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Chemical characterization and source identification of particulate matter at Ballari (15.15°N, 76.93°E), Karnataka over Southern Indian region
Journal Pre-proof Chemical characterization and source identification of particulate matter at Ballari (15.15°N, 76.93°E), Karnataka over Southern Indian region V. Shalini, K. Narasimhulu, K. Raja Obul Reddy, G. Balakrishnaiah, K. Rama Gopal, T. Lokeswara Reddy, T. Chakradhar Rao, B. Elijabetthamma, C. Manjunatha, R.R. Reddy PII:
S1364-6826(20)30012-2
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2020.105192
Reference:
ATP 105192
To appear in:
Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics
Received Date: 12 September 2019 Revised Date:
6 January 2020
Accepted Date: 16 January 2020
Please cite this article as: Shalini, V., Narasimhulu, K., Raja Obul Reddy, K., Balakrishnaiah, G., Rama Gopal, K., Reddy, T.L., Chakradhar Rao, T., Elijabetthamma, B., Manjunatha, C., Reddy, R.R., Chemical characterization and source identification of particulate matter at Ballari (15.15°N, 76.93°E), Karnataka over Southern Indian region, Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics (2020), doi: https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2020.105192. This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the addition of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is not yet the definitive version of record. This version will undergo additional copyediting, typesetting and review before it is published in its final form, but we are providing this version to give early visibility of the article. Please note that, during the production process, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. © 2020 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
1
Chemical characterization and source identification of particulate
2
matter at Ballari (15.15N, 76.93E), Karnataka over Southern Indian
3
region
4
V. Shalinia, K. Narasimhulub, K. Raja Obul Reddya, G. Balakrishnaiaha, K. Rama Gopal
5
a*
, T. Lokeswara Reddya, T. Chakradhar Raoa, B. Elijabetthammaa, C. Manjunathaa, R.R. Reddya
6 7
a
Aerosol & Atmospheric Research Laboratory, Department of Physics, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapur – 515003, A.P. India.
8 b
9
SSA Govt. First Grade College (Autonomous), Ballari, Karnataka, India
10 11
* Corresponding author:
12
Dr. Rama Gopal Kotalo
13
Assistant Professor
14
Aerosols and Atmospheric Research Laboratory
15
Department of Physics
16
Sri Krishnadevaraya University
17
Anantapur – 515 003.
18
A.P., India
19
Email: [email protected]
20 21
1
22 23
ABSTRACT
24
the total suspended particulate matter in the sub-urban environment, Ballari. There were
25
28 particulate matter aerosol sampled between February 2017-July 2018. The surface
26
mass concentration ranged from 103 µg m-3 to 367 µg m-3 with an average value of ~
27
225±65 µg m-3 during the study period. The morphology and elemental composition of
28
aerosol particles were analyzed by using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) coupled
29
with an energy dispersive X-ray system (EDX). From the EDX results aluminosilicate
30
group (Al, Si, K, Fe, Na, Mg, Ti and Ca) contains about ~31 % of the total particles,
31
which mainly due to mineral particulate aerosol originate from crustal origin through
32
windblown dust. Further, we also investigated the morphology and chemical composition
33
of total mass concentration during haze (27-03-2018) and clear days (23-02-2018). The
34
SEM pictures show the most notable deposition of spherical particles with smooth
35
surfaces on a hazy day suggesting that the carbon aerosols on haze day were favourable
36
to coagulation of Aitken mode particles, which is consistent with their respective aerosol
37
subtypes captured from Cloud-Aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization (CALIPSO)
38
satellite over the study region. Inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometer
39
(ICP-OES) analysis showed the relative contribution of inorganic ions ( SO 24 , NO 3 , Na+,
40
Ca2+, Cl-, NH 4 , K+) is higher than others on 1-05-2017 and 01-01-2018 days over the
41
observational site. The relative contribution of non-sea salt SO 24 was abundance (~35%)
42
on both days, indicating the significant anthropogenic influence at this location. The
43
concentration weighted trajectory (CWTs) analysis showed the major sources of
44
particulate matter were soil particles, vehicular emissions, and mining activities
45
surroundings the vicinity of the sampling site.
46
Keywords: Particulate matter, SEM, ICP-OES, aerosol types, Ballari
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1. Introduction
The present study reports the chemical composition and source identification of
48
Aerosols are known to have a major impact on both the climate and human health,
49
and they exhibit highly spatial-temporal distribution, and it is known to be originating
50
from various sources, both natural and anthropogenic (Boiyo et al., 2018; Reddy et al.,
51
2016a; Babu et al., 2013; Gopal et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2011). Fossil fuel combustion, 2
52
biomass burning, and desert dust are the main sources of air pollutants around the globe.
53
Absorption of solar radiation due to aerosol particles is mainly caused by carbonaceous
54
particles (elemental carbon, EC, and organic carbon, OC) and mineral dust. The primary
55
parameters that determine the environmental and health effects of aerosol particles are
56
their concentration, size, structure, and chemical composition (Pöschl, 2005; Reddy et al.,
57
2016b; Partanen et al, 2018). Aerosols with sizes less than one micron can be categorized
58
as fine mode particles, such as sulphate particles, organic carbon and soot. Aerosol
59
particles with a size greater than one micron are called coarse mode particles, i.e. dust,
60
vegetation debris and sea salt. The categorization can also be carried out by an assortment
61
of aerosols based on their generation source (Casimiro et al., 2013). Health studies
62
indicate that long-term exposure to particulate matter has both climate and health
63
effects. Several studies (Timonen et al., 2018; Campos Ramos et al., 2009; Srivastava
64
and Jain, 2007; Wang et al., 2006) have made the major chemical components in ambient
65
aerosol particles and their elemental concentration levels in urban areas and they
66
concluded that the chemical composition of aerosol particles depends mainly on
67
geographical location, season, local meteorological conditions and long range transport.
68
Ballari is situated from southwest to northeast of Karnataka state and it is known
69
as one of fastest growing city in the Karnataka state as well as endowed with rich mineral
70
resources. Apart from being a major source region for aerosols, is centered by densely
71
industrialized areas where different aerosol species such as mineral dust, soot, nitrate,
72
sulfate particles and organics are produced. Therefore, monitoring of particulate matter
73
and their chemical composition of aerosol particles in Ballari is needful for identification
74
of emissions sources, determination of compliance for air quality standards, and
75
establishment of effective pollution control programs.
76
The goal of the present work is to report on the chemical characterization and
77
source identification of near-surface total particulate matter in an urban environment
78
(Ballari) in the Southern part of India. Samples were collected for 28 days in between
79
February 2017 to July 2018 over Ballari. However, we also analyzed elemental
80
composition and morphology of particulate matter on hazy and clear days and these are
81
compared with their respective lidar-based (CALIPSO) aerosol types over the 3
82
measurement location. Further, Concentration weighted trajectory (CWT) is concurrently
83
discussed using back trajectories to realize the regional transport of aerosols. Our analysis
84
is for the first time the chemical characterization of particulate matter and their sources
85
relating to the study area.
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1.1 Description of Study Area
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Ballari is a major city in the state of Karnataka, India. It is 311 km from the state
88
capital of Bengaluru and 358 km from Hyderabad. Ballari is located at 15.15°N 76.93°E
89
(Fig.1a). It has an average elevation of 495 metres (1,624 ft). Historical sites, farmland
90
and rich minerals characterize in Ballari district. Also, cotton processing and garment
91
manufacture are one of the major industries around Ballari. Daily mean variation of the
92
temperature and Relative Humidity (RH) over the sampling location is shown in Fig.1b.
93
The ambient temperature (RH) shows a higher value in summer days and lower in winter
94
days. The average temperature and RH during the observational period is ~ 29 C ±4(~55
95
± 16 %).
96
2.0 Instrumentation
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2.1 High Volume Sampler
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The ambient air sample with diameters greater than 100 µm were collected using
99
the high volume sampler (HVS model: PEM-HVS-4 NL), which operate at a flow rate of
100
140 LPM (Litre Per Minute). It has 2% offset value of flow control accuracy. It collects
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air samples through a pre-weighed filter paper for 24 hours of continuous exposure. After
102
sampling, the filter is re-weighed and the difference in filter weight is the collected
103
particulate matter mass. Dividing the mass by the volume of air sampled gives the
104
concentration of TSP. Quartz fibre filters with a diameter of 47mm are used for the
105
present study. Sampling was conducted at Ballari and each sample had a sampling
106
duration of 24 h (6:00 am to 6:00 am) during 2017-18 at Ballari.
107 108
2.2. Methodology
109
investigations of environmental aerosols, including particle composition identification,
110
size and shape classifications (Roberto et al., 2014; Matthew et al., 2017). In the present
111
study, the quartz filter tape was casually cut in size of about 1 mm 2 out of the main filter.
Scanning electron microscope (SEM) has been successfully applied in
4
112
A very thin film of carbon was deposited on the surface of the quartz filters to make
113
electrically conductive by using a vacuum coating unit. These samples were mounted on
114
electron microprobe stubs. The SEM - EDX analysis was conceded with the help of a
115
computer-controlled field emission equipped with an EVEX- EDX detection system. In
116
the present investigation, the SEM was used in the emission mode. The SEM was a
117
‘Merlin’ type manufacturer and SEM EDX facilities JEOL JSM-5600 available at Yogi
118
Vemana University, Kadapa (A.P).
119
For the identification of trace metals we have used the optima 2100 DV Perkin
120
Elmer, Inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometer (ICP-OES) In this
121
technique the sample is aspirated through the nebulizer which primarily charges the
122
liquid and transports it into the plasma flame (Malgorzata et al., 2016). The ICP-torch
123
consists of three concentric quartz glass tubes, a radio frequency (RF) and a Tesla coil.
124
Argon gas generates the plasma flame with a flow rate of 0.80 L/min. Nitrogen gas and
125
compressed air passed through the system with flow rates of 0.5 L/min and 2.0 L/min
126
respectively. The analyzed elements included the major (crustal) elements (Zn, Ba, Ca,
127
Al, Fe, Mg), sub-major and the ionic elements ( SO 24 , NH 4 , F−, NO 3 , Cl−).
128
2.3. CALIPSO
129
The Cloud-Aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization, onboard the CALIPSO platform,
130
is a dual-wavelength polarization lidar measuring attenuated backscatter radiation at 532
131
and 1064 nm since June 2006 (Winker et al., 2009). We used Version 4.1 of the Level 2
132
images was obtained to identify the aerosol types. CALIPSO infers an aerosol subtype
133
classification based on aerosol geographic location, the underlying surface type (land vs.
134
water), layer integrated attenuated backscatter, depolarization ratio at 0.532 μm, and
135
observed aerosol altitude (Omar et al., 2009). The CALIPSO 5-km aerosol layer product
136
reports the spatial and optical properties of aerosol layers that were detected at horizontal
137
averaging resolutions of 5, 20, and80 km, and vertical resolutions of up to 30m (Vaughan
138
et al., 2009; Omar et al., 2009; Kittaka et al., 2011; Young and Vaughan, 2018).
139
2.4. Concentration weighted trajectory (CWT) Analysis
140
To identify the relative contribution of potential source regions of aerosol getting
141
transported at the measurement location, CWT analysis was performed. In CWT 5
142
technique, the trajectories reaching over the measurement location were weighted based
143
on the mean concentration measured at the location during the arrival of the trajectory. In
144
this technique, each grid cell is assigned a concentration obtained by averaging associated
145
concentrations that had crossed the grid cell
146
C ij
147
where Cij is the average weighted concentration in the ijth cell, l is the index of the
148
trajectory, M is the total number of trajectories, Cl is the concentration observed in the
149
trajectory endpoint and τijl is the time spent in the ijth cell by the trajectory l (Seibert et
150
al.,1994).
151
3.0 Results and discussion
152
3.1. Daily variation of total mass concentration and morphology, elemental
153
identification
154
The 24 hours near-surface total suspended mass concentration levels varied from 103 µg
155
m-3 to 367 µg m-3 with an average value of 225±65 µg m-3 over Ballari (Fig. 2). The high
156
concentration (334 µg m-3) was noticed on 24-01-2018, whereas low concentration was
157
(137 µg m-3) observed on 31-05-2017 during the study period. The significant variability
158
of total mass concentration was mainly due to the seasonal variability of aerosol sources
159
and local meteorological conditions. We also investigated the morphology and elemental
160
composition by using SEM coupled with EDX for six days samples. Particle morphology
161
and composition were classified based on the method widely applied by other researchers
162
(Sharma and Srinivas, 2009; Cong et al., 2010; Pipal et al., 2011; Pachauri et al., 2013;
163
Satsangi et al., 2014). Figure 3(a-f) shows the SEM images of total mass concentration on
164
different days collected at Ballari. The SEM pictures show the most notable deposition of
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oval/spherical shapes with smooth surfaces, irregular, and amorphous shaped aggregates.
166
Numerous studies (Giere et al., 2006; Brown et al., 2011; Li and Shao, 2009) reported
167
that fly ash particles contain Si and Al with minor Ca, Ti, and those are in the amorphous
168
phase. Tripti et al., (2018) mentioned that biological related particles contain major C and
169
O with minor elements (Na, K, Cl, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg and Si) and those are in variable
M
1
lM1
ijl
Cl ijl
l 1
6
170
morphology. The percentage distribution of various elements presented in the total mass
171
concentration based on EDX spectra, as shown in Fig 4. Quartz fibre filters consist of
172
high amounts of Si and O (≈ 50% by weight) (Pachauri et al., 2013). Therefore, those two
173
elements were subtracted from the loaded filters. As shown in Fig. 4, Twenty-four
174
chemical parameters (C, O, Na, Mg, Al, Si, S, CI, Mo, K, Ca, Ba, Ti, Fe, Zn, Co, Hf and
175
Br) were determined and elemental levels of carbon (C) and aluminosilicates (containing
176
Al, Si, K, Fe, Na, Mg, Ti and Ca) were commonly noticed in all days. Major elements
177
detected in aluminosilicate particles (besides Al and Si, of course) include K, Ca, and Fe;
178
minor elements include Na, Mg, Ti, Zn, Mn, and Ni. This aluminosilicate group contains
179
about ~31 % of the total particles, which indicating the abundance of soil sediments and
180
road dust. Silicon (Si) is one of the largest constituents of soil-derived mineral particles,
181
resuspended road dust and aluminosilicates with significant levels of Al, Si and K can
182
also release from crustal sources, agricultural activities, and biomass burning. Further,
183
elemental levels of carbon particles (C) were significantly varied than other elements and
184
their percentage contribution was varied from 4-23% during the study period. The carbon
185
(C) species percentages were higher, except monsoon day (31-08-2017), which might be
186
associated with anthropogenic aerosols produced by agriculture activities. Van Malderen
187
et al., 1996; Cong et al., 2009 concluded that a major type of chemical compound in the
188
earth’s crest is an aluminosilicate group, which accounts for ~72% of the total particles.
189
Trace elements are important components of aerosols, and industrial, residential, and
190
traffic related activities have resulted in a substantial increase in trace metals (e.g., Cu,
191
Pb, Zn, Cd, Ni etc.) in the atmosphere (Watson et al., 2001; Gugamsetty et al., 2012).
192
Several studies show that ambient particulate pollution is associated with certain health
193
and environmental effects (Choosong et al., 2010; Ning et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2012).
194
3.2. CALIPSO vertical feature mask and morphology, elemental identification of
195
particulate matter on the clear and hazy event.
196
The CALIPSO vertical feature mask and aerosol subtypes observed on 23-02-
197
2018 (clear day) and 27-03-2018 (hazy day) are shown in Fig. 5(a ‒ d). On Clear day, the
198
aerosol vertical profile was relatively low (1‒ 3 km) due to the dominance of dust,
199
polluted dust (dust mixed with smoke) (Fig. 5a,b), whereas for hazy day, aerosol vertical 7
200
profile was found greater height (surface to 4km) due to the polluted continental, polluted
201
dust and smoke (Fig.5c,d). we also investigated the morphology and elemental
202
composition of aerosol particles by using SEM coupled with EDX for both clear and hazy
203
day samples. The clear (23-02-2018) and haze day (27-03-2018) images were captured
204
by the NASA both and Terra Aqua Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer
205
(MODIS) satellite, as shown in the Fig. 6(a-d).The total mass concentration on the clear
206
and hazy days was found to be 227 and 327 µg m-3 at Ballari (Fig.2). The SEM pictures
207
confirm the most notable deposition of spherical particles with smooth surfaces on a hazy
208
day, which indicates that the smoke aerosols on haze day were favourable to the
209
coagulation of Aitken mode particles (Fig. 6f). Morphologically, soot particles can be
210
generally classified into three categories: oval/spherical, rod-like, and flocculent
211
amorphous bodies (Wu et al., 2015). Soot particles produced from combustion processes
212
were predominantly spherical and rounded with smooth surfaces. Soot particles emitted
213
from combustion processes were predominantly spherical and rounded with smooth
214
surfaces. However, we also analyzed the different elements presented in the total mass
215
concentration on typical clear, Hazy days in the region. As shown in Fig.6g, the
216
percentage of carbon particles is abundant (13.1%) on a hazy day compare to clear days
217
and it played a significant role in the formation of hazy over this region, which is
218
consistent with the respective CALIPSO aerosol subtypes observed over the study region.
219
3.3. Total Suspended Particulate and Major Ion Concentrations of Aerosol Samples
220
Figure 7 illustrates both elemental and ionic mass concentrations of particulate
221
matter on 01-01-2018 and 11-05-2017 over measurement location. The most abundant
222
elements in the particulate were Zn (10.79 µg m-3) Ba (9.75 µg m-3), Ca (15.36 µg m-3),
223
Al (5.19 µg m-3), Fe (7.38 µg m-3), Mg (1.46 µg m-3) followed by Mn, Sr, Ti, Cr, Pb, Cu,
224
As, Ni, Co, V and Sb was found were below 1 µg m-3 on 11-05-2017 (7a). Similarly, Ca
225
was the abundant element noted on 01-01-2018, whereas remaining elements
226
concentrations are nearly similar to the concentration observed on 11-05-2017. The mass
227
concentration of the inorganic ions on 11-05-2017 and 01-01-2018 days were SO 24 (>7.5
228
µg m-3) followed by NO 3 (>7 µg m-3), Na+ (>2 µg m-3), and Ca2+, Cl-, NH 4 , K+, F-, Br-
229
were (<2µg m-3) (Fig. 7b). 8
230
The estimated percentage contribution of both ion and ionic mass followed by an
231
order of SO 24 > NO 3 > Cl- > F- > Br- for anions and Na+ > Ca2+ > NH 4 > K+ for cations.
232
The higher portion was occupied by SO 24 (37.71%) to the mass followed by NO3-
233
(30.47%), Na+ (11.14 %), Ca2+ (10.5%) and Cl- (4.47%) (Fig.8b). The contribution of
234
anions share was high (~73.89%), and cations contribution was low (~26.10%) over the
235
observational site on 11-05-2017.
236
The percentage contribution on 01-01-2018 was followed by an order SO 24 >
237
NO 3 > Cl > Br > F for anions and Na > Ca
238
portion was occupied by SO 24 (34.81%) to the mass followed by NO 3 (31.11%), Na+
239
(11.78 %), Ca2+ (9.19%) and Cl- (7.46%). The contribution of anions share was high
240
(~74.39%), and cations contribution was low (~25.60%) over the study region (Fig. 8d).
241
Since the measurement location is too far away from the coast, hence, the contribution of
242
sea-salt sulphate will be insignificant. This was further confirmed by a high SO 24 /Na+
243
ratio was 1.11 and 1.23 on 11-05-2017 and 01-01-2018, respectively. Begum et al. (2017)
244
noticed high SO42− (11.7 μg m−3) at a suburban location over Kadapa and they concluded
245
that sulphate might be soil-derived components or formed by the reactions of gas-phase
246
sulphur dioxide. The relatively low ratio of NO 3 / SO 24 (< 1.0) indicated that industrial
247
emissions played a key role compared to mobile sources (Lai et al. 2007), like vehicular
248
emissions over the study region. The average concentration of K+ was only 0.19 μg m−3
249
and 0.22 μg m−3 (0.75 % and 1.01%) was observed on 11-05-2017 and 01-01-2018,
250
respectively. The mining activity is the main source for the occurrence of K+, Ca2+ and
251
Na+ over the study area. The observed average concentration of NH4+ was 0.71 μg m−3
252
and 0.91 μg m−3 (3.19 % and 4.11%) on 11-05-2017 and 01-01-2018, respectively,
253
produced from the agricultural farmlands and anthropogenic activities.
254
4. Source apportionment
-
-
-
+
2+
> NH 4 > K+ for cations. The higher
255
The CWTs were calculated for total suspended particulate mass concentration and
256
are shown in Fig. 9. This indicates that the sampling site is getting affected mostly due to
257
the local contribution and far moderate from the southeast continental region of India.
258
The sampling site surrounded by the eight iron ore mining’s, 6 coal-based power plants 9
259
and 2 steel plants, which are major emission sources for PM concentration levels. The
260
results reveal that the local emissions are representing the most important potential
261
sources for PM concentrations. Air masses originating from the Arabian Peninsula and
262
Bay of Bengal Persian Gulf traversing the northern AS can also contribute to medium BC
263
mass concentrations, while the air masses from southern AS seem to be cleaner.
264
5 Conclusions
265
Monitoring and analysis of the chemical composition of air pollutants were
266
conducted for 28 sampling days between February 2017-July 2018 in the sub-urban area of
267
Ballari. The main findings can be summarized as follows:
268
value of ~ 225±65 µg m-3 during the study period.
269 270
The total mass concentration varied from 103 µg m-3 to 367 µg m-3 with an average
The SEM pictures show the most notable deposition of oval/spherical shapes with
271
smooth surfaces and EDX results confirmed aluminosilicate group (Al, Si, K, Fe, Na,
272
Mg,Ti and Ca) accounted for ~31 % of the total suspended particulate matter over the
273
measurement location.
274
The carbon particles displayed a higher percentage (13.1%) of the total mass
275
concentration on hazy day than that (9.3%) on clear day, which consistent with
276
respective calipso aerosol subtypes observed over the measured location.
277
278 279
ICP-OES results showed the relative contribution of anions was higher (~74.39%) than cations (~25.60%) over the observational site.
The CWTs analysis revealed that numerous sources were contributing over pollution
280
in Ballari such as carbon aerosols from vehicles, mining activities local and
281
transported dust particles.
282
Acknowledgment
283
The authors wish to thank the Indian Space Research Organization Bangalore, for
284
their financial support under the project ISRO-GBP (ARFI & AT-CTM). We
285
acknowledge the NOAA Air Resources Laboratory for the provision of the HYSPLIT
286
transport and dispersion model. We are also grateful to NASA for providing CALIPSO
287
data.
288
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412
soluble chemical species in PM2.5 and size-resolved particles at an urban site during
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fall. J. Environ. Sci. 57, 370-382.
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Fig.1(a-b). Schematic site map of the sampling site and prevailing meteorological features (Temperature & Relative Humidity) over sampling site during the study period Fig.2. Daily variation of the total mass concentration measured at Ballari. Fig.3. Scanning electron images and energy dispersive X-ray spectra of aerosols. Fig.4. The percentage contribution of each elemental composition obtained from EDX spectra of aerosols at Ballari. Fig.5. CALIPSO-retrieved vertical feature mask and aerosol subtype images on clear day (23-02-2018) and hazy day (27-03-2018). The marked with red colour oval shape around the measurement location. Fig.6. MODIS both Terra and AQUA satellite images (a) MODIS Terra image on clear day (23-02-2018) (b) MODIS Aqua image on clear day (23-02-2018) (c) MODIS Terra image on Hazy day (27-03-2018) (d) MODIS Aqua image on hazy day (27-03-2018) over sampling location. The circle in each map indicates the sampling location. Typical examples of different scanning electron micrographs of aerosols and their percentage contribution of each elemental composition obtained from EDX spectra of aerosol on both clear and hazy days at Ballari (e-g). Fig.7. Mass concentration of various elements and ions in the total mass concentration on 1105-2017 and 01-01-2018 at Ballari. Fig.8. Percentage contribution of various elements and ions in the total mass concentration on 11-05-2017 and 01-01-2018 at Ballari. Fig.9. Concentration Weighted Trajectories map for total suspended particulate mass concentration with 1° resolution for the 28 collected samples using HVS. The highly concentrated area is enlarged which clearly shows the possible source areas (Cyan circles indicates Iron Ore mining areas, Orange coloured triangle indicates coal based power plants, black coloured rhombus indicates steel and cement plants and black coloured star indicates the sampling site).
Fig. 1(a).
Fig. 2(b).
Fig. 2.
(a) 31-08-2017
(b) 08-11-2017
(c) 24-01-2018
(d) 07-02-2018
(e) 14-03-2018
(f) 11-04-2018
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 5.
(b) 23-02-2018 MODIS Aqua Aqua
(a) 23-02-2018 MODIS Terra
(c) 27-03-2018 MODIS Terra Terra
(d) 27-03-2018 MODIS Aqua Aqua
(e) 23-02-2018
(f) 27-03-2018
Fig. 6.
Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.
Fig. 9.
The total mass concentration varied from 103 µg m-3 to 367 µg m-3 over Bellary. EDX results showed aluminosilicate group contains about ~31 % during study period. ICP-OES analysis confirmed the inorganic ions dominant over study region. CWT results showed the major sources were mining and anthropogenic sources over location.
S1364-6826(20)30012-2
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2020.105192
Reference:
ATP 105192
To appear in:
Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics
Received Date: 12 September 2019 Revised Date:
6 January 2020
Accepted Date: 16 January 2020
Please cite this article as: Shalini, V., Narasimhulu, K., Raja Obul Reddy, K., Balakrishnaiah, G., Rama Gopal, K., Reddy, T.L., Chakradhar Rao, T., Elijabetthamma, B., Manjunatha, C., Reddy, R.R., Chemical characterization and source identification of particulate matter at Ballari (15.15°N, 76.93°E), Karnataka over Southern Indian region, Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics (2020), doi: https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2020.105192. This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the addition of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is not yet the definitive version of record. This version will undergo additional copyediting, typesetting and review before it is published in its final form, but we are providing this version to give early visibility of the article. Please note that, during the production process, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. © 2020 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
1
Chemical characterization and source identification of particulate
2
matter at Ballari (15.15N, 76.93E), Karnataka over Southern Indian
3
region
4
V. Shalinia, K. Narasimhulub, K. Raja Obul Reddya, G. Balakrishnaiaha, K. Rama Gopal
5
a*
, T. Lokeswara Reddya, T. Chakradhar Raoa, B. Elijabetthammaa, C. Manjunathaa, R.R. Reddya
6 7
a
Aerosol & Atmospheric Research Laboratory, Department of Physics, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapur – 515003, A.P. India.
8 b
9
SSA Govt. First Grade College (Autonomous), Ballari, Karnataka, India
10 11
* Corresponding author:
12
Dr. Rama Gopal Kotalo
13
Assistant Professor
14
Aerosols and Atmospheric Research Laboratory
15
Department of Physics
16
Sri Krishnadevaraya University
17
Anantapur – 515 003.
18
A.P., India
19
Email: [email protected]
20 21
1
22 23
ABSTRACT
24
the total suspended particulate matter in the sub-urban environment, Ballari. There were
25
28 particulate matter aerosol sampled between February 2017-July 2018. The surface
26
mass concentration ranged from 103 µg m-3 to 367 µg m-3 with an average value of ~
27
225±65 µg m-3 during the study period. The morphology and elemental composition of
28
aerosol particles were analyzed by using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) coupled
29
with an energy dispersive X-ray system (EDX). From the EDX results aluminosilicate
30
group (Al, Si, K, Fe, Na, Mg, Ti and Ca) contains about ~31 % of the total particles,
31
which mainly due to mineral particulate aerosol originate from crustal origin through
32
windblown dust. Further, we also investigated the morphology and chemical composition
33
of total mass concentration during haze (27-03-2018) and clear days (23-02-2018). The
34
SEM pictures show the most notable deposition of spherical particles with smooth
35
surfaces on a hazy day suggesting that the carbon aerosols on haze day were favourable
36
to coagulation of Aitken mode particles, which is consistent with their respective aerosol
37
subtypes captured from Cloud-Aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization (CALIPSO)
38
satellite over the study region. Inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometer
39
(ICP-OES) analysis showed the relative contribution of inorganic ions ( SO 24 , NO 3 , Na+,
40
Ca2+, Cl-, NH 4 , K+) is higher than others on 1-05-2017 and 01-01-2018 days over the
41
observational site. The relative contribution of non-sea salt SO 24 was abundance (~35%)
42
on both days, indicating the significant anthropogenic influence at this location. The
43
concentration weighted trajectory (CWTs) analysis showed the major sources of
44
particulate matter were soil particles, vehicular emissions, and mining activities
45
surroundings the vicinity of the sampling site.
46
Keywords: Particulate matter, SEM, ICP-OES, aerosol types, Ballari
47
1. Introduction
The present study reports the chemical composition and source identification of
48
Aerosols are known to have a major impact on both the climate and human health,
49
and they exhibit highly spatial-temporal distribution, and it is known to be originating
50
from various sources, both natural and anthropogenic (Boiyo et al., 2018; Reddy et al.,
51
2016a; Babu et al., 2013; Gopal et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2011). Fossil fuel combustion, 2
52
biomass burning, and desert dust are the main sources of air pollutants around the globe.
53
Absorption of solar radiation due to aerosol particles is mainly caused by carbonaceous
54
particles (elemental carbon, EC, and organic carbon, OC) and mineral dust. The primary
55
parameters that determine the environmental and health effects of aerosol particles are
56
their concentration, size, structure, and chemical composition (Pöschl, 2005; Reddy et al.,
57
2016b; Partanen et al, 2018). Aerosols with sizes less than one micron can be categorized
58
as fine mode particles, such as sulphate particles, organic carbon and soot. Aerosol
59
particles with a size greater than one micron are called coarse mode particles, i.e. dust,
60
vegetation debris and sea salt. The categorization can also be carried out by an assortment
61
of aerosols based on their generation source (Casimiro et al., 2013). Health studies
62
indicate that long-term exposure to particulate matter has both climate and health
63
effects. Several studies (Timonen et al., 2018; Campos Ramos et al., 2009; Srivastava
64
and Jain, 2007; Wang et al., 2006) have made the major chemical components in ambient
65
aerosol particles and their elemental concentration levels in urban areas and they
66
concluded that the chemical composition of aerosol particles depends mainly on
67
geographical location, season, local meteorological conditions and long range transport.
68
Ballari is situated from southwest to northeast of Karnataka state and it is known
69
as one of fastest growing city in the Karnataka state as well as endowed with rich mineral
70
resources. Apart from being a major source region for aerosols, is centered by densely
71
industrialized areas where different aerosol species such as mineral dust, soot, nitrate,
72
sulfate particles and organics are produced. Therefore, monitoring of particulate matter
73
and their chemical composition of aerosol particles in Ballari is needful for identification
74
of emissions sources, determination of compliance for air quality standards, and
75
establishment of effective pollution control programs.
76
The goal of the present work is to report on the chemical characterization and
77
source identification of near-surface total particulate matter in an urban environment
78
(Ballari) in the Southern part of India. Samples were collected for 28 days in between
79
February 2017 to July 2018 over Ballari. However, we also analyzed elemental
80
composition and morphology of particulate matter on hazy and clear days and these are
81
compared with their respective lidar-based (CALIPSO) aerosol types over the 3
82
measurement location. Further, Concentration weighted trajectory (CWT) is concurrently
83
discussed using back trajectories to realize the regional transport of aerosols. Our analysis
84
is for the first time the chemical characterization of particulate matter and their sources
85
relating to the study area.
86
1.1 Description of Study Area
87
Ballari is a major city in the state of Karnataka, India. It is 311 km from the state
88
capital of Bengaluru and 358 km from Hyderabad. Ballari is located at 15.15°N 76.93°E
89
(Fig.1a). It has an average elevation of 495 metres (1,624 ft). Historical sites, farmland
90
and rich minerals characterize in Ballari district. Also, cotton processing and garment
91
manufacture are one of the major industries around Ballari. Daily mean variation of the
92
temperature and Relative Humidity (RH) over the sampling location is shown in Fig.1b.
93
The ambient temperature (RH) shows a higher value in summer days and lower in winter
94
days. The average temperature and RH during the observational period is ~ 29 C ±4(~55
95
± 16 %).
96
2.0 Instrumentation
97
2.1 High Volume Sampler
98
The ambient air sample with diameters greater than 100 µm were collected using
99
the high volume sampler (HVS model: PEM-HVS-4 NL), which operate at a flow rate of
100
140 LPM (Litre Per Minute). It has 2% offset value of flow control accuracy. It collects
101
air samples through a pre-weighed filter paper for 24 hours of continuous exposure. After
102
sampling, the filter is re-weighed and the difference in filter weight is the collected
103
particulate matter mass. Dividing the mass by the volume of air sampled gives the
104
concentration of TSP. Quartz fibre filters with a diameter of 47mm are used for the
105
present study. Sampling was conducted at Ballari and each sample had a sampling
106
duration of 24 h (6:00 am to 6:00 am) during 2017-18 at Ballari.
107 108
2.2. Methodology
109
investigations of environmental aerosols, including particle composition identification,
110
size and shape classifications (Roberto et al., 2014; Matthew et al., 2017). In the present
111
study, the quartz filter tape was casually cut in size of about 1 mm 2 out of the main filter.
Scanning electron microscope (SEM) has been successfully applied in
4
112
A very thin film of carbon was deposited on the surface of the quartz filters to make
113
electrically conductive by using a vacuum coating unit. These samples were mounted on
114
electron microprobe stubs. The SEM - EDX analysis was conceded with the help of a
115
computer-controlled field emission equipped with an EVEX- EDX detection system. In
116
the present investigation, the SEM was used in the emission mode. The SEM was a
117
‘Merlin’ type manufacturer and SEM EDX facilities JEOL JSM-5600 available at Yogi
118
Vemana University, Kadapa (A.P).
119
For the identification of trace metals we have used the optima 2100 DV Perkin
120
Elmer, Inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometer (ICP-OES) In this
121
technique the sample is aspirated through the nebulizer which primarily charges the
122
liquid and transports it into the plasma flame (Malgorzata et al., 2016). The ICP-torch
123
consists of three concentric quartz glass tubes, a radio frequency (RF) and a Tesla coil.
124
Argon gas generates the plasma flame with a flow rate of 0.80 L/min. Nitrogen gas and
125
compressed air passed through the system with flow rates of 0.5 L/min and 2.0 L/min
126
respectively. The analyzed elements included the major (crustal) elements (Zn, Ba, Ca,
127
Al, Fe, Mg), sub-major and the ionic elements ( SO 24 , NH 4 , F−, NO 3 , Cl−).
128
2.3. CALIPSO
129
The Cloud-Aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization, onboard the CALIPSO platform,
130
is a dual-wavelength polarization lidar measuring attenuated backscatter radiation at 532
131
and 1064 nm since June 2006 (Winker et al., 2009). We used Version 4.1 of the Level 2
132
images was obtained to identify the aerosol types. CALIPSO infers an aerosol subtype
133
classification based on aerosol geographic location, the underlying surface type (land vs.
134
water), layer integrated attenuated backscatter, depolarization ratio at 0.532 μm, and
135
observed aerosol altitude (Omar et al., 2009). The CALIPSO 5-km aerosol layer product
136
reports the spatial and optical properties of aerosol layers that were detected at horizontal
137
averaging resolutions of 5, 20, and80 km, and vertical resolutions of up to 30m (Vaughan
138
et al., 2009; Omar et al., 2009; Kittaka et al., 2011; Young and Vaughan, 2018).
139
2.4. Concentration weighted trajectory (CWT) Analysis
140
To identify the relative contribution of potential source regions of aerosol getting
141
transported at the measurement location, CWT analysis was performed. In CWT 5
142
technique, the trajectories reaching over the measurement location were weighted based
143
on the mean concentration measured at the location during the arrival of the trajectory. In
144
this technique, each grid cell is assigned a concentration obtained by averaging associated
145
concentrations that had crossed the grid cell
146
C ij
147
where Cij is the average weighted concentration in the ijth cell, l is the index of the
148
trajectory, M is the total number of trajectories, Cl is the concentration observed in the
149
trajectory endpoint and τijl is the time spent in the ijth cell by the trajectory l (Seibert et
150
al.,1994).
151
3.0 Results and discussion
152
3.1. Daily variation of total mass concentration and morphology, elemental
153
identification
154
The 24 hours near-surface total suspended mass concentration levels varied from 103 µg
155
m-3 to 367 µg m-3 with an average value of 225±65 µg m-3 over Ballari (Fig. 2). The high
156
concentration (334 µg m-3) was noticed on 24-01-2018, whereas low concentration was
157
(137 µg m-3) observed on 31-05-2017 during the study period. The significant variability
158
of total mass concentration was mainly due to the seasonal variability of aerosol sources
159
and local meteorological conditions. We also investigated the morphology and elemental
160
composition by using SEM coupled with EDX for six days samples. Particle morphology
161
and composition were classified based on the method widely applied by other researchers
162
(Sharma and Srinivas, 2009; Cong et al., 2010; Pipal et al., 2011; Pachauri et al., 2013;
163
Satsangi et al., 2014). Figure 3(a-f) shows the SEM images of total mass concentration on
164
different days collected at Ballari. The SEM pictures show the most notable deposition of
165
oval/spherical shapes with smooth surfaces, irregular, and amorphous shaped aggregates.
166
Numerous studies (Giere et al., 2006; Brown et al., 2011; Li and Shao, 2009) reported
167
that fly ash particles contain Si and Al with minor Ca, Ti, and those are in the amorphous
168
phase. Tripti et al., (2018) mentioned that biological related particles contain major C and
169
O with minor elements (Na, K, Cl, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg and Si) and those are in variable
M
1
lM1
ijl
Cl ijl
l 1
6
170
morphology. The percentage distribution of various elements presented in the total mass
171
concentration based on EDX spectra, as shown in Fig 4. Quartz fibre filters consist of
172
high amounts of Si and O (≈ 50% by weight) (Pachauri et al., 2013). Therefore, those two
173
elements were subtracted from the loaded filters. As shown in Fig. 4, Twenty-four
174
chemical parameters (C, O, Na, Mg, Al, Si, S, CI, Mo, K, Ca, Ba, Ti, Fe, Zn, Co, Hf and
175
Br) were determined and elemental levels of carbon (C) and aluminosilicates (containing
176
Al, Si, K, Fe, Na, Mg, Ti and Ca) were commonly noticed in all days. Major elements
177
detected in aluminosilicate particles (besides Al and Si, of course) include K, Ca, and Fe;
178
minor elements include Na, Mg, Ti, Zn, Mn, and Ni. This aluminosilicate group contains
179
about ~31 % of the total particles, which indicating the abundance of soil sediments and
180
road dust. Silicon (Si) is one of the largest constituents of soil-derived mineral particles,
181
resuspended road dust and aluminosilicates with significant levels of Al, Si and K can
182
also release from crustal sources, agricultural activities, and biomass burning. Further,
183
elemental levels of carbon particles (C) were significantly varied than other elements and
184
their percentage contribution was varied from 4-23% during the study period. The carbon
185
(C) species percentages were higher, except monsoon day (31-08-2017), which might be
186
associated with anthropogenic aerosols produced by agriculture activities. Van Malderen
187
et al., 1996; Cong et al., 2009 concluded that a major type of chemical compound in the
188
earth’s crest is an aluminosilicate group, which accounts for ~72% of the total particles.
189
Trace elements are important components of aerosols, and industrial, residential, and
190
traffic related activities have resulted in a substantial increase in trace metals (e.g., Cu,
191
Pb, Zn, Cd, Ni etc.) in the atmosphere (Watson et al., 2001; Gugamsetty et al., 2012).
192
Several studies show that ambient particulate pollution is associated with certain health
193
and environmental effects (Choosong et al., 2010; Ning et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2012).
194
3.2. CALIPSO vertical feature mask and morphology, elemental identification of
195
particulate matter on the clear and hazy event.
196
The CALIPSO vertical feature mask and aerosol subtypes observed on 23-02-
197
2018 (clear day) and 27-03-2018 (hazy day) are shown in Fig. 5(a ‒ d). On Clear day, the
198
aerosol vertical profile was relatively low (1‒ 3 km) due to the dominance of dust,
199
polluted dust (dust mixed with smoke) (Fig. 5a,b), whereas for hazy day, aerosol vertical 7
200
profile was found greater height (surface to 4km) due to the polluted continental, polluted
201
dust and smoke (Fig.5c,d). we also investigated the morphology and elemental
202
composition of aerosol particles by using SEM coupled with EDX for both clear and hazy
203
day samples. The clear (23-02-2018) and haze day (27-03-2018) images were captured
204
by the NASA both and Terra Aqua Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer
205
(MODIS) satellite, as shown in the Fig. 6(a-d).The total mass concentration on the clear
206
and hazy days was found to be 227 and 327 µg m-3 at Ballari (Fig.2). The SEM pictures
207
confirm the most notable deposition of spherical particles with smooth surfaces on a hazy
208
day, which indicates that the smoke aerosols on haze day were favourable to the
209
coagulation of Aitken mode particles (Fig. 6f). Morphologically, soot particles can be
210
generally classified into three categories: oval/spherical, rod-like, and flocculent
211
amorphous bodies (Wu et al., 2015). Soot particles produced from combustion processes
212
were predominantly spherical and rounded with smooth surfaces. Soot particles emitted
213
from combustion processes were predominantly spherical and rounded with smooth
214
surfaces. However, we also analyzed the different elements presented in the total mass
215
concentration on typical clear, Hazy days in the region. As shown in Fig.6g, the
216
percentage of carbon particles is abundant (13.1%) on a hazy day compare to clear days
217
and it played a significant role in the formation of hazy over this region, which is
218
consistent with the respective CALIPSO aerosol subtypes observed over the study region.
219
3.3. Total Suspended Particulate and Major Ion Concentrations of Aerosol Samples
220
Figure 7 illustrates both elemental and ionic mass concentrations of particulate
221
matter on 01-01-2018 and 11-05-2017 over measurement location. The most abundant
222
elements in the particulate were Zn (10.79 µg m-3) Ba (9.75 µg m-3), Ca (15.36 µg m-3),
223
Al (5.19 µg m-3), Fe (7.38 µg m-3), Mg (1.46 µg m-3) followed by Mn, Sr, Ti, Cr, Pb, Cu,
224
As, Ni, Co, V and Sb was found were below 1 µg m-3 on 11-05-2017 (7a). Similarly, Ca
225
was the abundant element noted on 01-01-2018, whereas remaining elements
226
concentrations are nearly similar to the concentration observed on 11-05-2017. The mass
227
concentration of the inorganic ions on 11-05-2017 and 01-01-2018 days were SO 24 (>7.5
228
µg m-3) followed by NO 3 (>7 µg m-3), Na+ (>2 µg m-3), and Ca2+, Cl-, NH 4 , K+, F-, Br-
229
were (<2µg m-3) (Fig. 7b). 8
230
The estimated percentage contribution of both ion and ionic mass followed by an
231
order of SO 24 > NO 3 > Cl- > F- > Br- for anions and Na+ > Ca2+ > NH 4 > K+ for cations.
232
The higher portion was occupied by SO 24 (37.71%) to the mass followed by NO3-
233
(30.47%), Na+ (11.14 %), Ca2+ (10.5%) and Cl- (4.47%) (Fig.8b). The contribution of
234
anions share was high (~73.89%), and cations contribution was low (~26.10%) over the
235
observational site on 11-05-2017.
236
The percentage contribution on 01-01-2018 was followed by an order SO 24 >
237
NO 3 > Cl > Br > F for anions and Na > Ca
238
portion was occupied by SO 24 (34.81%) to the mass followed by NO 3 (31.11%), Na+
239
(11.78 %), Ca2+ (9.19%) and Cl- (7.46%). The contribution of anions share was high
240
(~74.39%), and cations contribution was low (~25.60%) over the study region (Fig. 8d).
241
Since the measurement location is too far away from the coast, hence, the contribution of
242
sea-salt sulphate will be insignificant. This was further confirmed by a high SO 24 /Na+
243
ratio was 1.11 and 1.23 on 11-05-2017 and 01-01-2018, respectively. Begum et al. (2017)
244
noticed high SO42− (11.7 μg m−3) at a suburban location over Kadapa and they concluded
245
that sulphate might be soil-derived components or formed by the reactions of gas-phase
246
sulphur dioxide. The relatively low ratio of NO 3 / SO 24 (< 1.0) indicated that industrial
247
emissions played a key role compared to mobile sources (Lai et al. 2007), like vehicular
248
emissions over the study region. The average concentration of K+ was only 0.19 μg m−3
249
and 0.22 μg m−3 (0.75 % and 1.01%) was observed on 11-05-2017 and 01-01-2018,
250
respectively. The mining activity is the main source for the occurrence of K+, Ca2+ and
251
Na+ over the study area. The observed average concentration of NH4+ was 0.71 μg m−3
252
and 0.91 μg m−3 (3.19 % and 4.11%) on 11-05-2017 and 01-01-2018, respectively,
253
produced from the agricultural farmlands and anthropogenic activities.
254
4. Source apportionment
-
-
-
+
2+
> NH 4 > K+ for cations. The higher
255
The CWTs were calculated for total suspended particulate mass concentration and
256
are shown in Fig. 9. This indicates that the sampling site is getting affected mostly due to
257
the local contribution and far moderate from the southeast continental region of India.
258
The sampling site surrounded by the eight iron ore mining’s, 6 coal-based power plants 9
259
and 2 steel plants, which are major emission sources for PM concentration levels. The
260
results reveal that the local emissions are representing the most important potential
261
sources for PM concentrations. Air masses originating from the Arabian Peninsula and
262
Bay of Bengal Persian Gulf traversing the northern AS can also contribute to medium BC
263
mass concentrations, while the air masses from southern AS seem to be cleaner.
264
5 Conclusions
265
Monitoring and analysis of the chemical composition of air pollutants were
266
conducted for 28 sampling days between February 2017-July 2018 in the sub-urban area of
267
Ballari. The main findings can be summarized as follows:
268
value of ~ 225±65 µg m-3 during the study period.
269 270
The total mass concentration varied from 103 µg m-3 to 367 µg m-3 with an average
The SEM pictures show the most notable deposition of oval/spherical shapes with
271
smooth surfaces and EDX results confirmed aluminosilicate group (Al, Si, K, Fe, Na,
272
Mg,Ti and Ca) accounted for ~31 % of the total suspended particulate matter over the
273
measurement location.
274
The carbon particles displayed a higher percentage (13.1%) of the total mass
275
concentration on hazy day than that (9.3%) on clear day, which consistent with
276
respective calipso aerosol subtypes observed over the measured location.
277
278 279
ICP-OES results showed the relative contribution of anions was higher (~74.39%) than cations (~25.60%) over the observational site.
The CWTs analysis revealed that numerous sources were contributing over pollution
280
in Ballari such as carbon aerosols from vehicles, mining activities local and
281
transported dust particles.
282
Acknowledgment
283
The authors wish to thank the Indian Space Research Organization Bangalore, for
284
their financial support under the project ISRO-GBP (ARFI & AT-CTM). We
285
acknowledge the NOAA Air Resources Laboratory for the provision of the HYSPLIT
286
transport and dispersion model. We are also grateful to NASA for providing CALIPSO
287
data.
288
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Fig.1(a-b). Schematic site map of the sampling site and prevailing meteorological features (Temperature & Relative Humidity) over sampling site during the study period Fig.2. Daily variation of the total mass concentration measured at Ballari. Fig.3. Scanning electron images and energy dispersive X-ray spectra of aerosols. Fig.4. The percentage contribution of each elemental composition obtained from EDX spectra of aerosols at Ballari. Fig.5. CALIPSO-retrieved vertical feature mask and aerosol subtype images on clear day (23-02-2018) and hazy day (27-03-2018). The marked with red colour oval shape around the measurement location. Fig.6. MODIS both Terra and AQUA satellite images (a) MODIS Terra image on clear day (23-02-2018) (b) MODIS Aqua image on clear day (23-02-2018) (c) MODIS Terra image on Hazy day (27-03-2018) (d) MODIS Aqua image on hazy day (27-03-2018) over sampling location. The circle in each map indicates the sampling location. Typical examples of different scanning electron micrographs of aerosols and their percentage contribution of each elemental composition obtained from EDX spectra of aerosol on both clear and hazy days at Ballari (e-g). Fig.7. Mass concentration of various elements and ions in the total mass concentration on 1105-2017 and 01-01-2018 at Ballari. Fig.8. Percentage contribution of various elements and ions in the total mass concentration on 11-05-2017 and 01-01-2018 at Ballari. Fig.9. Concentration Weighted Trajectories map for total suspended particulate mass concentration with 1° resolution for the 28 collected samples using HVS. The highly concentrated area is enlarged which clearly shows the possible source areas (Cyan circles indicates Iron Ore mining areas, Orange coloured triangle indicates coal based power plants, black coloured rhombus indicates steel and cement plants and black coloured star indicates the sampling site).
Fig. 1(a).
Fig. 2(b).
Fig. 2.
(a) 31-08-2017
(b) 08-11-2017
(c) 24-01-2018
(d) 07-02-2018
(e) 14-03-2018
(f) 11-04-2018
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 5.
(b) 23-02-2018 MODIS Aqua Aqua
(a) 23-02-2018 MODIS Terra
(c) 27-03-2018 MODIS Terra Terra
(d) 27-03-2018 MODIS Aqua Aqua
(e) 23-02-2018
(f) 27-03-2018
Fig. 6.
Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.
Fig. 9.
The total mass concentration varied from 103 µg m-3 to 367 µg m-3 over Bellary. EDX results showed aluminosilicate group contains about ~31 % during study period. ICP-OES analysis confirmed the inorganic ions dominant over study region. CWT results showed the major sources were mining and anthropogenic sources over location.