. 7 and 8 where palaeotransport directions in the study boreholes were plotted on west–east and north–south profiles. Garnet-rich sands (cluster ‘‘gr’’) occur in all boreholes but they are more common in the western part of the study area. Garnet is transported today mainly by the Danube and its tributaries, some of the northerly and eastern rivers (Zagyva, SebesKo¨ro¨s and, occasionally, the Tisza, Sajo´ and Berettyo´). Thus, garnet-rich sands can arrive from the northwest and north in the western part of the study area, and also from the northeast in other parts. Pyroxene-rich sands (cluster ‘‘px’’ ‘‘px-am’’) occur only in the middle part of the study area (in boreholes SZ-1, D-1, V-1, K-88, K-89). The alluvium of the Tisza and most of its tributaries contain abundant pyroxene (transported from northeasterly sources by the Tisza, Szamos and Bodrog, from the north by the Sajo´, Herna´d and Bo´dva, and from the southeast by the Fekete-, Fehe´r-, Ha´rmas-Ko¨ro¨s and Maros). The River Ipoly, a tributary of the Danube, carries such detritus from the north. Sands with high hornblende, garnet and pyroxene contents (cluster ‘‘am-gr-px’’) are only found in borehole SZ-1. Because the Tisza and two of its tributaries (Bodrog and Bo´dva) carry similar heavy mineral assemblages, by analogy, the sands in borehole SZ-1 were probably derived from the northeast. Chlorite-rich sediments (cluster ‘‘chl’’) are frequently found in the majority of the boreholes, but they are absent in Ka-3, Ke-3 and Kecs-3 in the west. In contrast, modern, chlorite-rich fluvial sands are very rare in the study area. Only small amounts appear in the Tisza and Bodrog, which suggests a northeasterly transport for the chlorite-rich Quaternary sediments. Some of the samples in boreholes D-1, V-1 and Ko-1, in the eastern part of the study area, are characterised by hornblende, epidote and/or garnet suites (clusters ‘‘am-e’’, ‘‘e-am’’ and ‘‘gr-e-am’’). Of today’s rivers only the Fekete-Ko¨ro¨s carries similar heavy mineral suites, suggesting that these sands were derived from a southeasterly direction. Cluster ‘‘am-px’’ is defined by high quantities of hornblende and pyroxene and such composition is typical of the alluvium of the modern Tisza and its tributaries. Cluster analysis of detrital heavy minerals permitted an almost full differentiation of the sediments of the various palaeo-rivers. Its limitations arise, however, in cases where different rivers carry similar heavy mineral suites. Thus, cluster analysis was

502

Ke-3, Kecs-3 and rivers

Kecs-3, NY-1 and rivers

px gr

gr am-px px chl

Ny-1, Sz-1 and rivers

Sz-1, D-1 and rivers

D-1, V-1 and rivers

gr px am-gr-px chl

am-gr-px am-px px e-am gr chl

am-e e-am px am-px px-am gr chl

V-1, Ko-1 and rivers

Ny-1, K-89 and rivers

K-89, K-88 and rivers

am-px px-am gr gr-am gr-e-am am-e chl

gr px-am chl

gr px-am chl

Fig. 5. Dendrograms showing simplified results of cluster analysis (V-1: borehole; am ¼ amphibole; px ¼ pyroxene; gr ¼ garnet; chl ¼ chlorite; e ¼ epidote).

Chapter 19: Evolution of Quaternary to Modern Fluvial Network in the Mid-Hungarian Plain

Ka-3, Ke-3 and rivers px-am gr am-px px

5. Results

503

Table 2. Most frequent detrital heavy minerals of the clusters and sub-clusters, with similar heavy mineral suites of modern rivers, and their transport directions Clusters and sub-clusters

Most frequent detrital heavy minerals of the clusters and sub-clusters

Gr

Garnet+epidote, magnetite, hornblende, pyroxene

Gr-am

Garnet+hornblende, epidote, chlorite, magnetite Garnet, epidote, hornblende, magnetite Orthopyroxene+clinopyroxene, hornblende

Gr-e-am Px

Px-am

Orthopyroxene+hornblende, epidote, magnetite

Am-px

Hornblende+pyroxene, epidote

Am-gr-px

Hornblende, garnet, pyroxene, chlorite, epidote Chlorite+hornblende, pyroxene, biotite, magnetite Epidote+ hornblende, magnetite, garnet, chlorite Hornblende+epidote, magnetite, garnet, chlorite

Chl E-am Am-e

Modern river sediments

Transport directions from

Danube Zagyva, Sajo´ Berettyo´, Sebes-Ko¨ro¨s, Tisza Tisza

NW N NE NE

Fekete-Ko¨ro¨s Tisza, Szamos, Bodrog Sajo´, Bo´dva, Herna´d Fekete-, Fehe´r-, Ha´rmasKo¨ro¨s, Maros Ipoly Tisza, Szamos, Bodrog Bo´dva, Sajo´, Herna´d Fehe´r-, Fekete-, Ha´rmasKo¨ro¨s, Maros Bodrog, Szamos, Tisza (Sajo´) Fekete-, Fehe´r-, Ha´rmasKo¨ro¨s, Maros Tisza, Bodrog (Bo´dva)

SE NE N SE NW NE N SE

Tisza, Bodrog

NE

Fekete-Ko¨ro¨s

SE

Fekete-Ko¨ro¨s

SE

NE SE NE

 Danube River and its tributaries without Ipoly River.

not efficient enough to distinguish between the garnet-rich sands of the modern and ancient Danube and some tributaries of Tisza. This problem can be addressed by using another numerical method. 5.3. Results of Principal Component Analysis Parallel with cluster analysis, PCA was also performed on all samples. Results identified garnet, chlorite, amphibole and pyroxene as the most important heavy minerals in the differentiation between the assemblages of the Danube and Tisza and their tributaries. The first two principal components represent 78% of the total variance, making their plots an acceptable representation of the whole data set (Fig. 6). In the PCA plots of Fig. 6 the sediments of the modern Danube and its tributaries occupy a well-defined area (x>0.5 and yo0.3), with the exception of the alluvium of the northwesterly Ipoly, while the assemblages of the modern Tisza appear in a different field (x>0.5 and y>0.3). However, the Sebes-Ko¨ro¨s, Zagyva, Sajo´ and some part of the Tisza sediments overlap the field of the ‘‘Danube sediment area’’. Many samples from the central and eastern boreholes (SZ-1, K-89, K-88, D-1, V-1,

Ny-1

2

2

2

0.3 0

0.3 0

0.3 0

0.3 0

-0.5

-0.5 -4

-2

-2

0

-4

2

-2

-0.5 0

-4

2

-2

-0.5 0

-4

2

-2

0

2

(+garnet)(-chlorite)

Sz-1

V-1

D-1

Ko-1

2

2

2

2

0.3 0

0.3 0

0.3 0

0.3 0

-2

0

2

-4

K-89

-2

-0.5

-0.5

-0.5

-0.5 -4

-2

-2

-2

-2

0

-4

2

K-88

-2

0

-4

2

2

2

2

0.3 0

0.3 0

0.3 0

0.3 0

-2

Legend I

0

2

-4

-2

-0.5

-0.5

-0.5

-0.5 -4

0

2

Danube River and its tributaries

-4

-2

Legend II

0

2

-4

-2

0

2

Tisza River and its tributaries

Danube

Rába

Ipoly

Mura

Tisza

Szamos

Bodrog

Hernád

Sebes-Körös

Dráva

Sió

Marcal

Zala

Sajó

Bódva

Berettyó

Zagyva

Fehér Körös

In all cross-plots: X axis: (+garnet)(-chlorite)

2

-2

-2

-2

0

Tisza River and its tributaries

Danube River and its tributaries

2

-2

-2

Y axis: (+amphibole)(+pyroxene)(-garnet)

Fig. 6. PCA plots of the samples from the studied boreholes and modern river sediments.

Fekete-Körös Hármas Körös

Maros

Chapter 19: Evolution of Quaternary to Modern Fluvial Network in the Mid-Hungarian Plain

-2

-2

-2

504

(+amphibole)(+pyroxene)(-garnet)

Kecs-3

Ke-3

Ka-3 2

6. Discussion

505

Ko-1) plot in the ‘‘Tisza sediment area’’ (x>0.5 and y>0.3) as was expected, confirming that most of them are the deposits of the Palaeo-Tisza and its tributaries. The majority of borehole samples from the western and central parts of the study area (boreholes Ka-3, Ke-3, Kecs-3, Ny-1, K-89, K-88) appear in the ‘‘Danube sediment area’’ (x>0.5 and yo0.3) and thus define Palaeo-Danube deposits. Comparison of the heavy mineral compositions of river sediments and borehole samples by PCA is particularly instructive (Fig. 6); the modern river samples cluster on the right side of the plots (x>1), contrasting with the position of the borehole samples that commonly occur on the left (xo1). The latter contains high quantities of chlorite and indicates that the Quaternary rivers carried chlorite-rich sediments, while the modern rivers are almost devoid of them. As mentioned earlier, the chlorite-rich sands were, most probably, derived from the northeast because they occur only in the central and eastern parts of the study area. PCA clearly indicates that garnet, chlorite, hornblende and pyroxene are the most potential in the differentiation of the various sediment groups. It also suggests their most important numerical relations: hornblende positively correlates with pyroxene, both hornblende and pyroxene negatively correlate with garnet and garnet negatively correlates with chlorite. Composition of axis titles in Fig. 6 reflects these relationships. Results pinpointed three discrete source provinces for the sediments under study: one supplying garnet-rich, the other chlorite-rich detritus and one with high hornblende and pyroxene contents. It is worth mentioning that the well-defined distribution of the chlorite-rich sands indicates that the high chlorite content is not caused by selective sorting during transport and deposition because chlorite is abundant in both the coarse- and fine-grained sediments in the central and eastern areas. Transport directions, deduced from cluster analysis and PCA, complemented by palaeomagnetic, palaeontological and sedimentological data (Kretzoi and Krolopp, 1972; Ro´nai, 1985; Ja´mbor, 1998), are indicated in Figs. 7 and 8 where dotted lines show the correlation of sampled intervals in the boreholes. The limitation of PCA in our study is shown by two examples: (i) Some assemblages from boreholes appear in the ‘‘Danube field’’; however, their geographic location indicates that that they could not be carried by the Palaeo-Danube. In this case the presence of similar heavy mineral assemblages precludes a complete differentiation of Palaeo-Danube deposits from those of the Palaeo-Tisza and its tributaries. (ii) In the central part of the study area (boreholes K-89, K-88, SZ-1) where the sediments of the Danube and Tisza merged, heavy mineral assemblages share several common signatures (e.g. high garnet content), despite the different geological settings of the rivers catchment areas. Thus, differentiating between their deposits is beyond the capacity of both PCA and cluster analysis.

6. DISCUSSION When attempting the reconstruction of Quaternary palaeotransport directions using heavy mineral data, we presume that Pleistocene physiography and the geology of potential source areas was comparable to that seen today. Consequently, heavy mineral compositions of modern river sediments, with well-constrained provenance, can be extrapolated to the borehole data. Then, by analogy, palaeocurrent directions

Ka-3

Ke-3

Kecs-3

Ny-1

SZ-1

D-1

V-1

Ko-1

E

depth (m)

200

300

400

500

Fig. 7. Clusters and sub-clusters along the boreholes in a W–E section, with sediment transport directions plotted using the results of cluster analysis, PCA and sedimentological analysis (gr ¼ garnet; chl ¼ chlorite; px ¼ pyroxene; am ¼ amphibole; e ¼ epidote; Q ¼ Quaternary; Pli ¼ Pliocene. Darker arrows show the dominant transport directions; dashed lines show correlation).

Chapter 19: Evolution of Quaternary to Modern Fluvial Network in the Mid-Hungarian Plain

100

506

W 0

6. Discussion

507

N

S Ny-1

K-89

K-88

0

100

200

depth (m)

300

400

500

600

700

Fig. 8. Clusters and sub-clusters along the boreholes in a N–S section, with sediment transport directions using the results of cluster analysis, PCA and sedimentological analysis (gr ¼ garnet; chl ¼ chlorite; px ¼ pyroxene; am ¼ amphibole; Q ¼ Quaternary; Pli ¼ Pliocene. Darker arrows show the dominant transport directions; dashed lines show correlation).

and the distribution of Pleistocene sediments can be reconstructed by comparison with the modern ones. Consistent with the lithology of the mountain belt surrounding the Pannonian Basin (Petrescu, 1966; Ianovici et al., 1976; Szepesha´zy, 1980; Brezsnya´nszky, 1989; Fu¨lo¨p, 1989), the modern Tisza and its tributaries carry pyroxene, hornblende, chlorite and/or garnet to the Hungarian Plain from the northeastern Carpathians, the Apuseni Mountains and the North-Hungarian Range from the northeast, east

Chapter 19: Evolution of Quaternary to Modern Fluvial Network in the Mid-Hungarian Plain

508

and north (Fig. 1). In its catchment area the Tisza and some of its tributaries (Tisza, Szamos, Bodrog, Herna´d, Fehe´r-Ko¨ro¨s, Maros) cut through Neogene andesites, rhyolites and tuffs constituting the Inner Carpathian Volcanics. The Sajo´ and Zagyva drain Upper Miocene–Pliocene basalts in the north, in the east the Fehe´rKo¨ro¨s erode Jurassic basalts, and the Fekete-Ko¨ro¨s Permian acidic volcanics. Some tributaries of the Tisza (Szamos, Sebes-, Fehe´r-, Fekete-Ko¨ro¨s, Maros) carry sediments from granitoids from the direction of the Apuseni Mountains, and from a variety of metamorphics (Szamos, Zagyva, Berettyo´, Bodrog, Herna´d, Sajo´, Maros and the triple Ko¨ro¨s). They also incorporate polycyclic detritus mainly from Neogene and older Quaternary molasse successions, from Cretaceous–Palaeogene flysch (Tisza, Bodrog, Herna´d, Sajo´, Maros) and from Permian and Mesozoic clastics (triple Ko¨ro¨s) but carbonates are subordinate throughout. Abundant garnet in the modern Danube is derived mainly from the Alps, western Carpathians, Bohemian Massif and the Transdanubian Central Range (Fig. 1). Major lithologies include Precambrian crystalline schists, flysch and molasse, Mesozoic carbonates, Hercynian granites of the Bohemian Massif, older granitoids of the eastern Alps and western Carpathians, Neogene andesites, rhyolites and some basalts of the Inner Carpathian Volcanics, including also minor low-grade metamorphics. Fundamental differences thus characterise the catchment basins of the two principal rivers: the Tisza and its tributaries drain abundant volcanics, contrasting with those of the largely metamorphic and granitoid complexes of the Danube (Fig. 9). Statistical methods have served as an independent, objective measure for the

ro Bo d

Tis za

tyó ret

gr (am,m) Ko-1 Se bes-Körö D-1 • örös rma s-K V-1 te-Kö Sz-1 tö rös ke Fe sK Fe am,px,e ö s hér-Kör

•

• • •

s

Há

Be

t Ke

ör

ös

Danube

• •

K-88

Ér

P.

a

•• • •

px,am,gr,chl

AR

gy v Za Ka-3 Kecs-3 Ke-3 Ny-1 K-89

C

gr (am,m)

a

(m) Szamo s

px,am,gr

ros

(m,px,am,e)

Tis z

.

(m,gr,am)

a

z Tis

Ma

px

•

N

S

E

Ipoly

Sajó

gr

AN

g

R N C A R PAT H I Bodv a

STE

He rná d

WE

Mar os

px,am,gr(e) px,am,gr

Fig. 9. Transport directions with the main heavy minerals (gr ¼ garnet; chl ¼ chlorite; px ¼ pyroxene; am ¼ amphibole; e ¼ epidote; m ¼ magnetite. Other explanations are in Fig. 1).

7. Summary and Conclusion

509

characterisation and differentiation of these two sediment groups. Because the Tisza River system also transports metamorphics-derived garnet, but devoid of associated, provenance-diagnostic minerals, statistical methods are not suitable to make distinction between the two garnet-bearing assemblages. Geochemical analysis of the garnets could be potentially useful for identifying the provenance of individual garnet grains and distinguishing between the easterly, northeasterly and westerly derived garnet-rich assemblages. PCA has also revealed slight differences in the occurrence and proportions of some heavy mineral species between the modern rivers and their ancestors. Most significant is the distribution of the older chlorite-rich sediments that differ considerably from the overlying modern ones, suggesting that the source area underwent some changes, most probably erosional denudation with time.

7. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION Heavy mineral data of earlier analyses on modern river sediments and borehole successions from the Mid-Hungarian Plain were treated statistically using PCA and cluster analysis. Known catchment area geology and heavy mineral composition of the modern river sediments were extrapolated to borehole data from which sediment provenance and evolution of the intricate Quaternary palaeodrainage patterns have been reconstructed. During the first part of the Early Pleistocene, rivers of the Palaeo-Tisza distributary system carried sediments with high chlorite and/or garnet content from metamorphic rocks in the northeastern Carpathians and Apuseni Mountains, situated northeast from the central and eastern parts of the study area (V-1, D-1, SZ-1, Ko-1). Because the Pliocene and Upper Miocene successions in this area are characterised by abundant chlorite and garnet (Thamo´-Bozso´ and Juha´sz, 2002) these sands are interpreted as representing a transitional interval between the Early Pleistocene and underlying Pliocene and Upper Miocene (Pannonian) sediments. The areas of boreholes K-89, K-88 and occasionally SZ-1 were drained by the Palaeo-Danube, carrying garnet-rich sands from the crystalline schists of the Alps and western Carpathians to the northwest. By contrast, volcanics, dominating the source areas of the Palaeo-Tisza distributary system to the northeast, furnished hornblende and/or pyroxene-rich detritus to the sites of boreholes SZ-1, K-89, K-88 and D-1. Because these assemblages are similar to those in the alluvium of the modern Tisza and its northern tributaries their appearance in the subsurface sequences signals the active erosion of the volcanics of the Inner Carpathians. Pleistocene sands with garnet and/or epidote-amphibole suites in boreholes Ko-1, V-1 and D-1 are similar to those of the Fekete-Ko¨ro¨s that transports detritus from the metamorphics of the Apuseni Mountains and older sedimentary rocks, and from Neogene volcanics from the southeast. Heavy mineral signatures indicate that the southeasterly derived sediments reached the area of boreholes Ko-1 and V-1, situated closer to the Apuseni Mountains, earlier than those in borehole D-1. Deposition at the former sites persisted only for a short period, reflecting a change from the earlier transverse drainage, parallel to the Apuseni Mountains, to a subsequent axial fluvial system as a response to a switch from the active tectonic uplift of

510

Chapter 19: Evolution of Quaternary to Modern Fluvial Network in the Mid-Hungarian Plain

the Apuseni Mountains to isostatic uplift (Thamo´-Bozso´ et al., 2002). In the central part of the study area (boreholes K-89, K-88 and NY-1), Early Pleistocene sands with either high garnet or chlorite content interfinger and represent deposits of a complicated radial network flowing from the northwest, north and northeast. Sands in borehole D-1 are dominated by chlorite and occasionally pyroxene or garnet, defining transport from the northeast. During the Middle and Late Pleistocene, sands characterised by abundant pyroxene, hornblende or chlorite in the central part of the study area (in boreholes K-88, K-89, SZ-1) indicate transport from the northeast, while the garnet-rich sediments here originate, most probably, from the north carried by the Palaeo-Zagyva. Meanwhile the Palaeo-Danube and/or subordinate Palaeo-Zagyva brought garnetenriched sediments to the western part of the study area (boreholes Ka-3, Ke-3, Kecs-3, NY-1). These successions contain intervals of wind-blown sand with Danube characteristics, representing the aeolian reworking of Palaeo-Danube sediments during dry periods. The position and thickness of the Palaeo-Danube sediments with abundant garnet in these locations indicate that the Palaeo-Danube gradually reached its present course (i.e. the N–S direction) by that time. Cluster analysis of heavy mineral data proved useful for the reconstruction of sediment transport directions but it failed differentiating positively the garnet-rich sediments of the different rivers. PCA resulted in the clear differentiation of the garnet-bearing sediments of the Danube and Tisza but uncertainties remained with the older sands due probably to changing source areas and/or intermixing the sediments of different palaeo-rivers with time. The results of PCA also highlighted some differences in the heavy mineral composition of modern river sands and those deposited by their ancestors, suggesting that the source regions have been affected by tectonic and erosional changes during the Quaternary. The best example for such changes is the distribution of chlorite. Chlorite is abundant in the Early Quaternary sands in the central and eastern parts of the study area, but is less common in the Late Quaternary deposits, appearing only in minor amounts in the modern rivers. This is interpreted by the progressive erosion of the low-grade parent rocks during the Pleistocene. Both PCA and cluster analysis identified garnet, chlorite, hornblende and pyroxene as the most significant species in the differentiation of the analysed Quaternary sands. Metamorphics-derived garnets, contrasting with volcanogenic hornblende and pyroxenes, were eroded from discrete, lithologically different source provinces and were transported from opposing directions. Mapping the temporal and lateral shifting of genetically linked, provenance-diagnostic heavy mineral suites proved to be a powerful tool for the reconstruction of the intricate drainage network of the Mid-Hungarian Plain and its evolution from the Early Quaternary to present.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research was funded by the Hungarian National Science Research Fund (OTKA T-32956 and T-46307). Help from Annama´ria Na´dor and the reviews by A´ron Ja´mbor and Be´la Molna´r and their valuable suggestions are gratefully acknowledged. We thank the editors, Maria A. Mange and David T. Wright for their

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Chapter 19: Evolution of Quaternary to Modern Fluvial Network in the Mid-Hungarian Plain

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