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Characterization of two Indian native chicken breeds for production, egg and semen quality, and welfare traits
Characterization of two Indian native chicken breeds for production, egg and semen quality, and welfare traits S. Haunshi,1 M. Niranjan, M. Shanmugam, M. K. Padhi, M. R. Reddy, R. Sunitha, U. Rajkumar, and A. K. Panda Project Directorate on Poultry, Rajendrangar, Hyderabad-500 030, India Aseel breed than in the Kadaknath breed. The Aseel breed showed a greater incidence of feather-pecking behavior under floor rearing, and this was negligible or mild in the Kadaknath breed. Broodiness under cage rearing was observed (8.42%) in the Aseel breed. With regard to welfare traits, male Aseel birds had a significantly shorter (P < 0.05) duration of tonic immobility (TI) than did male Kadaknath birds. Furthermore, male Aseel birds had a shorter (P < 0.001) duration of TI than did female Aseel birds, whereas female Aseel birds had a longer (P < 0.05) duration of TI than did female and male Kadaknath birds. From this study, it was concluded that the breeds differed on various growth, production, egg and semen quality, and behavioral traits, but not on welfare traits, although female Aseel birds exhibited a greater fear response.
Key words: Aseel, Kadaknath, production, egg and semen quality, welfare 2011 Poultry Science 90:314–320 doi:10.3382/ps.2010-01013
INTRODUCTION
meat. It is being reared by tribal communities in its breeding tract of the Jhabua and Dhar districts in the western region of the state of Madhya Pradesh and in adjoining areas of the states of Gujarat and Rajasthan. Although the meat of this breed has an unattractive appearance, it has a delicious flavor (Panda and Mahapatra, 1989). The meat and eggs are considered rich sources of protein and iron. Mohan et al. (2008a) reported that the meat of the Kadaknath breed contains a high percentage (25.47%) of protein and is believed to have aphrodisiac properties. Although the Kadaknath breed has many unique characteristics, it has been neglected because of its poor production potential. Of late, there is renewed interest among consumers and farmers in native germplasm because of the unique hardiness of the breeds, their ability to thrive under adverse climatic conditions, and the desirable taste and flavor of eggs and meat. Hence, a significant demand exists for the products of native chickens, such as the Aseel and Kadaknath breeds. However, to increase the productivity of backyard or rural farming, improved or exotic birds are being introduced in rural areas or in
The Aseel and Kadaknath are 2 important native chicken breeds in India. The Aseel breed is known for its stamina, pugnacity, majestic gait, and dogged fighting qualities (Panda and Mahapatra, 1989). The pure breeds of Aseel are still found in its breeding tract, namely, in the state of Andhra Pradesh and in some areas of the states of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. The Aseel (Yellow) and Aseel (Black) varieties are commonly available among the 8 varieties of the Aseel breed described in the literature (Panda and Mahapatra, 1989). This breed is characterized by its hardiness and ability to thrive under adverse climatic conditions, and its meat is considered to have a desirable taste and flavor. In contrast, the Kadaknath breed, also known as Kalamashi in Hindi, is known for its black-colored ©2011 Poultry Science Association Inc. Received July 14, 2010. Accepted November 5, 2010. 1 Corresponding author: [email protected]
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ABSTRACT The present study was conducted to characterize 2 important native chicken breeds from India and compare them on growth, production, egg and semen quality, and welfare traits. The Aseel breed showed (P < 0.001) higher BW at different ages; higher shank, radius, and toe lengths at 40 wk of age; and greater egg weights at 28, 32, and 40 wk of age than did the Kadaknath breed. The Kadaknath breed reached sexual maturity at an early age, and it had higher 40-wk egg production (P < 0.001). Higher egg specific gravity (P < 0.05) and higher albumen (P < 0.001) and shell (P < 0.009) percentages in the Kadaknath were observed, whereas the Aseel breed had a higher yolk index (P < 0.004), higher yolk percentage (P < 0.001), and higher yolk-to-albumen ratio (P < 0.001). Concentration of sperm (P < 0.01), live sperm counts (P < 0.05), and semen appearance scores (P < 0.05) were higher in the
CHARACTERIZATION OF INDIAN NATIVE CHICKEN BREEDS
MATERIALS AND METHODS Location of the Experiment This experiment was carried out at the experimental poultry farm of the Project Directorate on Poultry, located at Hyderabad (17°20′ N, 78°30′ E). The average maximum and minimum temperatures recorded during the experimental period of this area were 33.51 and 21.35°C, respectively. The average maximum RH recorded in the morning and evening were 75.55 and 45.40%, respectively, with a total rainfall of 663 mm during the period. Agro-meteorological data were obtained from Agricultural Research Station in Hyderabad, located about 2 km from the study site.
Experimental Birds A total of 295 chicks of the Aseel (Yellow) breed and 463 chicks of the Kadaknath breed were generated in 2 hatches and reared on a deep litter system in an open-sided house with curtains hanging from the outside during the brooding period. Standard management practices were followed during the brooding, growing, and laying stages. Birds were transferred to individual layer cages in the open-sided house at about same age, when the first egg in the flock was noticed. Around the same time, male birds were also transferred to individual cages in the open-sided house. Mixed (male and female) rearing (1 male to 3 females) was done on the floor until the birds were transferred to individual cages. Individual cage dimensions (width × length × height at the front × height at the back) for male and female birds of the Aseel breed were 25.4 × 38.1 × 50.8 × 45.7 cm and 19.05 × 38.1 × 50.8 × 45.7 cm, respec-
tively. For Kadaknath male and female birds, the cage dimensions were 20.32 × 38.1 × 43.2 × 38.1 cm and 20.32 × 38.1 × 43.2 × 38.1 cm, respectively. The chicks were provided ad libitum with chick starter ration (2,600 kcal/kg of ME and 18% CP on a calculated basis) up to 8 wk of age, grower ration (2,500 kcal/kg of ME and 16% CP on a calculated basis) from 9 to 25 wk of age, and layer ration (2,600 kcal/kg of ME and 16% CP on a calculated basis) from 26 wk onward. The feed ingredients used in the ration formulations were corn (Zea mays), soybean meal, sunflower cake, deoiled rice bran, salt and vitamin premix, lysine, dl-methionine, trace minerals, shell grit, and dicalcium phosphate. The layer ration was supplemented with extra shell grit so that the calcium content made up 3.5% of the ration. Adult male birds were provided with the same layer ration but with 1.0% calcium in the diet.
Measurement of Traits Economic Traits. Body weight was measured at 1 d old and 4, 6, 16, 18, and 20 wk of age on a straightrun basis. Sex-wise BW was recorded at 24 and 40 wk of age. Sex-wise shank, radius, and middle toe lengths were also measured at 40 wk of age. Age at first egg; age at sexual maturity; egg weight at 28, 32, and 40 wk of age; and part-period egg production up to 40 wk of age were recorded. The weight of eggs was recorded using a digital balance (accuracy to the nearest 0.01 g). Layer house mortality was recorded from the day of housing in cages to 40 wk of age. Egg Quality Traits. Various external and internal egg quality traits were measured at 40 wk of age. A total of 69 eggs from 33 Aseel hens and 109 eggs from 55 Kadaknath hens were used for the egg quality analysis. The external characteristics, namely, egg weight, length, width, shape index, and specific gravity, were measured. Specific gravity was determined using the brine floatation technique described by Hamilton (1982). Subsequently, the eggs were broken and internal traits, namely, the yolk weight, yolk height, and albumin weight, were recorded using standard procedures. Egg weight, Haugh units, albumin height, and yolk color were measured using an egg quality tester (EMT 5200, Robotmation Co. Ltd., Tokyo, Japan). Whole egg, albumen, and yolk weights; yolk-to-albumen ratio; and percentages of albumen, yolk, and shell weight were also recorded. The length and breadth of eggs were measured using digital Vernier calipers (least count, 0.01 mm).
Semen Collection and Semen Quality Analysis Semen Collection. Semen was collected from cockerels from each genetic group, which were housed in individual cages, by using the massage method following standard practices (Lake et al., 1985). Cockerels
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their breeding tracts, leading to a dilution of the genetic purity of the breeds or a complete replacement of the native germplasm; hence, these breeds are under threat of extinction (Singh, 2009). Few reports are available in the literature on their performance in intensive (Mohan et al., 2008a,b) and free-range systems of rearing (Singh et al., 2000b). Furthermore, from the literature it is apparent that considerable variation exists in the production traits of these native chicken breeds. As Mohan et al. (2008a,b) recently pointed out, more investigations are required to establish baseline values for production parameters of the Aseel and Kadaknath breeds and characterize their general performance. Therefore, these 2 breeds of native chickens need to be systematically evaluated for their various growth, production, and reproduction traits. In addition, the welfare parameters need to be measured in native chickens because this will help understand their ability to adjust to systems of intensive rearing. Hence, the present study was conducted to evaluate and compare the Aseel (Yellow) and Kadaknath breeds on various growth, production, reproduction, egg and semen quality, and fear response traits.
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by keeping the bird in a U-shaped wooden cradle in supine position (Jones and Faure, 1981) and applying mild hand pressure on the abdomen of the bird for about 10 s. The duration of TI was recorded by a stopwatch if the bird remained motionless for an initial 10 s subsequent to release from the hands of the experimenter. If the bird did not stay motionless at least for 10 s after release from the hands, the TI attempt was considered unsuccessful and another attempt was performed. Likewise, up to 5 attempts were made until TI was induced, and the number of TI attempts was noted. If 5 attempts at inducing latency were unsuccessful, the duration of TI was recorded as zero and the number of attempts was considered 5. If the bird did not regain its normal position even after a 5-min duration, a maximum score of 300 s was given for latency time. Values for TI duration were transformed logarithmically before being subjected to data analysis. Broodiness percentage under the cage system of rearing was recorded by observing the behavior of birds. Birds that were not laying, that were sitting for a longer duration, and that, when approached, made a peculiar sound and raised their feathers were classified as broody hens. Empirically, feather-pecking behavior was assessed by observing the presence of bare backs, feathers on the litter, and pecking of birds and was subjectively compared between the 2 breeds.
Statistical Analysis The mean and SE for various traits were calculated according to standard statistical procedures (Snedecor and Cochran, 1994). Significant differences between the genetic groups for various economic, egg quality, and semen quality traits were tested by one-way ANOVA. Two-way ANOVA was used to test for significant differences between breeds and sexes for the traits mentioned in the tables.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Economic Traits The mean values for BW, age at first egg, average age at sexual maturity, 40-wk part-period egg production and broodiness are given in Table 1. Higher (P < 0.001) BW was observed in the Aseel breed at 1 d old and 2, 4, 6, 16, 18, and 20 wk of age as compared with the Kadaknath breed. Average values for BW by sex, recorded at 24 and 40 wk of age, and average shank, radius, and middle toe lengths are presented in Table 2. An effect (P < 0.001) of sex was observed in both lines for BW measured at 24 and 40 wk of age. Body weights by sex taken at 24 and 40 wk of age in the Aseel breed were higher (P < 0.001) than those in the Kadaknath breed. Similarly, average combined values as well as values by sex for shank, radius, and toe lengths measured at 40 wk of age were higher (P < 0.001) in the Aseel breed than in the Kadaknath breed.
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were trained 3 to 4 times by massaging the back and milking the cloaca before collecting the semen samples. Four days prior to actual collection and analysis of semen, the semen from experimental birds was removed and discarded. Semen was collected from a total of 40 cockerels from the Kadaknath breed and 28 cockerels from the Aseel breed at 42 wk of age. The collection and examination of the semen was done by a single investigator during the study to avoid investigator bias. Volume, Appearance, and Individual Sperm Motility. The volume of the undiluted semen ejaculate was assessed to an accuracy of 0.02 mL by drawing the collected sample into a 1-mL syringe. The appearance of semen was scored by visual examination on a scale of 1 to 5 (McDaniel and Craig, 1959), with watery or clear semen given a score of 1, watery semen with white streaks given a score of 2, medium white semen given a score of 3, thick, white semen given a score of 4, and very viscous, chalky white semen samples given a score of 5. Subsequently, individual samples were diluted 4 times using a high-temperature diluent, which was then used for evaluation of the semen quality traits mentioned below. Individual motility was recorded as the percentage of progressively motile sperm. For this measure, a drop of diluted semen was placed on a clean, grease-free glass slide, a coverslip was applied, and the semen was examined under high-power magnification (40×). The percentage of sperm with a normal, vigorous forward linear motion were subjectively assessed to the nearest 5% of the sample at 5 different areas on each slide. Sperm Concentration. The concentration of sperm was determined by computer-assisted semen analysis (Motic CASA Plus, Motic Instruments, Richmond, British Columbia, Canada). The tetrazolium dye 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) dye reduction test was carried out to assess the fertilizing ability of sperm because fertilizing ability and semen quality are considered to be correlated with the ability of sperm to reduce MTT (Hazary et al., 2001). Reduction of the MTT dye resulted in increased absorbance, which was measured with a colorimeter at a wavelength of 570 nm. Assay samples were run in duplicate. Livability and Abnormal Sperm Count. Percentages of live, dead, and abnormal sperm were estimated by a differential staining technique using eosin-nigrosin stain (Campbell et al., 1953). Briefly, a drop of semen was placed on a clean, warm glass slide and mixed with 1 drop of a 5% eosin and 10% nigrosin mixture. Smears were prepared from this mixture and air dried. Two hundred sperm on each slide were examined under an oil immersion (100×) microscope. Both fully and partially stained spermatozoa were counted as dead. The same slides were used to estimate the percentage of abnormal sperm on the basis of noticeable abnormalities of the head, neck, midpiece, and tail regions. Welfare and Behavioral Traits. To measure the birds’ fear response, tonic immobility (TI) was induced
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CHARACTERIZATION OF INDIAN NATIVE CHICKEN BREEDS Table 1. Body weights, sexual maturity, and egg production of the Aseel and Kadaknath chicken breeds (mean ± SE) Trait BW (g) 1 d*** 2 wk*** 4 wk*** 6 wk*** 16 wk*** 18 wk*** 20 wk*** Age at first egg in the flock (d) Age at sexual maturity*** (d) 40-wk egg production (no.)
Aseel
Kadaknath
33.19 ± 0.20a 72.88 ± 0.99a 150.62 ± 2.44a 267.19 ± 3.93a 1,051.84 ± 16.22a 1,178.99 ± 17.26a 1,318.42 ± 22.24a 176 213.25 ± 0.54a 36.23
28.55 ± 0.12b 60.57 ± 0.48b 114.62 ± 1.40b 192.79 ± 2.05b 619.31 ± 7.56b 689.88 ± 14.03b 769.11 ± 12.41b 175 200.61 ± 1.37b 49.40
a,bMeans
within a row with different superscripts differ significantly. ***P < 0.001.
Egg Quality Traits Mean egg weights recorded at 28, 32, and 40 wk of age and the results of egg quality parameters measured at 40 wk of age are given in Table 3. At all ages, higher (P < 0.001) egg weights were observed in the Aseel breed as compared with the Kadaknath breed. The egg weight, yolk weight, albumen weight, shell weight, yolkto-albumen ratio, yolk percentage (P < 0.001), and yolk index (P < 0.004) were higher in the Aseel breed than in the Kadaknath breed, whereas specific gravity (P <
Table 2. Body weights and shank, radius, and middle toe lengths of the Aseel and Kadaknath chicken breeds by sex (mean ± SE)1 Aseel Trait BW (g) 24 wk*** 40 wk*** Shank length (left + right)/2 at 40 wk of age*** (mm) Radius length (left + right)/2 at 40 wk of age*** (mm) Middle toe length (left + right)/2 at 40 wk of age*** (mm) 1Male
Kadaknath
Male
Female
Combined
Male
Female
Combined
1,872.4 ± 38.4 2,736.9 ± 50.8 125.3 ± 0.9
1,303.2 ± 20.1 1,831.6 ± 25.8 101.9 ± 0.6
1,440.2 ± 29.0 2,105.5 ± 44.9 109.2 ± 1.1
1,231.4 ± 39.3 1,739.8 ± 30.9 108.4 ± 0.8
936.9 ± 21.7 1,321.6 ± 18.4 89.7 ± 0.5
1,025.9 ± 24.1 1,435.7 ± 21.5 94.8 ± 0.8
110.5 ± 0.7
95.1 ± 0.4
99.7 ± 0.7
86.8 ± 0.9
83.8 ± 0.4
87.1 ± 0.6
48.1 ± 0.5
41.9 ± 0.6
44.5 ± 0.6
41.3 ± 0.4
36.7 ± 0.2
38.3 ± 0.3
and female birds within a breed, and birds of the respective sex between breeds, differ significantly. ***P < 0.001.
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The higher BW observed in the Aseel breed from 1 d to 40 wk of age, as compared with BW in the Kadaknath breed, could be explained by the fact that the Aseel breed has been selected naturally or by farmers in villages for their fighting capability; hence, this breed has longer legs, stronger bones, and more compact muscle mass. In contrast, the Kadaknath breed has a lower BW and is basically used for egg production in addition to being used for meat consumption in tribal or rural areas. Similarly, shank, radius, and toe lengths were higher in the Aseel breed on an individual as well as a combined sex basis. The present findings were in agreement with previous reports on these traits (Mohan et al. 2008a,b). Singh et al. (2007) reported average 40-wk BW of 1,755 g for the Aseel breed and 1,407 g for the Kadaknath breed in a previous study. Average BW at 26 and 78 wk of age of 1,658 ± 40 g and 2,298 g, respectively, were reported for the Aseel breed (Mohan et al., 2008b), whereas the Kadaknath breed had average BW of 1,303 ± 26.39 g and 1,555.50 ± 21.04 g, respectively, at 21 and 52 wk of age (Mohan et al., 2008a). Age at sexual maturity was comparatively higher in both breeds in the present study as compared with those reported by Mohan et al. (2008a,b). This might have been because, in the later part of the growing stage of birds, the day length prevailing at the experimental
location was decreasing; hence, the age at sexual maturity was delayed in both breeds. However, the age at sexual maturity of the Aseel breed is comparable with the findings of Singh et al. (2000b), who reported the age at sexual maturity of 29 wk under field conditions for the Aseel breed. The Kadaknath breed had a significantly (P < 0.001) lower age at sexual maturity, despite having an almost similar age at first egg in the flock in both breeds (176 d in the Aseel breed and 175 d in the Kadaknath breed). This finding was expected because the Kadaknath is an egg-type bird and hence had early sexual maturity in this study. Mohan et al. (2008a,b) reported ages at first egg production of 145 and 154 d for the Kadaknath and Aseel breeds, respectively. The higher 40-wk part-period egg production in the Kadaknath breed compared with the Aseel breed was expected because the Kadaknath breed is basically used by the tribal community for egg production, so it has early sexual maturity; hence, in this study, it had better 40-wk part period egg production. Thakur et al. (2009) reported a 40-wk part-period egg production in the range of 39 to 42 for the Kadaknath breed under an intensive rearing system. On the other hand, Singh et al. (2000b) reported an average egg production of 33.17 eggs/hen per year under field conditions for the Aseel breed. The lower egg production in the Aseel breed is due to the broodiness condition observed in this breed. Under Indian conditions, commercial White Leghorn chickens with a 22-wk age at sexual maturity and an adult BW of 1.2 to 1.5 kg lay about 108 eggs in 40 wk.
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Table 3. Egg quality parameters of the Aseel and Kadaknath breeds at 40 wk of age (mean ± SE) Trait Egg weight at 28 wk*** (g) Egg weight at 32 wk*** (g) Egg weight at 40 wk*** (g) Specific gravity* Shape index Yolk color Haugh units Albumen index Yolk index** Yolk weight*** (g) Albumen weight*** (g) Shell weight*** (g) Yolk percentage*** Albumen percentage*** Percentage of shell** Yolk-to-albumen ratio*** a,bMeans
Aseel 42.71 45.80 49.28 1.0096 77.36 7.43 75.43 0.076 0.395 16.32 28.97 4.94 33.12 56.88 10.00 0.59
± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±
0.36a 0.49a 0.53a
0.0012a 0.36a 0.13a 0.84a 0.002a 0.006a 0.24a 0.59a 0.08a 0.42a 0.43a 0.13a 0.011a
Kadaknath 35.58 39.92 41.39 1.1038 76.39 7.82 74.99 0.072 0.367 12.49 26.29 4.34 30.22 59.31 10.47 0.51
± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±
0.34b 0.38b 0.37b 0.0008b 0.57a 0.14a 0.69a 0.002a 0.008b 0.09b 0.49b 0.04b 0.29b 0.33b 0.10b 0.007b
within a row with different superscripts differ significantly. *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01; ***P < 0.001.
reported a higher yolk weight (15.18g) and a lower albumen weight (20.74 g) in the Kadaknath breed, and these values were different from the present findings. Parmar et al. (2006) studied the egg quality traits of the Kadaknath breed reared under field conditions and did not mention the age of the Kadaknath hens reared by the farmers from which eggs were collected. It is not also known whether the Kadaknath hens belonged to the same age group in their study. No significant differences were observed in the shape index, albumen index, Haugh units, and yolk color in native breeds. A similar shape index (75.46) was reported for Aseel eggs collected in field conditions (Singh et al., 2000a), but once again, no mention was made of the age of the Aseel hens in their report. Parmar et al. (2006) observed wide variation in Haugh unit values for Kadaknath birds, ranging from 62.58 to 90.00 for eggs collected under field conditions. The Haugh unit values in the present study were within the reported range. Yolk index values were higher in the Aseel breed compared with the Kadaknath breed, although these yolk index values were comparatively lower than the normal values reported in literature for other breeds. Parmar et al. (2006) also observed a lower yolk index (0.37) for the Kadaknath breed. However, reports from a detailed study of the external and internal egg qualities of these 2 important native Indian breeds are lacking in the literature. To our knowledge, this is the first report comparing the internal and external egg qualities of the Aseel and Kadaknath breeds of chicken at the same age and under the same management conditions.
Semen Quality Traits The findings of the semen quality traits measured at 42 wk of age are presented in Table 4. The Aseel breed was superior to the Kadaknath breed in the appearance of semen (P < 0.05) and in the concentration of sperm (P < 0.01). Live sperm percentage was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the Aseel breed, and dead sperm percentage was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the Kadaknath breeds. However, no significant differences were observed in the volume of ejaculate, percentage of abnormal sperm, motility of sperm, and fertilizing ability of sperm (MTT-formazan, nmol/min per million sperm), although a numerically higher volume of semen was observed in the Kadaknath breed. Despite having a higher BW, the Aseel breed showed no significant difference from the Kadaknath breed in the volume of ejaculate; however, a slightly higher average volume of ejaculate was observed in the Kadaknath breed. This finding was somewhat unexpected because it has been established that cockerels with a higher BW will have a greater volume of ejaculate compared with their counterparts with a lower BW (Haunshi et al., 2010). However, Biswas et al. (2009) reported a lower volume of ejaculate for the Kadaknath breed at about 30 wk of age. In the present study, we observed a higher concentration of sperm, greater livability, and
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0.05), percentage of shell (P < 0.009), and percentage of albumen (P < 0.001) were higher in the Kadaknath breed than in the Aseel breed. The higher egg weight observed at various ages in the Aseel breed as compared with the Kadaknath breed could be explained by the fact that the Aseel breed has a significantly higher BW; hence, it had higher egg weights at the respective ages. However, Singh et al. (2000b) reported an average egg weight of 41 g for the Aseel breed, whereas Singh et al. (2000a) reported an average egg weight of 47.81 ± 0.18 for the same breed under field conditions. This variation in egg weight might be due to variation in the age of the hens from which the eggs were collected under field conditions. Mohan et al. (2008b) reported average egg weights of 40 and 52 g at 26 and 78 wk of age, respectively, for the Aseel breed. In another study, Singh et al. (2007) reported average egg weights of 47 g for the Aseel breed and 43 g for the Kadaknath breed at 40 wk of age. The smaller egg size of the Kadaknath breed is in agreement with the findings of Mohan et al. (2008a), who reported that the average egg weights at 21 and 52 wk of age were 32.50 ± 0.70 g and 46.11 ± 1.25 g, respectively, for the Kadaknath breed. Eggs from the Kadaknath breed had a higher specific gravity, indicating a better shell quality, and this was reflected in a higher percentage of shell weight despite having lesser shell weight in absolute terms. The percentage of yolk weight was higher, whereas the percentage of albumen was lower in the Aseel breed as compared with the Kadaknath breed; hence, a significantly higher yolk-to-albumen ratio was observed in the Aseel breed compared with the Kadaknath breed. This finding is in contrast to the established fact that the smaller the size of eggs, the higher will be the proportion of yolk and the smaller will be the proportion of albumen (Tharrington et al., 1999). The higher yolk-to-albumen ratio observed in the Aseel breed might be due to the higher egg weight observed in this breed. Parmar et al. (2006)
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CHARACTERIZATION OF INDIAN NATIVE CHICKEN BREEDS Table 4. Semen quality traits of the Aseel and Kadaknath breeds at 42 wk of age (mean ± SE) Trait
Aseel
Ejaculate volume (mL) Appearance1,* Motility (%) Concentration** (million sperm/μL) Fertilizing ability (MTT2-formazan, nmol/min per million sperm) Live sperm* (%) Dead sperm* (%) Abnormal sperm (%)
0.31 4.43 83.57 6.53 28.59 93.49 6.51 1.48
± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±
0.029a 0.14a 1.83a 0.29a 0.89a 0.38a 0.38a 0.19a
Kadaknath 0.36 4.05 85.50 5.58 27.79 90.42 9.58 1.81
± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±
0.017a 0.12b 2.07a 0.24b 0.81a 1.66b 1.66b 0.31a
a,bMeans
within a row with different superscripts differ significantly. on a scale of 1 to 5, with watery or clear semen = 1, watery semen with white streaks = 2, medium white semen = 3, thick, white semen = 4, and very viscous, chalky white semen samples = 5. 2MTT = 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide. *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01. 1Scored
Welfare and Behavioral Traits The results for the duration (s) of TI (fear response), number of attempts to induce TI, and cage house mortality up to 40 wk of age are given in Table 5. No significant difference was observed for duration of TI and number of attempts required to induce TI on a combined sex basis between the breeds. In addition, no significant difference was observed between male and female birds of the Kadaknath breed for these 2 traits. However, male Aseel birds had a significantly (P < 0.05) lower duration of TI than did male Kadaknath birds. Similarly, male Aseel birds showed a significantly (P < 0.001) lower duration of TI than did female Aseel birds. On the other hand, female Aseel birds had a significantly (P < 0.05) higher duration of TI than did female and male Kadaknath birds.
In the present study, it was expected that the Aseel breed, being a game bird and known for its fighting qualities and courage, should have lower fear response than the Kadaknath breed, which is somewhat shy and timid in nature. Because Aseel birds were tall in stature as compared with the Kadaknath breed, they were kept in taller cages. In contrast, male and female birds of the Kadaknath breed were kept in shorter cages because they are not as tall as the Aseel breed. The only difference between the cages where the male and female Aseel birds were kept was that the female cage was narrower (19.05 cm). Therefore, the fact that female Aseel birds exhibited a significantly higher duration of TI could be attributed to the stress or discomfort experienced because they were being kept in narrower cages, leading to a longer duration of TI. To our knowledge, this is the first report describing the welfare traits in Indian native breeds. Feather-pecking behavior was observed more in the Aseel breed under the floor system of rearing, which began at approximately 4 to 5 wk of age and persisted until they were housed in cages. This led to the condition of bare backs on the birds and resulted in a mild form of cannibalism. In contrast, very mild or negligible feather-pecking behavior was observed in the Kadaknath breed. This particular behavior might be inherent to
Table 5. Welfare and mortality traits of the Aseel and Kadaknath breeds (mean ± SE) Aseel Trait
Male TI1
Log of duration Attempts (no.) TI duration (s) Layer house mortality at 40 wk of age (%) Broodiness in cages at 40 wk of age (%) Feather-pecking under floor rearing a,bAseel
0.09ac
Female 0.04bc
1.50 ± 1.63 ± 0.17 57.06 ± 11.02 1.67
1.97 ± 1.62 ± 0.09 130.82 ± 10.65 1.07
—
8.42
—
—
Kadaknath Combined 0.04d
Male
Female 0.03d
1.85 ± 1.57 ± 0.08 95.59 ± 6.81 13.43
1.82 ± 0.03d 1.52 ± 0.06 94.50 ± 6.18 13.66
—
—
0.80
—
Severe
—
—
Mild or negligible
males and females differ significantly (P < 0.001). males and females, respectively, differ significantly from males and females of the Kadaknath breed (P < 0.05). 1TI = tonic immobility. c,dAseel
Combined
1.76 ± 1.37 ± 0.12 91.20 ± 14.07 14.08
1.83 ± 1.62 ± 0.08 108.75 ± 8.72 1.31
0.07d
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a lower abnormal sperm percentage but a higher dead sperm count in the Kadaknath breed as compared with the findings of Biswas et al., (2009). Reports regarding the semen quality of the Aseel breed are scarce in the literature, and to our knowledge, this is the first study reporting the semen quality traits in this particular breed as well as a comparison of these 2 native breeds on semen quality traits.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors are grateful to the director of the Project Directorate on Poultry (Hyderabad, India) for providing the necessary facilities to carry out the present study. Special thanks are due to D. Pratap (technical staff, T-5) and S. K. Bhanja (farm manager, T-9) for management of the birds.
REFERENCES Biswas, A., J. Mohan, and K. V. H. Sastry. 2009. Effect of higher dietary vitamin E concentration on physical and biochemical characteristics of semen in Kadaknath cockerels. Br. Poult. Sci. 50:733–738. Campbell, R. G., J. L. Hancock, and L. Rothschild. 1953. Counting live and dead bull spermatozoa. J. Exp. Biol. 30:44–49. Hamilton, R. M. G. 1982. Methods and factors that affect the measurement of egg shell quality. Poult. Sci. 61:2022–2039. Haunshi, S., S. Doley, and G. Kadirvel. 2010. Comparative studies on egg, meat, and semen qualities of native and improved chick-
en varieties developed for backyard poultry production. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 42:1013–1019. Hazary, R. C., D. Chaudhuri, and G. J. Wishart. 2001. Application of an MTT reduction assay for assessing sperm quality and predicting fertilizing ability of domestic fowl semen. Br. Poult. Sci. 42:115–117. Jones, R. B., and J. M. Faure. 1981. Sex and strain comparisons of tonic immobility (“righting time”) in the domestic fowl and the effects of various methods of induction. Behav. Processes 6:47–55. Lake, P. E., O. Ravie, and D. Naddington. 1985. Some effects of the composition of inseminated semen and the site of its deposition and fertility in Gallus domesticus. Anim. Reprod. Sci. 9:273–284. McDaniel, G. R., and J. V. Craig. 1959. Behavior traits, semen measurements and fertility of White Leghorn males. Poult. Sci. 38:1005–1014. Mohan, J., K. V. H. Sastry, R. P. Moudgal, and J. S. Tyagi. 2008a. Performance profile of Kadaknath desi hens under normal rearing system. Int. J. Poult. Sci. 43:379–381. Mohan, J., K. V. H. Sastry, R. P. Moudgal, and J. S. Tyagi. 2008b. Production and other characteristics of Aseel Peela desi hens under normal rearing system. Int. J. Poult. Sci. 43:217–219. Panda, B., and S. C. Mahapatra. 1989. Common breeds of poultry. Pages 6–18 in Poultry Production. ICAR, New Delhi, India. Parmar, S. N. S., M. S. Thakur, S. S. Tomar, and P. V. A. Pillai. 2006. Evaluation of egg quality traits in indigenous Kadaknath breed of poultry. Liv. Res. Rural Dev. 18(9). http://www.lrrd. org/lrrd18/9/parm18132.htm. Singh, D. P. 2009. Overview of existing breeds and issues of conserving indigenous breeds. Pages 54–55 in Proc. Natl. Workshop on Synthesizing Experiences in the Promotion of Backyard Poultry. Commissioner, Rural Development, Govt. of Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad, India. Singh, D. P., R. Narayan, M. C. Kataria, S. Kumar, and S. K. Mishra. 2007. Evaluation, conservation and utilization of Indian native breeds of chicken. Pages 90–91 in Annual Report—2007–08. Central Avian Res. Inst., Izatnagar, India. Singh, M., U. Singh, and B. S. Gurung. 2000a. Evaluation of egg weight and its various measurement attributes in indigenous Aseel breed of chicken. Int. J. Poult. Sci. 35:312–314. Singh, U., R. K. Gupta, M. Singh, and B. S. Gurung. 2000b. Reproduction and production performance of Aseel, an indigenous breed of chicken. Int. J. Poult. Sci. 35:202–204. Snedecor, G. W., and W. G. Cochran. 1994. Statistical Methods. 8th ed. Affiliated East-West Press, New Delhi, India, and Iowa State University Press, Ames. Thakur, M. S., S. N. S. Parmar, M. V. Chaudhari, and J. K. Bhardwaj. 2009. Growth hormone gene polymorphism and its association with egg production in Kadaknath chicken. Livest. Res. Rural Dev. 21(8), Article 132. Accessed July 17, 2010. http:// www.lrrd.org/llrd21/8/cont2108. Tharrington, J. B., P. A. Curtis, F. T. Jones, and K. E. Anderson. 1999. Comparison of physical quality and composition of eggs from historic strains of Single Comb White Leghorn chickens. Poult. Sci. 78:591–594.
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the Aseel breed because this breed is a game bird that has aggressive behavior. Broodiness in cage rearing was higher in the Aseel breed than in the Kadaknath breed. The higher broodiness observed in the Aseel breed is in agreement with the report by Singh et al. (2000b), who observed the highest (58.01%) broodiness in the Aseel breed under field (free-range) conditions. Aseel birds seemed to have higher layer house survivability on both an individual and a combined sex basis as compared with the Kadaknath breed under similar management conditions. Most of the cases of mortality in the Kadaknath breed were diagnosed as egg peritonitis, colibacillosis, visceral gout, and chronic respiratory disease. Reports on the survivability of these breeds under cage house conditions to compare with the present findings were sparse in the literature. It was speculated that the Kadaknath birds were susceptible to Marek’s disease (Mohan et al., 2008a), but conclusive evidence was not available in the literature. From this study, we concluded that both breeds differed on various growth, egg, semen quality, and behavioral traits, but not on welfare traits. However, female Aseel birds exhibited a significantly higher fear response.
Key words: Aseel, Kadaknath, production, egg and semen quality, welfare 2011 Poultry Science 90:314–320 doi:10.3382/ps.2010-01013
INTRODUCTION
meat. It is being reared by tribal communities in its breeding tract of the Jhabua and Dhar districts in the western region of the state of Madhya Pradesh and in adjoining areas of the states of Gujarat and Rajasthan. Although the meat of this breed has an unattractive appearance, it has a delicious flavor (Panda and Mahapatra, 1989). The meat and eggs are considered rich sources of protein and iron. Mohan et al. (2008a) reported that the meat of the Kadaknath breed contains a high percentage (25.47%) of protein and is believed to have aphrodisiac properties. Although the Kadaknath breed has many unique characteristics, it has been neglected because of its poor production potential. Of late, there is renewed interest among consumers and farmers in native germplasm because of the unique hardiness of the breeds, their ability to thrive under adverse climatic conditions, and the desirable taste and flavor of eggs and meat. Hence, a significant demand exists for the products of native chickens, such as the Aseel and Kadaknath breeds. However, to increase the productivity of backyard or rural farming, improved or exotic birds are being introduced in rural areas or in
The Aseel and Kadaknath are 2 important native chicken breeds in India. The Aseel breed is known for its stamina, pugnacity, majestic gait, and dogged fighting qualities (Panda and Mahapatra, 1989). The pure breeds of Aseel are still found in its breeding tract, namely, in the state of Andhra Pradesh and in some areas of the states of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. The Aseel (Yellow) and Aseel (Black) varieties are commonly available among the 8 varieties of the Aseel breed described in the literature (Panda and Mahapatra, 1989). This breed is characterized by its hardiness and ability to thrive under adverse climatic conditions, and its meat is considered to have a desirable taste and flavor. In contrast, the Kadaknath breed, also known as Kalamashi in Hindi, is known for its black-colored ©2011 Poultry Science Association Inc. Received July 14, 2010. Accepted November 5, 2010. 1 Corresponding author: [email protected]
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ABSTRACT The present study was conducted to characterize 2 important native chicken breeds from India and compare them on growth, production, egg and semen quality, and welfare traits. The Aseel breed showed (P < 0.001) higher BW at different ages; higher shank, radius, and toe lengths at 40 wk of age; and greater egg weights at 28, 32, and 40 wk of age than did the Kadaknath breed. The Kadaknath breed reached sexual maturity at an early age, and it had higher 40-wk egg production (P < 0.001). Higher egg specific gravity (P < 0.05) and higher albumen (P < 0.001) and shell (P < 0.009) percentages in the Kadaknath were observed, whereas the Aseel breed had a higher yolk index (P < 0.004), higher yolk percentage (P < 0.001), and higher yolk-to-albumen ratio (P < 0.001). Concentration of sperm (P < 0.01), live sperm counts (P < 0.05), and semen appearance scores (P < 0.05) were higher in the
CHARACTERIZATION OF INDIAN NATIVE CHICKEN BREEDS
MATERIALS AND METHODS Location of the Experiment This experiment was carried out at the experimental poultry farm of the Project Directorate on Poultry, located at Hyderabad (17°20′ N, 78°30′ E). The average maximum and minimum temperatures recorded during the experimental period of this area were 33.51 and 21.35°C, respectively. The average maximum RH recorded in the morning and evening were 75.55 and 45.40%, respectively, with a total rainfall of 663 mm during the period. Agro-meteorological data were obtained from Agricultural Research Station in Hyderabad, located about 2 km from the study site.
Experimental Birds A total of 295 chicks of the Aseel (Yellow) breed and 463 chicks of the Kadaknath breed were generated in 2 hatches and reared on a deep litter system in an open-sided house with curtains hanging from the outside during the brooding period. Standard management practices were followed during the brooding, growing, and laying stages. Birds were transferred to individual layer cages in the open-sided house at about same age, when the first egg in the flock was noticed. Around the same time, male birds were also transferred to individual cages in the open-sided house. Mixed (male and female) rearing (1 male to 3 females) was done on the floor until the birds were transferred to individual cages. Individual cage dimensions (width × length × height at the front × height at the back) for male and female birds of the Aseel breed were 25.4 × 38.1 × 50.8 × 45.7 cm and 19.05 × 38.1 × 50.8 × 45.7 cm, respec-
tively. For Kadaknath male and female birds, the cage dimensions were 20.32 × 38.1 × 43.2 × 38.1 cm and 20.32 × 38.1 × 43.2 × 38.1 cm, respectively. The chicks were provided ad libitum with chick starter ration (2,600 kcal/kg of ME and 18% CP on a calculated basis) up to 8 wk of age, grower ration (2,500 kcal/kg of ME and 16% CP on a calculated basis) from 9 to 25 wk of age, and layer ration (2,600 kcal/kg of ME and 16% CP on a calculated basis) from 26 wk onward. The feed ingredients used in the ration formulations were corn (Zea mays), soybean meal, sunflower cake, deoiled rice bran, salt and vitamin premix, lysine, dl-methionine, trace minerals, shell grit, and dicalcium phosphate. The layer ration was supplemented with extra shell grit so that the calcium content made up 3.5% of the ration. Adult male birds were provided with the same layer ration but with 1.0% calcium in the diet.
Measurement of Traits Economic Traits. Body weight was measured at 1 d old and 4, 6, 16, 18, and 20 wk of age on a straightrun basis. Sex-wise BW was recorded at 24 and 40 wk of age. Sex-wise shank, radius, and middle toe lengths were also measured at 40 wk of age. Age at first egg; age at sexual maturity; egg weight at 28, 32, and 40 wk of age; and part-period egg production up to 40 wk of age were recorded. The weight of eggs was recorded using a digital balance (accuracy to the nearest 0.01 g). Layer house mortality was recorded from the day of housing in cages to 40 wk of age. Egg Quality Traits. Various external and internal egg quality traits were measured at 40 wk of age. A total of 69 eggs from 33 Aseel hens and 109 eggs from 55 Kadaknath hens were used for the egg quality analysis. The external characteristics, namely, egg weight, length, width, shape index, and specific gravity, were measured. Specific gravity was determined using the brine floatation technique described by Hamilton (1982). Subsequently, the eggs were broken and internal traits, namely, the yolk weight, yolk height, and albumin weight, were recorded using standard procedures. Egg weight, Haugh units, albumin height, and yolk color were measured using an egg quality tester (EMT 5200, Robotmation Co. Ltd., Tokyo, Japan). Whole egg, albumen, and yolk weights; yolk-to-albumen ratio; and percentages of albumen, yolk, and shell weight were also recorded. The length and breadth of eggs were measured using digital Vernier calipers (least count, 0.01 mm).
Semen Collection and Semen Quality Analysis Semen Collection. Semen was collected from cockerels from each genetic group, which were housed in individual cages, by using the massage method following standard practices (Lake et al., 1985). Cockerels
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their breeding tracts, leading to a dilution of the genetic purity of the breeds or a complete replacement of the native germplasm; hence, these breeds are under threat of extinction (Singh, 2009). Few reports are available in the literature on their performance in intensive (Mohan et al., 2008a,b) and free-range systems of rearing (Singh et al., 2000b). Furthermore, from the literature it is apparent that considerable variation exists in the production traits of these native chicken breeds. As Mohan et al. (2008a,b) recently pointed out, more investigations are required to establish baseline values for production parameters of the Aseel and Kadaknath breeds and characterize their general performance. Therefore, these 2 breeds of native chickens need to be systematically evaluated for their various growth, production, and reproduction traits. In addition, the welfare parameters need to be measured in native chickens because this will help understand their ability to adjust to systems of intensive rearing. Hence, the present study was conducted to evaluate and compare the Aseel (Yellow) and Kadaknath breeds on various growth, production, reproduction, egg and semen quality, and fear response traits.
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by keeping the bird in a U-shaped wooden cradle in supine position (Jones and Faure, 1981) and applying mild hand pressure on the abdomen of the bird for about 10 s. The duration of TI was recorded by a stopwatch if the bird remained motionless for an initial 10 s subsequent to release from the hands of the experimenter. If the bird did not stay motionless at least for 10 s after release from the hands, the TI attempt was considered unsuccessful and another attempt was performed. Likewise, up to 5 attempts were made until TI was induced, and the number of TI attempts was noted. If 5 attempts at inducing latency were unsuccessful, the duration of TI was recorded as zero and the number of attempts was considered 5. If the bird did not regain its normal position even after a 5-min duration, a maximum score of 300 s was given for latency time. Values for TI duration were transformed logarithmically before being subjected to data analysis. Broodiness percentage under the cage system of rearing was recorded by observing the behavior of birds. Birds that were not laying, that were sitting for a longer duration, and that, when approached, made a peculiar sound and raised their feathers were classified as broody hens. Empirically, feather-pecking behavior was assessed by observing the presence of bare backs, feathers on the litter, and pecking of birds and was subjectively compared between the 2 breeds.
Statistical Analysis The mean and SE for various traits were calculated according to standard statistical procedures (Snedecor and Cochran, 1994). Significant differences between the genetic groups for various economic, egg quality, and semen quality traits were tested by one-way ANOVA. Two-way ANOVA was used to test for significant differences between breeds and sexes for the traits mentioned in the tables.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Economic Traits The mean values for BW, age at first egg, average age at sexual maturity, 40-wk part-period egg production and broodiness are given in Table 1. Higher (P < 0.001) BW was observed in the Aseel breed at 1 d old and 2, 4, 6, 16, 18, and 20 wk of age as compared with the Kadaknath breed. Average values for BW by sex, recorded at 24 and 40 wk of age, and average shank, radius, and middle toe lengths are presented in Table 2. An effect (P < 0.001) of sex was observed in both lines for BW measured at 24 and 40 wk of age. Body weights by sex taken at 24 and 40 wk of age in the Aseel breed were higher (P < 0.001) than those in the Kadaknath breed. Similarly, average combined values as well as values by sex for shank, radius, and toe lengths measured at 40 wk of age were higher (P < 0.001) in the Aseel breed than in the Kadaknath breed.
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were trained 3 to 4 times by massaging the back and milking the cloaca before collecting the semen samples. Four days prior to actual collection and analysis of semen, the semen from experimental birds was removed and discarded. Semen was collected from a total of 40 cockerels from the Kadaknath breed and 28 cockerels from the Aseel breed at 42 wk of age. The collection and examination of the semen was done by a single investigator during the study to avoid investigator bias. Volume, Appearance, and Individual Sperm Motility. The volume of the undiluted semen ejaculate was assessed to an accuracy of 0.02 mL by drawing the collected sample into a 1-mL syringe. The appearance of semen was scored by visual examination on a scale of 1 to 5 (McDaniel and Craig, 1959), with watery or clear semen given a score of 1, watery semen with white streaks given a score of 2, medium white semen given a score of 3, thick, white semen given a score of 4, and very viscous, chalky white semen samples given a score of 5. Subsequently, individual samples were diluted 4 times using a high-temperature diluent, which was then used for evaluation of the semen quality traits mentioned below. Individual motility was recorded as the percentage of progressively motile sperm. For this measure, a drop of diluted semen was placed on a clean, grease-free glass slide, a coverslip was applied, and the semen was examined under high-power magnification (40×). The percentage of sperm with a normal, vigorous forward linear motion were subjectively assessed to the nearest 5% of the sample at 5 different areas on each slide. Sperm Concentration. The concentration of sperm was determined by computer-assisted semen analysis (Motic CASA Plus, Motic Instruments, Richmond, British Columbia, Canada). The tetrazolium dye 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) dye reduction test was carried out to assess the fertilizing ability of sperm because fertilizing ability and semen quality are considered to be correlated with the ability of sperm to reduce MTT (Hazary et al., 2001). Reduction of the MTT dye resulted in increased absorbance, which was measured with a colorimeter at a wavelength of 570 nm. Assay samples were run in duplicate. Livability and Abnormal Sperm Count. Percentages of live, dead, and abnormal sperm were estimated by a differential staining technique using eosin-nigrosin stain (Campbell et al., 1953). Briefly, a drop of semen was placed on a clean, warm glass slide and mixed with 1 drop of a 5% eosin and 10% nigrosin mixture. Smears were prepared from this mixture and air dried. Two hundred sperm on each slide were examined under an oil immersion (100×) microscope. Both fully and partially stained spermatozoa were counted as dead. The same slides were used to estimate the percentage of abnormal sperm on the basis of noticeable abnormalities of the head, neck, midpiece, and tail regions. Welfare and Behavioral Traits. To measure the birds’ fear response, tonic immobility (TI) was induced
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CHARACTERIZATION OF INDIAN NATIVE CHICKEN BREEDS Table 1. Body weights, sexual maturity, and egg production of the Aseel and Kadaknath chicken breeds (mean ± SE) Trait BW (g) 1 d*** 2 wk*** 4 wk*** 6 wk*** 16 wk*** 18 wk*** 20 wk*** Age at first egg in the flock (d) Age at sexual maturity*** (d) 40-wk egg production (no.)
Aseel
Kadaknath
33.19 ± 0.20a 72.88 ± 0.99a 150.62 ± 2.44a 267.19 ± 3.93a 1,051.84 ± 16.22a 1,178.99 ± 17.26a 1,318.42 ± 22.24a 176 213.25 ± 0.54a 36.23
28.55 ± 0.12b 60.57 ± 0.48b 114.62 ± 1.40b 192.79 ± 2.05b 619.31 ± 7.56b 689.88 ± 14.03b 769.11 ± 12.41b 175 200.61 ± 1.37b 49.40
a,bMeans
within a row with different superscripts differ significantly. ***P < 0.001.
Egg Quality Traits Mean egg weights recorded at 28, 32, and 40 wk of age and the results of egg quality parameters measured at 40 wk of age are given in Table 3. At all ages, higher (P < 0.001) egg weights were observed in the Aseel breed as compared with the Kadaknath breed. The egg weight, yolk weight, albumen weight, shell weight, yolkto-albumen ratio, yolk percentage (P < 0.001), and yolk index (P < 0.004) were higher in the Aseel breed than in the Kadaknath breed, whereas specific gravity (P <
Table 2. Body weights and shank, radius, and middle toe lengths of the Aseel and Kadaknath chicken breeds by sex (mean ± SE)1 Aseel Trait BW (g) 24 wk*** 40 wk*** Shank length (left + right)/2 at 40 wk of age*** (mm) Radius length (left + right)/2 at 40 wk of age*** (mm) Middle toe length (left + right)/2 at 40 wk of age*** (mm) 1Male
Kadaknath
Male
Female
Combined
Male
Female
Combined
1,872.4 ± 38.4 2,736.9 ± 50.8 125.3 ± 0.9
1,303.2 ± 20.1 1,831.6 ± 25.8 101.9 ± 0.6
1,440.2 ± 29.0 2,105.5 ± 44.9 109.2 ± 1.1
1,231.4 ± 39.3 1,739.8 ± 30.9 108.4 ± 0.8
936.9 ± 21.7 1,321.6 ± 18.4 89.7 ± 0.5
1,025.9 ± 24.1 1,435.7 ± 21.5 94.8 ± 0.8
110.5 ± 0.7
95.1 ± 0.4
99.7 ± 0.7
86.8 ± 0.9
83.8 ± 0.4
87.1 ± 0.6
48.1 ± 0.5
41.9 ± 0.6
44.5 ± 0.6
41.3 ± 0.4
36.7 ± 0.2
38.3 ± 0.3
and female birds within a breed, and birds of the respective sex between breeds, differ significantly. ***P < 0.001.
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The higher BW observed in the Aseel breed from 1 d to 40 wk of age, as compared with BW in the Kadaknath breed, could be explained by the fact that the Aseel breed has been selected naturally or by farmers in villages for their fighting capability; hence, this breed has longer legs, stronger bones, and more compact muscle mass. In contrast, the Kadaknath breed has a lower BW and is basically used for egg production in addition to being used for meat consumption in tribal or rural areas. Similarly, shank, radius, and toe lengths were higher in the Aseel breed on an individual as well as a combined sex basis. The present findings were in agreement with previous reports on these traits (Mohan et al. 2008a,b). Singh et al. (2007) reported average 40-wk BW of 1,755 g for the Aseel breed and 1,407 g for the Kadaknath breed in a previous study. Average BW at 26 and 78 wk of age of 1,658 ± 40 g and 2,298 g, respectively, were reported for the Aseel breed (Mohan et al., 2008b), whereas the Kadaknath breed had average BW of 1,303 ± 26.39 g and 1,555.50 ± 21.04 g, respectively, at 21 and 52 wk of age (Mohan et al., 2008a). Age at sexual maturity was comparatively higher in both breeds in the present study as compared with those reported by Mohan et al. (2008a,b). This might have been because, in the later part of the growing stage of birds, the day length prevailing at the experimental
location was decreasing; hence, the age at sexual maturity was delayed in both breeds. However, the age at sexual maturity of the Aseel breed is comparable with the findings of Singh et al. (2000b), who reported the age at sexual maturity of 29 wk under field conditions for the Aseel breed. The Kadaknath breed had a significantly (P < 0.001) lower age at sexual maturity, despite having an almost similar age at first egg in the flock in both breeds (176 d in the Aseel breed and 175 d in the Kadaknath breed). This finding was expected because the Kadaknath is an egg-type bird and hence had early sexual maturity in this study. Mohan et al. (2008a,b) reported ages at first egg production of 145 and 154 d for the Kadaknath and Aseel breeds, respectively. The higher 40-wk part-period egg production in the Kadaknath breed compared with the Aseel breed was expected because the Kadaknath breed is basically used by the tribal community for egg production, so it has early sexual maturity; hence, in this study, it had better 40-wk part period egg production. Thakur et al. (2009) reported a 40-wk part-period egg production in the range of 39 to 42 for the Kadaknath breed under an intensive rearing system. On the other hand, Singh et al. (2000b) reported an average egg production of 33.17 eggs/hen per year under field conditions for the Aseel breed. The lower egg production in the Aseel breed is due to the broodiness condition observed in this breed. Under Indian conditions, commercial White Leghorn chickens with a 22-wk age at sexual maturity and an adult BW of 1.2 to 1.5 kg lay about 108 eggs in 40 wk.
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Table 3. Egg quality parameters of the Aseel and Kadaknath breeds at 40 wk of age (mean ± SE) Trait Egg weight at 28 wk*** (g) Egg weight at 32 wk*** (g) Egg weight at 40 wk*** (g) Specific gravity* Shape index Yolk color Haugh units Albumen index Yolk index** Yolk weight*** (g) Albumen weight*** (g) Shell weight*** (g) Yolk percentage*** Albumen percentage*** Percentage of shell** Yolk-to-albumen ratio*** a,bMeans
Aseel 42.71 45.80 49.28 1.0096 77.36 7.43 75.43 0.076 0.395 16.32 28.97 4.94 33.12 56.88 10.00 0.59
± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±
0.36a 0.49a 0.53a
0.0012a 0.36a 0.13a 0.84a 0.002a 0.006a 0.24a 0.59a 0.08a 0.42a 0.43a 0.13a 0.011a
Kadaknath 35.58 39.92 41.39 1.1038 76.39 7.82 74.99 0.072 0.367 12.49 26.29 4.34 30.22 59.31 10.47 0.51
± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±
0.34b 0.38b 0.37b 0.0008b 0.57a 0.14a 0.69a 0.002a 0.008b 0.09b 0.49b 0.04b 0.29b 0.33b 0.10b 0.007b
within a row with different superscripts differ significantly. *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01; ***P < 0.001.
reported a higher yolk weight (15.18g) and a lower albumen weight (20.74 g) in the Kadaknath breed, and these values were different from the present findings. Parmar et al. (2006) studied the egg quality traits of the Kadaknath breed reared under field conditions and did not mention the age of the Kadaknath hens reared by the farmers from which eggs were collected. It is not also known whether the Kadaknath hens belonged to the same age group in their study. No significant differences were observed in the shape index, albumen index, Haugh units, and yolk color in native breeds. A similar shape index (75.46) was reported for Aseel eggs collected in field conditions (Singh et al., 2000a), but once again, no mention was made of the age of the Aseel hens in their report. Parmar et al. (2006) observed wide variation in Haugh unit values for Kadaknath birds, ranging from 62.58 to 90.00 for eggs collected under field conditions. The Haugh unit values in the present study were within the reported range. Yolk index values were higher in the Aseel breed compared with the Kadaknath breed, although these yolk index values were comparatively lower than the normal values reported in literature for other breeds. Parmar et al. (2006) also observed a lower yolk index (0.37) for the Kadaknath breed. However, reports from a detailed study of the external and internal egg qualities of these 2 important native Indian breeds are lacking in the literature. To our knowledge, this is the first report comparing the internal and external egg qualities of the Aseel and Kadaknath breeds of chicken at the same age and under the same management conditions.
Semen Quality Traits The findings of the semen quality traits measured at 42 wk of age are presented in Table 4. The Aseel breed was superior to the Kadaknath breed in the appearance of semen (P < 0.05) and in the concentration of sperm (P < 0.01). Live sperm percentage was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the Aseel breed, and dead sperm percentage was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the Kadaknath breeds. However, no significant differences were observed in the volume of ejaculate, percentage of abnormal sperm, motility of sperm, and fertilizing ability of sperm (MTT-formazan, nmol/min per million sperm), although a numerically higher volume of semen was observed in the Kadaknath breed. Despite having a higher BW, the Aseel breed showed no significant difference from the Kadaknath breed in the volume of ejaculate; however, a slightly higher average volume of ejaculate was observed in the Kadaknath breed. This finding was somewhat unexpected because it has been established that cockerels with a higher BW will have a greater volume of ejaculate compared with their counterparts with a lower BW (Haunshi et al., 2010). However, Biswas et al. (2009) reported a lower volume of ejaculate for the Kadaknath breed at about 30 wk of age. In the present study, we observed a higher concentration of sperm, greater livability, and
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0.05), percentage of shell (P < 0.009), and percentage of albumen (P < 0.001) were higher in the Kadaknath breed than in the Aseel breed. The higher egg weight observed at various ages in the Aseel breed as compared with the Kadaknath breed could be explained by the fact that the Aseel breed has a significantly higher BW; hence, it had higher egg weights at the respective ages. However, Singh et al. (2000b) reported an average egg weight of 41 g for the Aseel breed, whereas Singh et al. (2000a) reported an average egg weight of 47.81 ± 0.18 for the same breed under field conditions. This variation in egg weight might be due to variation in the age of the hens from which the eggs were collected under field conditions. Mohan et al. (2008b) reported average egg weights of 40 and 52 g at 26 and 78 wk of age, respectively, for the Aseel breed. In another study, Singh et al. (2007) reported average egg weights of 47 g for the Aseel breed and 43 g for the Kadaknath breed at 40 wk of age. The smaller egg size of the Kadaknath breed is in agreement with the findings of Mohan et al. (2008a), who reported that the average egg weights at 21 and 52 wk of age were 32.50 ± 0.70 g and 46.11 ± 1.25 g, respectively, for the Kadaknath breed. Eggs from the Kadaknath breed had a higher specific gravity, indicating a better shell quality, and this was reflected in a higher percentage of shell weight despite having lesser shell weight in absolute terms. The percentage of yolk weight was higher, whereas the percentage of albumen was lower in the Aseel breed as compared with the Kadaknath breed; hence, a significantly higher yolk-to-albumen ratio was observed in the Aseel breed compared with the Kadaknath breed. This finding is in contrast to the established fact that the smaller the size of eggs, the higher will be the proportion of yolk and the smaller will be the proportion of albumen (Tharrington et al., 1999). The higher yolk-to-albumen ratio observed in the Aseel breed might be due to the higher egg weight observed in this breed. Parmar et al. (2006)
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CHARACTERIZATION OF INDIAN NATIVE CHICKEN BREEDS Table 4. Semen quality traits of the Aseel and Kadaknath breeds at 42 wk of age (mean ± SE) Trait
Aseel
Ejaculate volume (mL) Appearance1,* Motility (%) Concentration** (million sperm/μL) Fertilizing ability (MTT2-formazan, nmol/min per million sperm) Live sperm* (%) Dead sperm* (%) Abnormal sperm (%)
0.31 4.43 83.57 6.53 28.59 93.49 6.51 1.48
± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±
0.029a 0.14a 1.83a 0.29a 0.89a 0.38a 0.38a 0.19a
Kadaknath 0.36 4.05 85.50 5.58 27.79 90.42 9.58 1.81
± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±
0.017a 0.12b 2.07a 0.24b 0.81a 1.66b 1.66b 0.31a
a,bMeans
within a row with different superscripts differ significantly. on a scale of 1 to 5, with watery or clear semen = 1, watery semen with white streaks = 2, medium white semen = 3, thick, white semen = 4, and very viscous, chalky white semen samples = 5. 2MTT = 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide. *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01. 1Scored
Welfare and Behavioral Traits The results for the duration (s) of TI (fear response), number of attempts to induce TI, and cage house mortality up to 40 wk of age are given in Table 5. No significant difference was observed for duration of TI and number of attempts required to induce TI on a combined sex basis between the breeds. In addition, no significant difference was observed between male and female birds of the Kadaknath breed for these 2 traits. However, male Aseel birds had a significantly (P < 0.05) lower duration of TI than did male Kadaknath birds. Similarly, male Aseel birds showed a significantly (P < 0.001) lower duration of TI than did female Aseel birds. On the other hand, female Aseel birds had a significantly (P < 0.05) higher duration of TI than did female and male Kadaknath birds.
In the present study, it was expected that the Aseel breed, being a game bird and known for its fighting qualities and courage, should have lower fear response than the Kadaknath breed, which is somewhat shy and timid in nature. Because Aseel birds were tall in stature as compared with the Kadaknath breed, they were kept in taller cages. In contrast, male and female birds of the Kadaknath breed were kept in shorter cages because they are not as tall as the Aseel breed. The only difference between the cages where the male and female Aseel birds were kept was that the female cage was narrower (19.05 cm). Therefore, the fact that female Aseel birds exhibited a significantly higher duration of TI could be attributed to the stress or discomfort experienced because they were being kept in narrower cages, leading to a longer duration of TI. To our knowledge, this is the first report describing the welfare traits in Indian native breeds. Feather-pecking behavior was observed more in the Aseel breed under the floor system of rearing, which began at approximately 4 to 5 wk of age and persisted until they were housed in cages. This led to the condition of bare backs on the birds and resulted in a mild form of cannibalism. In contrast, very mild or negligible feather-pecking behavior was observed in the Kadaknath breed. This particular behavior might be inherent to
Table 5. Welfare and mortality traits of the Aseel and Kadaknath breeds (mean ± SE) Aseel Trait
Male TI1
Log of duration Attempts (no.) TI duration (s) Layer house mortality at 40 wk of age (%) Broodiness in cages at 40 wk of age (%) Feather-pecking under floor rearing a,bAseel
0.09ac
Female 0.04bc
1.50 ± 1.63 ± 0.17 57.06 ± 11.02 1.67
1.97 ± 1.62 ± 0.09 130.82 ± 10.65 1.07
—
8.42
—
—
Kadaknath Combined 0.04d
Male
Female 0.03d
1.85 ± 1.57 ± 0.08 95.59 ± 6.81 13.43
1.82 ± 0.03d 1.52 ± 0.06 94.50 ± 6.18 13.66
—
—
0.80
—
Severe
—
—
Mild or negligible
males and females differ significantly (P < 0.001). males and females, respectively, differ significantly from males and females of the Kadaknath breed (P < 0.05). 1TI = tonic immobility. c,dAseel
Combined
1.76 ± 1.37 ± 0.12 91.20 ± 14.07 14.08
1.83 ± 1.62 ± 0.08 108.75 ± 8.72 1.31
0.07d
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a lower abnormal sperm percentage but a higher dead sperm count in the Kadaknath breed as compared with the findings of Biswas et al., (2009). Reports regarding the semen quality of the Aseel breed are scarce in the literature, and to our knowledge, this is the first study reporting the semen quality traits in this particular breed as well as a comparison of these 2 native breeds on semen quality traits.
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Haunshi et al.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors are grateful to the director of the Project Directorate on Poultry (Hyderabad, India) for providing the necessary facilities to carry out the present study. Special thanks are due to D. Pratap (technical staff, T-5) and S. K. Bhanja (farm manager, T-9) for management of the birds.
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the Aseel breed because this breed is a game bird that has aggressive behavior. Broodiness in cage rearing was higher in the Aseel breed than in the Kadaknath breed. The higher broodiness observed in the Aseel breed is in agreement with the report by Singh et al. (2000b), who observed the highest (58.01%) broodiness in the Aseel breed under field (free-range) conditions. Aseel birds seemed to have higher layer house survivability on both an individual and a combined sex basis as compared with the Kadaknath breed under similar management conditions. Most of the cases of mortality in the Kadaknath breed were diagnosed as egg peritonitis, colibacillosis, visceral gout, and chronic respiratory disease. Reports on the survivability of these breeds under cage house conditions to compare with the present findings were sparse in the literature. It was speculated that the Kadaknath birds were susceptible to Marek’s disease (Mohan et al., 2008a), but conclusive evidence was not available in the literature. From this study, we concluded that both breeds differed on various growth, egg, semen quality, and behavioral traits, but not on welfare traits. However, female Aseel birds exhibited a significantly higher fear response.