- Email: [email protected]
Chemical composition and antioxidant activities of some indigenous spices consumed in Nigeria
Accepted Manuscript Chemical composition and antioxidant activities of some indigenous spices consumed in Nigeria Henrietta Ene-Obong, NneOla Onuoha, Lilian Aburime, Obioma Mbah PII: DOI: Reference:
S0308-8146(16)32094-5 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.12.072 FOCH 20364
To appear in:
Food Chemistry
Received Date: Revised Date: Accepted Date:
30 June 2016 6 December 2016 20 December 2016
Please cite this article as: Ene-Obong, H., Onuoha, N., Aburime, L., Mbah, O., Chemical composition and antioxidant activities of some indigenous spices consumed in Nigeria, Food Chemistry (2016), doi: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.12.072
This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
1
Title Page
2 3 4
Title: Chemical composition and antioxidant activities of some indigenous spices consumed in Nigeria
5
Henrietta Ene-Obong1, NneOla Onuoha2, Lilian Aburime3, Obioma Mbah4
6 7
1, 3
8
2, 4
Department of Biochemistry (Human Nutrition and Dietetics Unit), Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Calabar, Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria Department of Home Science, Nutrition and Dietetics, University of Nigeria, Nsukka
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
1
17 18
Department of Biochemistry (Human Nutrition & Dietetics Unit), Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Calabar, Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria
19
E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] ;
20
Phone: +234-8036754151
Corresponding author: Prof. Henrietta N. Ene-Obong
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 1
36 37 38 39
Chemical composition and antioxidant activities of some indigenous spices consumed in Nigeria
40
The chemical compositions and antioxidant capacities of seven spices consumed in Southern Nigeria
41
were determined. They were purchased from majors markets in the study area. Edible portions of the
42
spices were ground into fine powder and their nutrient and phytochemical compositions determined using
43
standard methods. Antioxidant activity were determined on aqueous extract using standard assays,
44
namely, 1,1-diphenyl-2picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical ability and ferric reducing antioxidant
45
potential (FRAP). The spices were rich in macro-and micro-nutrients. Ricinodendron. heudelotii had the
46
highest protein (30.6%) and fat (24.6%) contents. Tetrapleura. tetaptera had the least fat content. The
47
total phenol, flavonoid and vitamin C contents differed significantly (p<0.001) from each other.
48
Aframomum citratum had the highest amount of total phenol, flavonoid and DPPH scavenging ability,
49
while Afrostyrax lepidophyllus had the best FRAP. The spices have good nutrient profile and antioxidant
50
potentials. Their increased consumption is recommended and use as functional foods needs to be
51
exploited.
52 53
Keywords: Nutrients; phytocKhemicals; antioxidant activity; indigenous spices.
54
Abstract
1. Introduction
55
The double burden of disease in both developed and developing countries of the world
56
has continued to pose serious health challenges. Apart from under nutrition, middle and low
57
income countries have begun to experience an increase in the prevalence of non-communicable
58
diseases (NCDs). These conditions impose a lot of healthcare cost on individuals, households
59
and nations; hence majority of the population are driven to look to food as cheaper alternatives.
60
Advances in food and nutritional sciences has shown that apart from nutrients, certain foods
61
contain some bioactive substances which provide some health benefits; including reduction in 2
62
cancer risk and modification of tumor behavior (Kaefer & Milner, 2008). Spices are typical
63
examples of such foods.
64
Spices are said to be pungent or aromatic substances which are used as additives for the purpose
65
of flavouring, colouring and preserving foods (Abishek, Panchal, Poudyal & Brown, 2009). In
66
Africa, especially in Nigeria most traditional and indigenous delicacies are prepared with
67
traditional and indigenous spices. These spices are used as additives or cures for certain ailments
68
and diseases or just to add taste or flavor to food. They are also used as preservatives to kills
69
harmful bacteria or prevent their growth (Dalby, 2002). Spices could be obtained from any part
70
of plant as fresh or dried seeds, kernels, bulbs, stalk, roots, barks, leaves, pods or buds. They
71
have been used for thousands of centuries by many cultures to enhance the flavor and aroma of
72
foods. Indigenous cultures recognized the value of spices mainly in preserving foods and for
73
their medicinal value. Such knowledge has been handed down from one generation to another;
74
thus not much attention is given to their nutritional value. Spices also improve appetite and
75
increase the flow of gastric juice. They are said to be useful in the management of convulsion,
76
leprosy, stomach ache, inflammation and rheumatoid pains, cough and loss of appetite (Valko,
77
Leibfritz, Moncol, Cronin, Mazur, Telser, 2007)).
78
Spices abound in Nigeria; some are specific to certain locations and usage is based on
79
cultural food habits and preferences. Despite their wide use in traditional cuisine, most of these
80
spices are missing in national and regional food composition databases/tables. This may be
81
attributed to the fact that spices were regarded as non- nutritive components of food (Kaefer &
82
Milner, 2008). Considerable amount of work has been done in Nigeria on spices, particularly
83
Monodora myristica and Piper guineense (Faleyimu & Oluwalana, 2008; Dike, 2010;
84
Ekeanyanwu, Oge & Nwachukwu, 2010; Uhegbu, Iweala & Kanu, 2011; Bassey, Johnny & 3
85
Okoro, 2011; Akinwumi & Oyedepo, 2013; Okonkwo & Ogu, 2014), however there are issues
86
of proper identification, varying values and units of expression. There is need for more studies to
87
validate existing work and to examine less researched spices for the purpose of including them in
88
the national Food Composition Table (FCT) and exploiting them for other uses in human
89
nutrition.
90
This study was aimed at determining the nutrient and phytochemical compositions as well as the
91
antioxidant capacities of the following spices commonly consumed in Southern Nigerian. The image of
92
these samples is shown in Fig. 1.
93
Monodora myristica is a tropical tree of the family Annonaceae and popularly known as
94
African/Calabash nutmeg. The local names include: “Inwun” in efik; “ehuru” (Igbo), “ariwo”
95
Yoruba, “gujiya-dan-miya” in Hausa; while other names include”ehiri”,”airama” (Okafor, 1987).
96
The fruits are collected from the wild and the seeds dried and sold as whole or shelled seed,
97
which are then ground for use in soups and other foods. The odour and taste mimic that of
98
nutmeg and it is used as a popular spice in West African cuisine in stews, soups, and sauces. It is
99
also used to flavor peanut butter used in eating kola nuts or garden eggs (common items of
100
entertainment in parts of Southern Nigeria). Aqueous extract of the seed has been shown to
101
contain pharmacological compounds such as, alkaloids, flavonoid, vitamin A and E (Eze-Steven,
102
Ishiwu, Udedi, & Ogeneh, 2013), essential oils (Susheela, 2000), while ethanolic extract showed
103
presence of tannins and saponnins (Erukainure, Oke, Owolabi, Kayode, Umanhonlen & Aliyu,
104
2012) . Onyenibe, Fowokemi & Emmanuel (2015) also found that it contains cholesterol
105
lowering ability. A close relation of Monodora myristica is “ehu” in Igbo. Its local name is used
106
interchangeable with Monodora myristica (“ehuru”). It is used in flavouring soups and sauces
107
but has not been sufficiently characterized. 4
108
Aframomum citratum is commonly known as “mfong” (efik), “olima” (Delta Ibo) and “erighoje”
109
(Urobo). Its English name is grain of paradise. It belongs to the family Zingiberaceae (Ginger
110
family) and a close relation of Afromomum melegueta (Alligator pepper). It is an aromatic plant
111
cultivated for its spicy fruits (Iwu, 1993). It is popularly used to prepare “banga” (palm fruit
112
pulp) soup and “nsala” (white soup) soup in Delta State. It has also been found to serve as
113
alternative strategy in managing risk factors and associated co-morbidities of diabetes mellitus
114
(Etoundi, Kuate, Ngondi & Oben, 2010). It extracts have been found to have antifungal,
115
cytotoxic, antibacterial, antihypercholesterolemic, antiviral and anti plasmodial activities (Tane,
116
Tatsimo, Ayimele & Connolly, 2011).
117
Afrostyrax lepidophyllus is also called Bush onion or Country onion in English: This spice
118
belongs to the family Huaceae. It is locally known as “oyim Efik”, meaning Efik onion, probably
119
because of its distinct strong odour similar to onion and garlic. It is best blended into bean
120
dishes, meat, stews, roasted fish and other spices (Iwu, 1993). The seed oil of A. lepidophyllus
121
has been shown to exhibit a strong inhibitory effect on growth of human cancer cells, and a
122
scavenging activity but with negligible antimicrobial effects (Fogang et al. 2014).
123
Ricinodendron heudelotii belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae. It is called “njangsang” (Efik),
124
“okwe” (Igbo), “erinmado” (Yoruba), and “wawangula kurmi” (Hausa). It is a perennial native
125
tree in the tropic and sub-tropics. It is a very important plant because all parts of the tree are
126
used for one purpose or the other. It is seen on compound farms in Nigeria. The colours range
127
from red brown to black, while the kernels are white and yellowish. Substantial work has been
128
done on its oil content which ranged from 44.7-54.7% and containing mainly the polyunsaturated
129
fatty acids α-elaeostearic acid (Kapseu & Tchiegang, 1995) and eicosapentaenoic acid (Ezekwe,
130
Besong & Johnson, 2014). 5
131
Piper guineense Schumach (“Ashanti pepper”, “Benin pepper”): popularly known as “uziza”
132
(Igbo), “odusa” (efik/Ibibio). It belongs to the family Piperaceae. The leaves and seeds are used
133
in preparing soups. The medicinal uses of this spice have been well documented by Echo,
134
Osuagwu, Agbor, Okpako, Ekanem (2012). Traditionally, the seeds are used as postpartum tonic
135
for women to stimulate uterine contraction which is assumed to clear the womb of remains of the
136
placenta and other remains after the birth of the child. A recent review by Morufu, Besong,
137
Serge, Djobissie, Mbamalu & Obimma (2016) revealed the many nutritional and non-nutritional
138
benefits of various parts of the plant. Aqueous extracts of the seed have also been shown to have
139
cholesterol lowering effects (Manta, Saxena, Nema, Singh & Gupta, 2013) and significant
140
increase in hemoglobin level, white blood cell and red blood cell counts of albino Wistar rats
141
(Uhegbu, Chinedu & Amadike (2015).
142
Tetrapleura tetraptera: is known as “uyayaka” (Efik), “ushakirisha/oshosho” (Igbo), “aridan”
143
(Yoruba), “ighimiaka” (Edo) and “oghokiriaho” (“Urogbo”), ‘ikoho” (Nupe). It belongs to the
144
family leguminosae. It is one of the most valued forest spices in Nigeria but is threatened by
145
extinction as a result of deforestation (Akachukwu, 1997). It adds good aroma and flavor to food
146
and therefore increases the pleasure of eating. It is a major spice ingredient for “white soup” and
147
“banga soup” (palm fruit palm) among the Efiks and Ibibios of Southern Nigeria.
148 149
. 2. Materials and Methods
150
2.1 Sample collection
151
Seven (7) spices were purchased from five vendors each in Mariam market in Calabar, Cross
152
River State and Ogboete market, Enugu, Enugu State, Nigeria. The samples were pooled and
6
153
taken for identified by Taxonomists in two Nigerian Universities, namely the University of
154
Calabar, Calabar and the University of Nigeria, Nsukka,
155
2.2 Sample preparation
156
The selected samples were thoroughly screened to remove spoilt ones, stones and other
157
unwanted materials. The samples were prepared according to their usage pattern.
158
Monodora myristica (inwum): The seeds were toasted in a pan over fire for 2 minutes. The hard
159
shell was removed and the inner kernel thoroughly grounded into powder with electric kitchen
160
grinder.
161
Aframomum citratum (mfong): The purchased seeds were sorted to remove all unwanted
162
materials, washed and air-dried. They were then grounded into fine powder using an electric
163
kitchen grinder.
164
Afrostyrax lepidophyllus (oyim Efik): The dried shell was peeled off and the hard seeds were
165
broken into pieces with hammer, ground into fine powder and stored in an air tight container.
166
Ricinodendron heudelotii (Njangsang): the kernels were purchased as dried from the market.
167
They were washed, sundried, ground into fine flour and stored in an air tight container.
168
Piper guineense Schumach: The dried seeds as purchased from the market were picked and
169
sorted to remove all unwanted materials. The seeds were then rinsed in cold water, drained, sun
170
dried and ground into fine powder.
171
Tetrapleura tetraptera (Uyayak): The dried fruits as purchased were cut into pieces and ground
172
into powder.
7
173
All ground samples were stored in air-tight containers and kept in the refrigerator until ready for
174
analyses.
175
2.3 Chemical composition
176
2.3.1 Proximate analysis
177
The proximate composition (moisture, crude protein, crude fibre, lipid, and ash) were
178
determined using the standard A.O.A.C (2006) methods. The nitrogen conversion factor used
179
was 6.25. Total carbohydrate was obtained by difference as follows: 100 – (moisture + protein
180
+lipid + ash).
181
182
2.3.2 Mineral analyses
183
Mineral elements were determined using the Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
184
(Perkin–Elmer Model 3110, USA). Phosphorus was determined using the vanadomolybdate
185
method, while potassium and sodium were determined by flame photometric method.
186
2.3.3 Phytochemical determination and antioxidant activity
187
2.3.3.1 Preparation of extract
188
To 1g of each ground sample, 20 ml of distilled water was added and left overnight. The
189
mixtures were then sieved and centrifuged at 2000g for 3 minutes. The residues were discarded
190
and the supernatant labelled as the stock solutions; 1ml of the stock solution was diluted with 9
191
ml of distilled water to give a 10 ml working solution which was subsequently used for the
192
antioxidant assay. The stock solution and the working solution were preserved in a refrigerator
193
after each assay. 8
194
2.3.3.2 Chemicals and Reagents
195
Chemicals and reagents used such as 1,10-phenanthroline, deoxyribose, gallic acid, Folin–
196
Ciocalteau’s reagent were procured from Sigma-Aldrich, Inc., (St Louis, MO), trichloroacetic
197
acid (TCA) was sourced from Sigma-Aldrich, Chemie GmbH (Steinheim, Germany), hydrogen
198
peroxide, methanol, sodium nitroprusside, gress reagent, acetic acid, hydrochloric acid, sodium
199
carbonate, aluminum chloride, potassium acetate, sodium dodecyl sulphate, iron (II) sulfate,
200
potassium ferricyanide and ferric chloride were sourced from BDH Chemicals Ltd., (Poole,
201
England). Except stated otherwise, all other chemicals and reagents were of analytical grades and
202
the water was glass distilled.
203
204
2.3.3.3 Determination of total phenol content
205
The total phenol content was determined according to the method of Singleton, Orthofer, &
206
Lamuela-raventos (1999). Briefly, appropriate dilutions of the extracts were oxidized with 2.5 ml
207
10% Folin-Ciocalteau’s reagent (v/v) and neutralized by 2.0 ml of 7.5% sodium carbonate. The
208
reaction mixture was incubated for 40 min at 45 oC and the absorbance was measured at 765 nm
209
in the spectrophotometer. The total phenol content was subsequently calculated as gallic acid
210
equivalent (GAE).
211
2.3.3.4 Determination of total flavonoid content
212
The total flavonoid content of the extracts was determined using a slightly modified method
213
reported by Meda, Lamien, Romito, Millogo & Nacoulma (2005). Briefly, 0.5 ml of
214
appropriately diluted sample extract was mixed with 0.5 ml methanol, 50 µl 10% AlCl3, 50 µl 1
215
M potassium acetate and 1.4 ml water and allowed to incubate at room temperature for 30 min.
9
216
The absorbance of the reaction mixture was subsequently measured at 415 nm and the total
217
flavonoid content calculated as quercetin equivalent (QE).
218
2.3.3.5 Determination of vitamin C content
219
Vitamin C content of the polar extracts was determined using the method of Benderitter et al.
220
(1998). Briefly, 75 µL DNPH (2 g dinitrophenyl hydrazine, 230mg thiourea and 270mg
221
CuSO4.5H2O in 100mL of 5mol L−1 H2SO4) were added to 500 µL reaction mixture (300 µL of
222
an appropriate dilution of the polar extract with 100 µL 13.3% (TCA) and water).The reaction
223
mixtures were subsequently incubated for 3 h at 37 ◦C, then 0.5mL of 65% H2SO4 (v/v) was
224
added to the medium; their absorbance was measured at 520nm and the vitamin C content of the
225
samples was subsequently calculated.
226 227
2.3.3.6 Determination of reducing property (FRAP)
228
The reducing properties of the spice samples were determined by assessing the ability of the
229
extracts to reduce FeCl3 solution as described by Oyaizu (1986). A 2.5ml aliquot was mixed with
230
2.5 ml 200 mM sodium phosphate buffer (pH 6.6) and 2.5 ml 1% potassium ferricyanide. The
231
mixture was incubated at 50oC for 20 min. and then 2.5 ml 10 % trichloroacetic acid was added.
232
This mixture was centrifuged at 650 rpm for 10 min. 5 ml of the supernatant was mixed with an
233
equal volume of water and 1 ml 0.1% ferric chloride. The absorbance was measured at 700 nm.
234
The ferric reducing antioxidant property was subsequently calculated.
235
2.3.3.7 Determination of 1,1-diphenyl–2 picrylhydrazyl free radical scavenging ability
236
(DPPH*)
237
The free radical scavenging ability of extracts of the spices against DPPH (1,1-diphenyl–2
238
picrylhydrazyl) free radical were evaluated as described by Gyamfi, Yonamine & Aniya (1999).
239
Appropriate dilutions of the extracts (1 ml) were mixed with 1 ml, 0.4 mM methanolic solution 10
240
containing DPPH radicals, the mixture was left in the dark for 30 min and the absorbance was
241
taken at 516 nm. The DPPH free radical scavenging ability was subsequently calculated as
242
percentage of the control.
243
2.4 Analysis of Data
244
The proximate and mineral compositions were performed in duplicates, while the total
245
phenol, flavonoid, vitamin C and the antioxidant activities were carried out in triplicates. Means
246
of duplicate and triplicate determinations were calculated. One way analysis of variance
247
(ANOVA) and Duncan Multiple range test was used to compare the means. The EC50 was
248
calculated using non-linear regression.
249
3
Results and discussion
250
The proximate composition of the spices is shown in Table 1. The moisture content of the
251
spices were all <10% except for Tetrapleura tetraptera (“uyayak”) which was 13.5%. The high
252
moisture could be an indication of its freshness. The relatively low moisture content of these
253
spices guarantees longer shelf life and makes them safe for consumption as they are sold under
254
normal room temperature, without any form of refrigeration. High moisture level will encourage
255
the growth of microorganism.
256
The protein content ranged from 5.0% in Piper guineense to 30.6% in Ricinodendron heudelotii
257
(“ngangsang”). The 10.5% protein reported for T. tetraptera in this study was above the range of
258
values (5.48 – 7.84%) reported by Uyoh, Ita & Nwofia (2014) who worked on twenty accessions
259
collected from different parts of Cross River State, Nigeria. This may probably be due to
260
seasonal variation/time of harvest.
261
was higher than all the other spices (ranging from 5-13.3%) and compares very well with that of
The protein content of Ricinodendron heudelotii (30.0%)
11
262
soybean, while the protein contents of the other spices compared favourably with those of cereals
263
grains. Ash values did not vary much except for Monodora myristica with 2.0% and Piper
264
guineense with a value of 4.9%; other spices had values ranging from 3.0 – 3.6%. The relatively
265
high ash content indicates presence of mineral constituents in the spices. Crude fibre values
266
varied from 4.4% - 10.3%; Monodora spp. (“ehu”) had the highest value followed by
267
Ricinidendron heudelotii.
268
Unfortunately, most of these spices are not consumed in large quantities and so their contribution
269
to nutrient intake may not be very significant; however, the protein content of Ricinodendron
270
heudelotii cannot be overlooked. The high protein value obtained from this study is comparable
271
with the value reported by Ezekwe et al. (2014). It is therefore not surprising to note that R.
272
heudelotii
273
soups and incorporated into baby cereals and cakes or used as substitute for peanuts in the
274
Cameroon (Leakey, 1999). The fat content ranged from 8.5% in Tetrapleura tetraptera to 24.5%
275
in Ricinodendron heudelotii, and so all the spices could be classified as oily seeds and this can
276
account for their relatively high energy values.
277
tetraptera (1583KJ/379Kcal) and highest in Ricinodendron heudelotii (2000KJ/480Kcal).
is
These nutrient values are high relative to several food groups.
used
as
a
thickening
agent
for
Energy value was lowest for Tetrapleura
278
The fat content reported in this study was lower than the values reported by some authors
279
(Manga, Fondoun, Kengue, & Thiengang, 2000; Faleyimu & Oluwalana, 2008; Ezekwe et al.
280
2014). The fat value reported for Monodora myristica was lower than values obtained by
281
Ekeanyanwu et al. (2010) and Bassey et al. (2011), while value for Piper guineense was similar
282
to the one reported by Okonkwo & Ogu (2014). The observed differences may be attributed to
283
location, maturity, time of harvest, soil type/pH and other conditions. Most of the spices have
284
been shown to contain essential oils (Kiin-Kabari, Barimalaa, Achinewhu & Adeniji, 2011; 12
285
Susheela, 2000); for example, Ezekwe et al. (2014) showed that the fat of Ricinodendron
286
heudelotii contains high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and rich with substantial
287
amounts of omega-3 fatty acids, especially eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), making it a potential
288
alterative to fish oil. A review by Swanson, Block & Mousa (2012) showed that EPA and
289
docohexaenoic acid (DHA) are important for proper fetal development, including neuronal,
290
retinal and immune function and may affect many aspects of cardiovascular functions.
291
For minerals, calcium values ranged from 415 - 660 mg/100g; 220 -715 mg/100g for
292
potassium, 130 - 690 mg/100g for phosphorus, 230 – 690 mg/100g for magnesium, 210 – 323
293
mg/100g for sodium and 5.85 – 19.5 mg/100g for manganese. The iron content ranged from 11.8
294
-24.3 mg/100g, being highest in Afrostyrax lepidophyllus, followed by Monodora spp (20.2
295
mg/100g). Similar high value (21.7 mg/100g) has been reported for Monodora myristica
296
(Ekeanyanwu et al. 2010). Copper values ranged from 0.93 – 3.22 mg/100g, while selenium and
297
iodine ranged from 0.01 – 0.09 mg/100g and 1.74 – 3.68 mg/100g, respectively. Generally,
298
Tetrapleura tetraptera showed the least values for most of the minerals except for zinc (Table 2)
299
where it had similar value of 6.78 mg/100g with Aframomum citratum (“mfong”). Apart from
300
Tetrapleura tetraptera all the spices proved to be potential sources of macro- and micro
301
minerals. Calcium deficiency is likely in Nigeria especially with the low intake of rich calcium
302
containing foods, e.g. milk and milk products, and vegetables. Even though spices are not
303
consumed in large quantities, some of the spices, e. g., Ricinodendron heudelotii could serve as a
304
potential source of calcium which could make substantial contribution to the intakes of
305
population groups if consumed on a more regular basis. Their high calcium and potassium
306
contents need to be exploited in view of their importance in heart and bone health (Weaver,
13
307
2013). They could also be exploited in tackling micronutrient deficiencies, e.g., iron, zinc and
308
copper and iodine.
309
The total phenol and flavonoid and vitamin C content of the spices are shown in Fig 2.
310
Total phenol of Aframomum citratum (13.47 mg/GAE/g) was significantly (p<0.001) higher than
311
the other three spices. The total phenol content of Ricinodendron heudelotii (“njangsang”) was
312
the least (3.64 mg/GAE/g). Similarly, flavonoid content of R. citratum (1.47 mgQE/g) was
313
significantly (p<0.001) the highest, while Afrostyrax lepidophyllus (0.12 mgQE/g) had the least.
314
The vitamin C content varied from each other (Table 2); from 2.03 mgAAE/g in Ricinodendron
315
heudelotii to 7.14 mgAAE/g in Monodora myristica. The lower phenolic content of Monodora
316
myristica compared to Aframomum citratum and Afrostyrax lepidophyllus has been reported by
317
other researchers (Etoundi et al. 2010; Duthie, Gardiner & Kyle (2003).
318
The ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) of the selected spices is shown in Figs 3.
319
Afrostyrax lepidophyllus (“Oyim Efik”/country onion) showed a significantly (p<0.001) higher
320
FRAP value (7.88 mgAAE/L). This was followed by Monodora myristica (5.80 mgAAE/L). R.
321
heudelotii (1.77mgAAE/L) had the least FRAP. The free radical scavenging abilities of the
322
selected spices are shown in Fig. 4. DPPH was significantly (p<0.001) highest for Aframomum
323
citratum (73.3%). EC50 which is the effective concentration at which 50% of free radical were
324
scavenged was 10.3µg/ml. This was followed by Monodora myristica (72.0%) with EC50 of
325
10.58µg/ml. Ricinodendron heudelotii had the least DPPH scavenging ability (56.1%) with EC50
326
of 12.81µg/ml. Using the classification of Kaur & Kapoor (2002), Aframomum citratum and
327
Monodora myristica had high antioxidant activity (>70%), Afrostyrax lepidophllus had medium
328
and Ricinodendron heudelotii low (,< 60%) antioxidant activity.
14
329
The high DPPH of A. citratum could be attributed to its higher amounts of phenolic acid
330
and flavonoids compared to the other spices. Phenolic acids and flavonoids have been shown to
331
be very important group of bioactive compounds in plants that have natural antioxidants
332
important in human health (Kim, Jeond, & Lee, 2003; Dai & Mumper, 2010). M. myristica
333
exhibited high antioxidant activity using both DPPH and FRAP as parameters. In addition to
334
having substantial amount of phenolic acids, it had the highest amount of vitamin C which is also
335
known to be a potent antioxidant. Ricinodendron heudelotii, with the lowest amount of phenolic
336
acid and vitamin C had the lowest DPPH and FRAP ability despites the fact that its flavonoid
337
content was second to that of Aframomum citratum. It has been shown that the capacity of
338
flavonoids to act as powerful antioxidant and free radical scavenger will depend on the position
339
of the hydroxyl groups and other features in the chemical structure (Formica & Regelson, 1995).
340
These may include liquid/aqueous phase partitioning properties of the oxidation condition and
341
the physical state of the oxidation substrate or of the antioxidant (Frankel & Mayer, 2000). This
342
may also account for the high FRAP value obtained from Afrostyrax lepidophyllus despite its
343
low flavonoid content. Fogang et al. (2014) have also reported a good DPPH (.) and ABTS (+)-
344
scavenging activity of the oil of Afrostyrax lepidophyllus.
345
Aqueous extracts were deliberately used in this study rather than methanoic extracts in
346
order to mimic their use in human nutrition. Several authors have also used aqueous extract and
347
found them containing potent bioactive compounds. Onyenibe et al. showed that aqueous extract
348
of Monodora myristica had the ability of significantly reducing total cholesterol (TC),
349
triglycerides (TG) and low-density lipoprotein–cholesterol (LDL-C) and increased high-density
350
lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) in Wistar rats. Dada, Ifesan & Fashakin (2013) working with
351
five local spices found that water extracts (58-77.5%) yielded the highest DPPH scavenging 15
352
activity followed by hexane extracts (44.5-74%) and ethanol extracts (23-47%) and therefore
353
suggested that water extracts of the spices studied may be good antioxidants, while ethanol
354
extracts may be better antimicrobial agents. Furthermore, Etoundi et al. (2010) also suggested
355
that aqueous extract of A. citratum and other spices studied could be offered as teas, foods and/or
356
dietary supplements because of the anti-enzymes (amylase and lipase) activities which could be
357
exploited in the management of chronic diseases, e.g., diabetes mellitus. The aqueous extracts
358
were also found to have high antioxidant activities.
359
3.3 Conclusion
360
Although these spices are consumed in small quantities, they could make substantial
361
contribution to nutrient intake if used more frequently. Mild flavoured spices like R. heudelotii
362
could be exploited for other uses. The high antioxidant and free radical reducing abilities of the
363
spices justify their use for medicinal purposes. Proper description and classification of Nigerian
364
foods is still a major challenge. Awareness of their availability, nutritional and medicinal values
365
needs to be created among the Nigerian population. This is why they should be included in the
366
national FCT/database. More research efforts are needed in this area so that they can be
367
appropriately exploited for use in solving nutritional problems in the society
368
References
369 370 371
Abishek, I., Panchal, S., Poudyal, H., & Brown, L. (2009). Potential health benefits of Indian spices in the symptons of metabolic synfrome: A review. Indian Journal of Biochemistry & Biophysics, 46: 461-481.
372 373 374
Akachukwu, C. O. (1997). State of food plant species and environment management in Southeastern Nigeria. Proceedings of the 25th Annual Conference of the Forestry Association of Nigeria, held in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria, September 22nd-26th, Pp 21-29.
375 376
Akinwumi, K. & Oyedepo, O.O. (2013). Evaluation of antioxidant potential of Monodora myristica (Gaertn) dunel seeds. African Journal of Food Science, 7(9): 317-324. 16
377 378
Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC, 2006). Official Method of Analysis Washington, DC.
379 380 381
Bassey, M. E., Johnny, I. I. & Okoro, B. I. (2011). Lesser known spices of Akwa-Ibom State, their nutritional, anti-nutritional, mineral and phytochemical analyses. Archives of Applied Science Research, 3(3): 553-559.
382 383 384 385
Benderitter, M., Maupoil, V., Vergely, C., Dalloz, F., Briot, F. & Rochette, L. (1998). Studies by electron paramagnetic resonance of the importance of iron in the hydroxyl scavenger properties of ascorbic acid in plasma: effects of iron chelators. Fundamentals Clinical Pharmacology, 12: 510-516.
386 387 388
Dada, A. A., Ifesan, B. O. T. & Fashakin, J.F. (2013). Antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of selected local spices used in “kunun” beverage in Nigeria. Acta Sci. Pol., Technol.Aliment, 12(4): 373-378.
389 390
Dai, J., & Mumper, R. (2010). Plant phenolics: extraction, analysis and their antioxidant and anticancer properties. Molecules, 15:7313-7352.
391
Dalby, A. (2002). Dangerous tastes; the story of spices. Berkeley University of California press.
392 393 394
Dike, M. C. (2010). Proximate, phytochemical and nutritional composition of some fruits, seedsand leaves of some plant species at Umudike, Nigeria. ARPN Journal of Agriculture and Biological Sciences. 5(1):7-16.
395 396
Duthie, G. G., Gardiner, P. T. & Kyle, J. A. (2003). Plant polyphenols, are they the new magic bullets? Proceedings Nutrition Society,62(3):599-603.
397 398 399
Echo, I. A., Osuagwu, A. N., Agbor, R. B., Okpako, E. C. & Ekanem, B. E. (2012). Phytochemical composition of Aframomum melegueta and Piper guineense seeds. World Journal of Applied Enviromental Chemistry, 2(1): 17-21.
400 401
Ekeanyanwu, O. R., Oge, I. G. & Nwachukwu, U. P. (2011). Biochemical characteristics of the African nutmeg, Monodora myristica. Agricultural Journal, 5(5):303-308.
402 403 404
Erukainure, O. L., Oke, O. V., Owolabi, F. O., Kayode, F. O., Umanhonlen, E. E. & Aliyu, M. (2012). Chemical properties of Monodora myristica in vitro. Oxid Antioxid Medi. Sci., 1(2): 127-132.
405 406 407
Etoundi, C. B., Kaute, D., Ngondi, J. L. (2010). Anti-amylase, anti-lipase and antioxidant effects of aqueous extracts of some Cameroonian spices. Journal of Natural Products, 3:165-171.
408 409 410
Ezekwe, M. O., Besong, S. A. & Johnson, R. ((2014). Nutritional composition of omega-3 fatty acids-rich Ricinodendron heudelotii and its potential for nutrition. International Journal of Nutrition & Metabolism, 6 (6): 1-14.
411 412 413
Eze-Steven, P. E., Ishiwu, C. N., Udedi, S. C., & Ogeneh, B. O. (2013). Evaluation of antioxidant potential of Monodora myristica. International Journal of Current Microbiology & Applied Sciences, 2(11): 373-383. 17
414 415 416
Faleyimu, O. I. & Oluwalana, S. A. (2008). Proximate analysis of Monodora myristica (Gaerhn,). Dunal (African nutmeg) in Ogun State, Nigeria. World Journal of Biological Research, 1(2): 1-7.
417 418 419 420 421
Fogang, H. P., Maggi, F., Tapondjou, L. A., Womeni, H. M., Papa, F., Quassinti, L., Bramicci, M., Vitali, L. A., Petrelli, D., Lupidi, G., Vittori, S., & Barboni, L. (2014). In vitro biological activities of seeds essential oil from the Cameroonian spices Afrostyrax lepidophyllus MILDBR & Scordophloeus zenkeri HARMS rich in sulphur-containing compounds. Chem. Biodivers, 11 (1): 161-169
422 423
Formica, J. V., & Regelson, W. (1995). Review of the biology of quercetin and related bioflavonoids. Food Chem Toxicology, 33: 1061-1080.
424 425 426
Frankel, E. N., Mayer, A. S. (2000). The problem of using one dimensional method to evaluate multifunctional food and biological antioxidants. antioxidants, Journal Science. Food Agriculture, 80: 1925-1941.
427 428 429 430
Gyamfi, M. A., Yonamine, M., & Aniya, Y. (1999). Free-radical scavenging action of medicinal herbs from Ghana Thonningia sanguinea on experimentally-induced liver injuries. General Pharmacology, 32: 6661-6667.
431
Iwu,M.M (1993). Hand book of African Medicinal Plant, CRC press; London Pp: 183-184.
432 433
Kaefer, C. M., & Millne, J. A. (2008). The role of herbs and spices in cancer prevention. Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, 19 (6): 347-361.
434 435
Kapseu, C. & Tchiegang, C. (1995). Chemical properties of Ricinodendron Heudelotii (Bail) seed oil. Journal of Food Lipids, 2:87-98.
436 437
Kaur, C. Kapoor, H. C. (2002). Anti-oxidant activity and total phenolic content of some Asian vegetables. International Journal of Food Science & Technology, 37(2): 153-161.
438 439 440 441
Kiin-Kabari, D. B., Barimalaa, I., Achinewhu, S. C., & Adeniji, T. A. (2011). Effect of extracts of 3 indigenous spices on the chemical stability of smoked dried catfish (Clarias lezera) during storage. African Journal Food, Agriculture, Nutrition & Development, 11(6): 7285.
442 443
Kim, D., Jeond, S., Lee, C. (2003). Antioxidant capacity of phenolic phytochemicals from various cultivars of plum, Food Chemistry, 81: 321-326.
444 445
Leakey, R.R. D. (1999). Potential for novel food from agroforestry trees: A review. Food Chemistry, 66: 1-14.
446 447 448
Manga, T. T., Fondoun, J. M., Kengue, J. & Thiengang, C. (2000). Chemical composition of Ricinodendron heudelotii: an indigenous fruit tree in Southern Cameroon. African Crop Science Journal, 8 (2): 195-201.
449 450
Manta, S., Saxena, J., Nema, R., Singh, D. & Gupta, A. (2013). Phytochemistry of medicinal plants. Journal Pharmocogphytochem, 1 (6): 168-182. 18
451 452 453
Meda, A., Lamien, C. E., Romito, M., Millogo, J. & Nacoulma, O. G. (2005). Determination of the total phenolic, flavonoid and proline content in Burkina Faso honey, as well as their tadical scavenging activity. Food Chemistry, 91:571-577.
454 455
Morufu, E. B., Besong, E. E., Serges, F., Djobissie, A., Mbamalu, O. S., Obimma, J. N. (2016). A review of Piper guineense (African Black pepper). Human Journal, 6(1):368-384.
456 457
Okafor, J.C (1987). Compound farms of South-eastern Nigeria: A predominant agroforestry homegarden system with crop and small livestock. Agroforestry System, 5(2): 153-168.
458 459 460
Okonkwo, C. & Ogu, A. (2014). Nutritional evaluation of some selected spices commonly used in the South-eastern part of Nigeria. Journal of Biology, Agriculture & Healthcare, 4(15): 97-102.
461 462 463 464
Onyenibe, N. S., Fowokemi, K. T., Emmanuel, O. B. (2015). African nutmeg (Monodora myristica) lowers cholesterol and modulates lipid peroxidation in experimentally induced hypercholesterolemic male Wistar rats. International Journal Biomedical Science, 11(2): 86-92.
465 466 467
Oyaizu, M. (1986). Studies on products of browning reaction; antioxidative activity of products of browning reaction prepared from glucosamine. Japan Journal of Nutrition, 44:307315.
468 469 470
Singeleton, V. L., Orthofer, R. & Lamuel-raventos, R. M. (1999).Analysis of total phenols and other oxidation substrate and antioxidants by means of Folin-Ciocalteu reagent. Methods Enzymology, 299:152-178.
471 472
Susheela, R. U. (2000).Handbook of spices, seasonings and flavouring (2nd Ed.): Technomic Publing Company, Lancaster, PA, 352pp.
473 474
Swanson, D., Block, R., & Mousa, S. A. (2012). Omega-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA: Health benefits throughout life. Advances in Nutrition, 3:1-7.
475 476
Tane, P., Tatsimo, S. D., Ayimele, G.A. & Connolly, J. D. (2011). 11TH NAPRECA Symposium Book of Proceedings, Antananarivo, Madagascar, 55:214-223.
477 478 479
Uhegbu, F. O., Chinedu, I. & Amadike, E. U. (2015). Effect of aqueous extract of Piper guineense seeds on some liver enzymes, antioxidant enzymes and some hematological parameters in Albino rats. International Journal Plant Science Ecology, 1(4): 167-171.
480 481 482
Uhegbu, F. O., Iweala, E. E. J. & Kanu, I. (2011). Studies on the chemical and antinutritional content of some Nigerian spices. International Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism, 3 (6): 72-76.
483 484 485
Uyoh, E. A., Ita, E. E., Nwofia, D. E. (2014). Evaluation of the chemical composition of Tetrapleura tetraptera (Schum & Thonn) Taub. Accessions from Cross River State, Nigeria. Int. J. Med. Arom. Plants,3(3):386-394.
486 487 488
Valko, M, Leibfritz D, Moncol, J, Cronin, M.t, Mazur M, Telser J (2007). Free radicals and antioxidants in antioxidants in normal physiological functions and human disease. International journal of Biochemistry and cell Biology., 39:44-84. 19
489 490
Weaver, C. M. (2013). Potassium and Health. American Society for Nutrition, Advances in Nutrition: An International Review Journal, 4(3): 368S-377S.
491 492 493 494
20
495
Caption
496
Table 1: Proximate (%), energy value (KJ/Kcal) content of spices consumed in Nigeria.
497
Table 2: Mineral composition of the spices consumed in Nigeria (mg/100g)
498
Fig 1: Pictorial presentation of the spices consumed in Nigeria.
499 500
Fig 2: Vitamin C, total phenol and flavonoid content of selected spices consumed in Southern Nigeria.
501
Fig 3: Ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) of selected spices.
502
Fig 4: DPPH radical scavenging ability of the selected spices.
503 504 505 506 507
21
508 509 510 511 512 513 514 515 516 517 518 519 520 521 522 523 524 525 526 527 528 529 530 531 532 533 534 535 536 537 538 539 540 541 542 543 544 545 546 547 548 549 550
Fig. 1.
551
22
Total phenol content(mg GAE/g)
16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Aframomum citratum
Afrostyrax Ricinodendron lepidophyllum heudelotii Various Spices
Aframomum citratum
Afrostyrax Ricinodendron lepidophyllum heudelotii Various spices
Monodora myristica
552
Total flavonoid (mg QE/g)
553 2 1.5 1 0.5 0
Monodora myristica
554 555
Vitamin C (mg AAE/g)
556 8 6 4 2 0
Aframomum citratum
Afrostyrax lepidophyllum
Ricinodendron heudelotii
Monodora myristica
Various spices
557 558 559
Fig 2.
560 23
Ferric reducing antioxidant power (mg AAE/L)
10 8 6 4 2 0 Aframomum Afrostyrax Ricinodendron citratum lepidophyllum heudelotii Various spices
Monodora myristica
561 562 563
Fig. 3:
564 565 566
24
Monodora myristica
DPPH radical scavenging ability(%)
80
A. lepidophyllum
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0
567
5
10 15 Concentration of extracts (μg/ml)
20
568 569 570
Fig. 4
571 572 573
25
574
575 576 577
Table 1: Proximate (%), energy value (KJ/Kcal) content of spices consumed in Nigeria.
Spice
Moisture Protein Fat
Ash
Fibre
Total Energy CHO* kJ/Kcal
Monodora myristica: “ehuru” Monodora spp.: “ehu” Afromomum citratum: “mfong/olima” Afrostyrax lepidophyllus: “oyim efik” Ricinodendron heudelotii: “njangsang” Piper guineense: “Uziza/odusa” Tetrapleura tetraptera: “uyayak”
6.9
13.3
13.1
2.0
8.2
64.7
1810/433
9.1 9.2
11.1 9.2
9.0 9.6
3.6 3.4
10.3 7.4
67.8 68.6
1674/400 1678/401
7.8
7.7
13.2
3.0
4.4
68.3
1780/426
7.2
30.6
24.5
3.6
9.5
34.1
2006/480
8.8
5.0
8.8
4.9
4.5
72.4
1642/393
13.5
10.5
8.5
3.4
7.5
64.1
1583/379
CHO*= Total Carbohydrate calculated by difference with crude fibre included: 100 – (moisture +protein +lipid + ash);
578 579 580 581 582 583 584 585
26
586
Table 2: Mineral composition of the spices consumed in Nigeria (mg/100g) Spice Monodora myristica: “ehuru” Monodora spp.: “ehu” Afromomum citratum: “mfong/olima” Afrostyrax lepidophyllus: “Oyim efik” Ricinodendron heudelotii: “njangsang” Piper guineense: “Uziza/odusa” Tetrapleura tetraptera: “uyayak”
587
Ca 590
K P Na 310 680 254
Mn 7.14
Mg 540
Fe Cu 11.79 1.07
Zn 3.09
Se 0.06
I 2.35
660
715 ND
225
5.85
ND
20.20 1.19
4.84
0.09
3.68
495
550 690 264
19.5
690
19.76 0.99
6.78
ND
ND
415
710 230 323
7.77
230
24.26 1.71
5.65
0.01
2.86
627
645 460 210
10.29
460
15.28 3.22
5.79
0.02
2.18
445
220 ND
9.9
ND
16.25 1.49
4.98
ND
ND
24
ND
3.68
180
2.32
6.78
0.16
1,74
280
130 18
0.93
ND = Not determined
588 589 590 591 592
27
593 594
Chemical composition and antioxidant activities of some indigenous spices consumed in Nigeria
595
Highlights
596 597 598 599 600
1. 2. 3. 4.
Aqueous extract of most spices contain potent bioactive compounds Frequent consumption of spices can contribute to adequate nutrition and good health Spices (e.g., Ricinodendron heudelotii) can be exploited as functional food Awareness of nutrient potentials and health benefits of local spices is needed
601 602 603 604
28
S0308-8146(16)32094-5 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.12.072 FOCH 20364
To appear in:
Food Chemistry
Received Date: Revised Date: Accepted Date:
30 June 2016 6 December 2016 20 December 2016
Please cite this article as: Ene-Obong, H., Onuoha, N., Aburime, L., Mbah, O., Chemical composition and antioxidant activities of some indigenous spices consumed in Nigeria, Food Chemistry (2016), doi: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.12.072
This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
1
Title Page
2 3 4
Title: Chemical composition and antioxidant activities of some indigenous spices consumed in Nigeria
5
Henrietta Ene-Obong1, NneOla Onuoha2, Lilian Aburime3, Obioma Mbah4
6 7
1, 3
8
2, 4
Department of Biochemistry (Human Nutrition and Dietetics Unit), Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Calabar, Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria Department of Home Science, Nutrition and Dietetics, University of Nigeria, Nsukka
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
1
17 18
Department of Biochemistry (Human Nutrition & Dietetics Unit), Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Calabar, Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria
19
E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] ;
20
Phone: +234-8036754151
Corresponding author: Prof. Henrietta N. Ene-Obong
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 1
36 37 38 39
Chemical composition and antioxidant activities of some indigenous spices consumed in Nigeria
40
The chemical compositions and antioxidant capacities of seven spices consumed in Southern Nigeria
41
were determined. They were purchased from majors markets in the study area. Edible portions of the
42
spices were ground into fine powder and their nutrient and phytochemical compositions determined using
43
standard methods. Antioxidant activity were determined on aqueous extract using standard assays,
44
namely, 1,1-diphenyl-2picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical ability and ferric reducing antioxidant
45
potential (FRAP). The spices were rich in macro-and micro-nutrients. Ricinodendron. heudelotii had the
46
highest protein (30.6%) and fat (24.6%) contents. Tetrapleura. tetaptera had the least fat content. The
47
total phenol, flavonoid and vitamin C contents differed significantly (p<0.001) from each other.
48
Aframomum citratum had the highest amount of total phenol, flavonoid and DPPH scavenging ability,
49
while Afrostyrax lepidophyllus had the best FRAP. The spices have good nutrient profile and antioxidant
50
potentials. Their increased consumption is recommended and use as functional foods needs to be
51
exploited.
52 53
Keywords: Nutrients; phytocKhemicals; antioxidant activity; indigenous spices.
54
Abstract
1. Introduction
55
The double burden of disease in both developed and developing countries of the world
56
has continued to pose serious health challenges. Apart from under nutrition, middle and low
57
income countries have begun to experience an increase in the prevalence of non-communicable
58
diseases (NCDs). These conditions impose a lot of healthcare cost on individuals, households
59
and nations; hence majority of the population are driven to look to food as cheaper alternatives.
60
Advances in food and nutritional sciences has shown that apart from nutrients, certain foods
61
contain some bioactive substances which provide some health benefits; including reduction in 2
62
cancer risk and modification of tumor behavior (Kaefer & Milner, 2008). Spices are typical
63
examples of such foods.
64
Spices are said to be pungent or aromatic substances which are used as additives for the purpose
65
of flavouring, colouring and preserving foods (Abishek, Panchal, Poudyal & Brown, 2009). In
66
Africa, especially in Nigeria most traditional and indigenous delicacies are prepared with
67
traditional and indigenous spices. These spices are used as additives or cures for certain ailments
68
and diseases or just to add taste or flavor to food. They are also used as preservatives to kills
69
harmful bacteria or prevent their growth (Dalby, 2002). Spices could be obtained from any part
70
of plant as fresh or dried seeds, kernels, bulbs, stalk, roots, barks, leaves, pods or buds. They
71
have been used for thousands of centuries by many cultures to enhance the flavor and aroma of
72
foods. Indigenous cultures recognized the value of spices mainly in preserving foods and for
73
their medicinal value. Such knowledge has been handed down from one generation to another;
74
thus not much attention is given to their nutritional value. Spices also improve appetite and
75
increase the flow of gastric juice. They are said to be useful in the management of convulsion,
76
leprosy, stomach ache, inflammation and rheumatoid pains, cough and loss of appetite (Valko,
77
Leibfritz, Moncol, Cronin, Mazur, Telser, 2007)).
78
Spices abound in Nigeria; some are specific to certain locations and usage is based on
79
cultural food habits and preferences. Despite their wide use in traditional cuisine, most of these
80
spices are missing in national and regional food composition databases/tables. This may be
81
attributed to the fact that spices were regarded as non- nutritive components of food (Kaefer &
82
Milner, 2008). Considerable amount of work has been done in Nigeria on spices, particularly
83
Monodora myristica and Piper guineense (Faleyimu & Oluwalana, 2008; Dike, 2010;
84
Ekeanyanwu, Oge & Nwachukwu, 2010; Uhegbu, Iweala & Kanu, 2011; Bassey, Johnny & 3
85
Okoro, 2011; Akinwumi & Oyedepo, 2013; Okonkwo & Ogu, 2014), however there are issues
86
of proper identification, varying values and units of expression. There is need for more studies to
87
validate existing work and to examine less researched spices for the purpose of including them in
88
the national Food Composition Table (FCT) and exploiting them for other uses in human
89
nutrition.
90
This study was aimed at determining the nutrient and phytochemical compositions as well as the
91
antioxidant capacities of the following spices commonly consumed in Southern Nigerian. The image of
92
these samples is shown in Fig. 1.
93
Monodora myristica is a tropical tree of the family Annonaceae and popularly known as
94
African/Calabash nutmeg. The local names include: “Inwun” in efik; “ehuru” (Igbo), “ariwo”
95
Yoruba, “gujiya-dan-miya” in Hausa; while other names include”ehiri”,”airama” (Okafor, 1987).
96
The fruits are collected from the wild and the seeds dried and sold as whole or shelled seed,
97
which are then ground for use in soups and other foods. The odour and taste mimic that of
98
nutmeg and it is used as a popular spice in West African cuisine in stews, soups, and sauces. It is
99
also used to flavor peanut butter used in eating kola nuts or garden eggs (common items of
100
entertainment in parts of Southern Nigeria). Aqueous extract of the seed has been shown to
101
contain pharmacological compounds such as, alkaloids, flavonoid, vitamin A and E (Eze-Steven,
102
Ishiwu, Udedi, & Ogeneh, 2013), essential oils (Susheela, 2000), while ethanolic extract showed
103
presence of tannins and saponnins (Erukainure, Oke, Owolabi, Kayode, Umanhonlen & Aliyu,
104
2012) . Onyenibe, Fowokemi & Emmanuel (2015) also found that it contains cholesterol
105
lowering ability. A close relation of Monodora myristica is “ehu” in Igbo. Its local name is used
106
interchangeable with Monodora myristica (“ehuru”). It is used in flavouring soups and sauces
107
but has not been sufficiently characterized. 4
108
Aframomum citratum is commonly known as “mfong” (efik), “olima” (Delta Ibo) and “erighoje”
109
(Urobo). Its English name is grain of paradise. It belongs to the family Zingiberaceae (Ginger
110
family) and a close relation of Afromomum melegueta (Alligator pepper). It is an aromatic plant
111
cultivated for its spicy fruits (Iwu, 1993). It is popularly used to prepare “banga” (palm fruit
112
pulp) soup and “nsala” (white soup) soup in Delta State. It has also been found to serve as
113
alternative strategy in managing risk factors and associated co-morbidities of diabetes mellitus
114
(Etoundi, Kuate, Ngondi & Oben, 2010). It extracts have been found to have antifungal,
115
cytotoxic, antibacterial, antihypercholesterolemic, antiviral and anti plasmodial activities (Tane,
116
Tatsimo, Ayimele & Connolly, 2011).
117
Afrostyrax lepidophyllus is also called Bush onion or Country onion in English: This spice
118
belongs to the family Huaceae. It is locally known as “oyim Efik”, meaning Efik onion, probably
119
because of its distinct strong odour similar to onion and garlic. It is best blended into bean
120
dishes, meat, stews, roasted fish and other spices (Iwu, 1993). The seed oil of A. lepidophyllus
121
has been shown to exhibit a strong inhibitory effect on growth of human cancer cells, and a
122
scavenging activity but with negligible antimicrobial effects (Fogang et al. 2014).
123
Ricinodendron heudelotii belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae. It is called “njangsang” (Efik),
124
“okwe” (Igbo), “erinmado” (Yoruba), and “wawangula kurmi” (Hausa). It is a perennial native
125
tree in the tropic and sub-tropics. It is a very important plant because all parts of the tree are
126
used for one purpose or the other. It is seen on compound farms in Nigeria. The colours range
127
from red brown to black, while the kernels are white and yellowish. Substantial work has been
128
done on its oil content which ranged from 44.7-54.7% and containing mainly the polyunsaturated
129
fatty acids α-elaeostearic acid (Kapseu & Tchiegang, 1995) and eicosapentaenoic acid (Ezekwe,
130
Besong & Johnson, 2014). 5
131
Piper guineense Schumach (“Ashanti pepper”, “Benin pepper”): popularly known as “uziza”
132
(Igbo), “odusa” (efik/Ibibio). It belongs to the family Piperaceae. The leaves and seeds are used
133
in preparing soups. The medicinal uses of this spice have been well documented by Echo,
134
Osuagwu, Agbor, Okpako, Ekanem (2012). Traditionally, the seeds are used as postpartum tonic
135
for women to stimulate uterine contraction which is assumed to clear the womb of remains of the
136
placenta and other remains after the birth of the child. A recent review by Morufu, Besong,
137
Serge, Djobissie, Mbamalu & Obimma (2016) revealed the many nutritional and non-nutritional
138
benefits of various parts of the plant. Aqueous extracts of the seed have also been shown to have
139
cholesterol lowering effects (Manta, Saxena, Nema, Singh & Gupta, 2013) and significant
140
increase in hemoglobin level, white blood cell and red blood cell counts of albino Wistar rats
141
(Uhegbu, Chinedu & Amadike (2015).
142
Tetrapleura tetraptera: is known as “uyayaka” (Efik), “ushakirisha/oshosho” (Igbo), “aridan”
143
(Yoruba), “ighimiaka” (Edo) and “oghokiriaho” (“Urogbo”), ‘ikoho” (Nupe). It belongs to the
144
family leguminosae. It is one of the most valued forest spices in Nigeria but is threatened by
145
extinction as a result of deforestation (Akachukwu, 1997). It adds good aroma and flavor to food
146
and therefore increases the pleasure of eating. It is a major spice ingredient for “white soup” and
147
“banga soup” (palm fruit palm) among the Efiks and Ibibios of Southern Nigeria.
148 149
. 2. Materials and Methods
150
2.1 Sample collection
151
Seven (7) spices were purchased from five vendors each in Mariam market in Calabar, Cross
152
River State and Ogboete market, Enugu, Enugu State, Nigeria. The samples were pooled and
6
153
taken for identified by Taxonomists in two Nigerian Universities, namely the University of
154
Calabar, Calabar and the University of Nigeria, Nsukka,
155
2.2 Sample preparation
156
The selected samples were thoroughly screened to remove spoilt ones, stones and other
157
unwanted materials. The samples were prepared according to their usage pattern.
158
Monodora myristica (inwum): The seeds were toasted in a pan over fire for 2 minutes. The hard
159
shell was removed and the inner kernel thoroughly grounded into powder with electric kitchen
160
grinder.
161
Aframomum citratum (mfong): The purchased seeds were sorted to remove all unwanted
162
materials, washed and air-dried. They were then grounded into fine powder using an electric
163
kitchen grinder.
164
Afrostyrax lepidophyllus (oyim Efik): The dried shell was peeled off and the hard seeds were
165
broken into pieces with hammer, ground into fine powder and stored in an air tight container.
166
Ricinodendron heudelotii (Njangsang): the kernels were purchased as dried from the market.
167
They were washed, sundried, ground into fine flour and stored in an air tight container.
168
Piper guineense Schumach: The dried seeds as purchased from the market were picked and
169
sorted to remove all unwanted materials. The seeds were then rinsed in cold water, drained, sun
170
dried and ground into fine powder.
171
Tetrapleura tetraptera (Uyayak): The dried fruits as purchased were cut into pieces and ground
172
into powder.
7
173
All ground samples were stored in air-tight containers and kept in the refrigerator until ready for
174
analyses.
175
2.3 Chemical composition
176
2.3.1 Proximate analysis
177
The proximate composition (moisture, crude protein, crude fibre, lipid, and ash) were
178
determined using the standard A.O.A.C (2006) methods. The nitrogen conversion factor used
179
was 6.25. Total carbohydrate was obtained by difference as follows: 100 – (moisture + protein
180
+lipid + ash).
181
182
2.3.2 Mineral analyses
183
Mineral elements were determined using the Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
184
(Perkin–Elmer Model 3110, USA). Phosphorus was determined using the vanadomolybdate
185
method, while potassium and sodium were determined by flame photometric method.
186
2.3.3 Phytochemical determination and antioxidant activity
187
2.3.3.1 Preparation of extract
188
To 1g of each ground sample, 20 ml of distilled water was added and left overnight. The
189
mixtures were then sieved and centrifuged at 2000g for 3 minutes. The residues were discarded
190
and the supernatant labelled as the stock solutions; 1ml of the stock solution was diluted with 9
191
ml of distilled water to give a 10 ml working solution which was subsequently used for the
192
antioxidant assay. The stock solution and the working solution were preserved in a refrigerator
193
after each assay. 8
194
2.3.3.2 Chemicals and Reagents
195
Chemicals and reagents used such as 1,10-phenanthroline, deoxyribose, gallic acid, Folin–
196
Ciocalteau’s reagent were procured from Sigma-Aldrich, Inc., (St Louis, MO), trichloroacetic
197
acid (TCA) was sourced from Sigma-Aldrich, Chemie GmbH (Steinheim, Germany), hydrogen
198
peroxide, methanol, sodium nitroprusside, gress reagent, acetic acid, hydrochloric acid, sodium
199
carbonate, aluminum chloride, potassium acetate, sodium dodecyl sulphate, iron (II) sulfate,
200
potassium ferricyanide and ferric chloride were sourced from BDH Chemicals Ltd., (Poole,
201
England). Except stated otherwise, all other chemicals and reagents were of analytical grades and
202
the water was glass distilled.
203
204
2.3.3.3 Determination of total phenol content
205
The total phenol content was determined according to the method of Singleton, Orthofer, &
206
Lamuela-raventos (1999). Briefly, appropriate dilutions of the extracts were oxidized with 2.5 ml
207
10% Folin-Ciocalteau’s reagent (v/v) and neutralized by 2.0 ml of 7.5% sodium carbonate. The
208
reaction mixture was incubated for 40 min at 45 oC and the absorbance was measured at 765 nm
209
in the spectrophotometer. The total phenol content was subsequently calculated as gallic acid
210
equivalent (GAE).
211
2.3.3.4 Determination of total flavonoid content
212
The total flavonoid content of the extracts was determined using a slightly modified method
213
reported by Meda, Lamien, Romito, Millogo & Nacoulma (2005). Briefly, 0.5 ml of
214
appropriately diluted sample extract was mixed with 0.5 ml methanol, 50 µl 10% AlCl3, 50 µl 1
215
M potassium acetate and 1.4 ml water and allowed to incubate at room temperature for 30 min.
9
216
The absorbance of the reaction mixture was subsequently measured at 415 nm and the total
217
flavonoid content calculated as quercetin equivalent (QE).
218
2.3.3.5 Determination of vitamin C content
219
Vitamin C content of the polar extracts was determined using the method of Benderitter et al.
220
(1998). Briefly, 75 µL DNPH (2 g dinitrophenyl hydrazine, 230mg thiourea and 270mg
221
CuSO4.5H2O in 100mL of 5mol L−1 H2SO4) were added to 500 µL reaction mixture (300 µL of
222
an appropriate dilution of the polar extract with 100 µL 13.3% (TCA) and water).The reaction
223
mixtures were subsequently incubated for 3 h at 37 ◦C, then 0.5mL of 65% H2SO4 (v/v) was
224
added to the medium; their absorbance was measured at 520nm and the vitamin C content of the
225
samples was subsequently calculated.
226 227
2.3.3.6 Determination of reducing property (FRAP)
228
The reducing properties of the spice samples were determined by assessing the ability of the
229
extracts to reduce FeCl3 solution as described by Oyaizu (1986). A 2.5ml aliquot was mixed with
230
2.5 ml 200 mM sodium phosphate buffer (pH 6.6) and 2.5 ml 1% potassium ferricyanide. The
231
mixture was incubated at 50oC for 20 min. and then 2.5 ml 10 % trichloroacetic acid was added.
232
This mixture was centrifuged at 650 rpm for 10 min. 5 ml of the supernatant was mixed with an
233
equal volume of water and 1 ml 0.1% ferric chloride. The absorbance was measured at 700 nm.
234
The ferric reducing antioxidant property was subsequently calculated.
235
2.3.3.7 Determination of 1,1-diphenyl–2 picrylhydrazyl free radical scavenging ability
236
(DPPH*)
237
The free radical scavenging ability of extracts of the spices against DPPH (1,1-diphenyl–2
238
picrylhydrazyl) free radical were evaluated as described by Gyamfi, Yonamine & Aniya (1999).
239
Appropriate dilutions of the extracts (1 ml) were mixed with 1 ml, 0.4 mM methanolic solution 10
240
containing DPPH radicals, the mixture was left in the dark for 30 min and the absorbance was
241
taken at 516 nm. The DPPH free radical scavenging ability was subsequently calculated as
242
percentage of the control.
243
2.4 Analysis of Data
244
The proximate and mineral compositions were performed in duplicates, while the total
245
phenol, flavonoid, vitamin C and the antioxidant activities were carried out in triplicates. Means
246
of duplicate and triplicate determinations were calculated. One way analysis of variance
247
(ANOVA) and Duncan Multiple range test was used to compare the means. The EC50 was
248
calculated using non-linear regression.
249
3
Results and discussion
250
The proximate composition of the spices is shown in Table 1. The moisture content of the
251
spices were all <10% except for Tetrapleura tetraptera (“uyayak”) which was 13.5%. The high
252
moisture could be an indication of its freshness. The relatively low moisture content of these
253
spices guarantees longer shelf life and makes them safe for consumption as they are sold under
254
normal room temperature, without any form of refrigeration. High moisture level will encourage
255
the growth of microorganism.
256
The protein content ranged from 5.0% in Piper guineense to 30.6% in Ricinodendron heudelotii
257
(“ngangsang”). The 10.5% protein reported for T. tetraptera in this study was above the range of
258
values (5.48 – 7.84%) reported by Uyoh, Ita & Nwofia (2014) who worked on twenty accessions
259
collected from different parts of Cross River State, Nigeria. This may probably be due to
260
seasonal variation/time of harvest.
261
was higher than all the other spices (ranging from 5-13.3%) and compares very well with that of
The protein content of Ricinodendron heudelotii (30.0%)
11
262
soybean, while the protein contents of the other spices compared favourably with those of cereals
263
grains. Ash values did not vary much except for Monodora myristica with 2.0% and Piper
264
guineense with a value of 4.9%; other spices had values ranging from 3.0 – 3.6%. The relatively
265
high ash content indicates presence of mineral constituents in the spices. Crude fibre values
266
varied from 4.4% - 10.3%; Monodora spp. (“ehu”) had the highest value followed by
267
Ricinidendron heudelotii.
268
Unfortunately, most of these spices are not consumed in large quantities and so their contribution
269
to nutrient intake may not be very significant; however, the protein content of Ricinodendron
270
heudelotii cannot be overlooked. The high protein value obtained from this study is comparable
271
with the value reported by Ezekwe et al. (2014). It is therefore not surprising to note that R.
272
heudelotii
273
soups and incorporated into baby cereals and cakes or used as substitute for peanuts in the
274
Cameroon (Leakey, 1999). The fat content ranged from 8.5% in Tetrapleura tetraptera to 24.5%
275
in Ricinodendron heudelotii, and so all the spices could be classified as oily seeds and this can
276
account for their relatively high energy values.
277
tetraptera (1583KJ/379Kcal) and highest in Ricinodendron heudelotii (2000KJ/480Kcal).
is
These nutrient values are high relative to several food groups.
used
as
a
thickening
agent
for
Energy value was lowest for Tetrapleura
278
The fat content reported in this study was lower than the values reported by some authors
279
(Manga, Fondoun, Kengue, & Thiengang, 2000; Faleyimu & Oluwalana, 2008; Ezekwe et al.
280
2014). The fat value reported for Monodora myristica was lower than values obtained by
281
Ekeanyanwu et al. (2010) and Bassey et al. (2011), while value for Piper guineense was similar
282
to the one reported by Okonkwo & Ogu (2014). The observed differences may be attributed to
283
location, maturity, time of harvest, soil type/pH and other conditions. Most of the spices have
284
been shown to contain essential oils (Kiin-Kabari, Barimalaa, Achinewhu & Adeniji, 2011; 12
285
Susheela, 2000); for example, Ezekwe et al. (2014) showed that the fat of Ricinodendron
286
heudelotii contains high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and rich with substantial
287
amounts of omega-3 fatty acids, especially eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), making it a potential
288
alterative to fish oil. A review by Swanson, Block & Mousa (2012) showed that EPA and
289
docohexaenoic acid (DHA) are important for proper fetal development, including neuronal,
290
retinal and immune function and may affect many aspects of cardiovascular functions.
291
For minerals, calcium values ranged from 415 - 660 mg/100g; 220 -715 mg/100g for
292
potassium, 130 - 690 mg/100g for phosphorus, 230 – 690 mg/100g for magnesium, 210 – 323
293
mg/100g for sodium and 5.85 – 19.5 mg/100g for manganese. The iron content ranged from 11.8
294
-24.3 mg/100g, being highest in Afrostyrax lepidophyllus, followed by Monodora spp (20.2
295
mg/100g). Similar high value (21.7 mg/100g) has been reported for Monodora myristica
296
(Ekeanyanwu et al. 2010). Copper values ranged from 0.93 – 3.22 mg/100g, while selenium and
297
iodine ranged from 0.01 – 0.09 mg/100g and 1.74 – 3.68 mg/100g, respectively. Generally,
298
Tetrapleura tetraptera showed the least values for most of the minerals except for zinc (Table 2)
299
where it had similar value of 6.78 mg/100g with Aframomum citratum (“mfong”). Apart from
300
Tetrapleura tetraptera all the spices proved to be potential sources of macro- and micro
301
minerals. Calcium deficiency is likely in Nigeria especially with the low intake of rich calcium
302
containing foods, e.g. milk and milk products, and vegetables. Even though spices are not
303
consumed in large quantities, some of the spices, e. g., Ricinodendron heudelotii could serve as a
304
potential source of calcium which could make substantial contribution to the intakes of
305
population groups if consumed on a more regular basis. Their high calcium and potassium
306
contents need to be exploited in view of their importance in heart and bone health (Weaver,
13
307
2013). They could also be exploited in tackling micronutrient deficiencies, e.g., iron, zinc and
308
copper and iodine.
309
The total phenol and flavonoid and vitamin C content of the spices are shown in Fig 2.
310
Total phenol of Aframomum citratum (13.47 mg/GAE/g) was significantly (p<0.001) higher than
311
the other three spices. The total phenol content of Ricinodendron heudelotii (“njangsang”) was
312
the least (3.64 mg/GAE/g). Similarly, flavonoid content of R. citratum (1.47 mgQE/g) was
313
significantly (p<0.001) the highest, while Afrostyrax lepidophyllus (0.12 mgQE/g) had the least.
314
The vitamin C content varied from each other (Table 2); from 2.03 mgAAE/g in Ricinodendron
315
heudelotii to 7.14 mgAAE/g in Monodora myristica. The lower phenolic content of Monodora
316
myristica compared to Aframomum citratum and Afrostyrax lepidophyllus has been reported by
317
other researchers (Etoundi et al. 2010; Duthie, Gardiner & Kyle (2003).
318
The ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) of the selected spices is shown in Figs 3.
319
Afrostyrax lepidophyllus (“Oyim Efik”/country onion) showed a significantly (p<0.001) higher
320
FRAP value (7.88 mgAAE/L). This was followed by Monodora myristica (5.80 mgAAE/L). R.
321
heudelotii (1.77mgAAE/L) had the least FRAP. The free radical scavenging abilities of the
322
selected spices are shown in Fig. 4. DPPH was significantly (p<0.001) highest for Aframomum
323
citratum (73.3%). EC50 which is the effective concentration at which 50% of free radical were
324
scavenged was 10.3µg/ml. This was followed by Monodora myristica (72.0%) with EC50 of
325
10.58µg/ml. Ricinodendron heudelotii had the least DPPH scavenging ability (56.1%) with EC50
326
of 12.81µg/ml. Using the classification of Kaur & Kapoor (2002), Aframomum citratum and
327
Monodora myristica had high antioxidant activity (>70%), Afrostyrax lepidophllus had medium
328
and Ricinodendron heudelotii low (,< 60%) antioxidant activity.
14
329
The high DPPH of A. citratum could be attributed to its higher amounts of phenolic acid
330
and flavonoids compared to the other spices. Phenolic acids and flavonoids have been shown to
331
be very important group of bioactive compounds in plants that have natural antioxidants
332
important in human health (Kim, Jeond, & Lee, 2003; Dai & Mumper, 2010). M. myristica
333
exhibited high antioxidant activity using both DPPH and FRAP as parameters. In addition to
334
having substantial amount of phenolic acids, it had the highest amount of vitamin C which is also
335
known to be a potent antioxidant. Ricinodendron heudelotii, with the lowest amount of phenolic
336
acid and vitamin C had the lowest DPPH and FRAP ability despites the fact that its flavonoid
337
content was second to that of Aframomum citratum. It has been shown that the capacity of
338
flavonoids to act as powerful antioxidant and free radical scavenger will depend on the position
339
of the hydroxyl groups and other features in the chemical structure (Formica & Regelson, 1995).
340
These may include liquid/aqueous phase partitioning properties of the oxidation condition and
341
the physical state of the oxidation substrate or of the antioxidant (Frankel & Mayer, 2000). This
342
may also account for the high FRAP value obtained from Afrostyrax lepidophyllus despite its
343
low flavonoid content. Fogang et al. (2014) have also reported a good DPPH (.) and ABTS (+)-
344
scavenging activity of the oil of Afrostyrax lepidophyllus.
345
Aqueous extracts were deliberately used in this study rather than methanoic extracts in
346
order to mimic their use in human nutrition. Several authors have also used aqueous extract and
347
found them containing potent bioactive compounds. Onyenibe et al. showed that aqueous extract
348
of Monodora myristica had the ability of significantly reducing total cholesterol (TC),
349
triglycerides (TG) and low-density lipoprotein–cholesterol (LDL-C) and increased high-density
350
lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) in Wistar rats. Dada, Ifesan & Fashakin (2013) working with
351
five local spices found that water extracts (58-77.5%) yielded the highest DPPH scavenging 15
352
activity followed by hexane extracts (44.5-74%) and ethanol extracts (23-47%) and therefore
353
suggested that water extracts of the spices studied may be good antioxidants, while ethanol
354
extracts may be better antimicrobial agents. Furthermore, Etoundi et al. (2010) also suggested
355
that aqueous extract of A. citratum and other spices studied could be offered as teas, foods and/or
356
dietary supplements because of the anti-enzymes (amylase and lipase) activities which could be
357
exploited in the management of chronic diseases, e.g., diabetes mellitus. The aqueous extracts
358
were also found to have high antioxidant activities.
359
3.3 Conclusion
360
Although these spices are consumed in small quantities, they could make substantial
361
contribution to nutrient intake if used more frequently. Mild flavoured spices like R. heudelotii
362
could be exploited for other uses. The high antioxidant and free radical reducing abilities of the
363
spices justify their use for medicinal purposes. Proper description and classification of Nigerian
364
foods is still a major challenge. Awareness of their availability, nutritional and medicinal values
365
needs to be created among the Nigerian population. This is why they should be included in the
366
national FCT/database. More research efforts are needed in this area so that they can be
367
appropriately exploited for use in solving nutritional problems in the society
368
References
369 370 371
Abishek, I., Panchal, S., Poudyal, H., & Brown, L. (2009). Potential health benefits of Indian spices in the symptons of metabolic synfrome: A review. Indian Journal of Biochemistry & Biophysics, 46: 461-481.
372 373 374
Akachukwu, C. O. (1997). State of food plant species and environment management in Southeastern Nigeria. Proceedings of the 25th Annual Conference of the Forestry Association of Nigeria, held in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria, September 22nd-26th, Pp 21-29.
375 376
Akinwumi, K. & Oyedepo, O.O. (2013). Evaluation of antioxidant potential of Monodora myristica (Gaertn) dunel seeds. African Journal of Food Science, 7(9): 317-324. 16
377 378
Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC, 2006). Official Method of Analysis Washington, DC.
379 380 381
Bassey, M. E., Johnny, I. I. & Okoro, B. I. (2011). Lesser known spices of Akwa-Ibom State, their nutritional, anti-nutritional, mineral and phytochemical analyses. Archives of Applied Science Research, 3(3): 553-559.
382 383 384 385
Benderitter, M., Maupoil, V., Vergely, C., Dalloz, F., Briot, F. & Rochette, L. (1998). Studies by electron paramagnetic resonance of the importance of iron in the hydroxyl scavenger properties of ascorbic acid in plasma: effects of iron chelators. Fundamentals Clinical Pharmacology, 12: 510-516.
386 387 388
Dada, A. A., Ifesan, B. O. T. & Fashakin, J.F. (2013). Antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of selected local spices used in “kunun” beverage in Nigeria. Acta Sci. Pol., Technol.Aliment, 12(4): 373-378.
389 390
Dai, J., & Mumper, R. (2010). Plant phenolics: extraction, analysis and their antioxidant and anticancer properties. Molecules, 15:7313-7352.
391
Dalby, A. (2002). Dangerous tastes; the story of spices. Berkeley University of California press.
392 393 394
Dike, M. C. (2010). Proximate, phytochemical and nutritional composition of some fruits, seedsand leaves of some plant species at Umudike, Nigeria. ARPN Journal of Agriculture and Biological Sciences. 5(1):7-16.
395 396
Duthie, G. G., Gardiner, P. T. & Kyle, J. A. (2003). Plant polyphenols, are they the new magic bullets? Proceedings Nutrition Society,62(3):599-603.
397 398 399
Echo, I. A., Osuagwu, A. N., Agbor, R. B., Okpako, E. C. & Ekanem, B. E. (2012). Phytochemical composition of Aframomum melegueta and Piper guineense seeds. World Journal of Applied Enviromental Chemistry, 2(1): 17-21.
400 401
Ekeanyanwu, O. R., Oge, I. G. & Nwachukwu, U. P. (2011). Biochemical characteristics of the African nutmeg, Monodora myristica. Agricultural Journal, 5(5):303-308.
402 403 404
Erukainure, O. L., Oke, O. V., Owolabi, F. O., Kayode, F. O., Umanhonlen, E. E. & Aliyu, M. (2012). Chemical properties of Monodora myristica in vitro. Oxid Antioxid Medi. Sci., 1(2): 127-132.
405 406 407
Etoundi, C. B., Kaute, D., Ngondi, J. L. (2010). Anti-amylase, anti-lipase and antioxidant effects of aqueous extracts of some Cameroonian spices. Journal of Natural Products, 3:165-171.
408 409 410
Ezekwe, M. O., Besong, S. A. & Johnson, R. ((2014). Nutritional composition of omega-3 fatty acids-rich Ricinodendron heudelotii and its potential for nutrition. International Journal of Nutrition & Metabolism, 6 (6): 1-14.
411 412 413
Eze-Steven, P. E., Ishiwu, C. N., Udedi, S. C., & Ogeneh, B. O. (2013). Evaluation of antioxidant potential of Monodora myristica. International Journal of Current Microbiology & Applied Sciences, 2(11): 373-383. 17
414 415 416
Faleyimu, O. I. & Oluwalana, S. A. (2008). Proximate analysis of Monodora myristica (Gaerhn,). Dunal (African nutmeg) in Ogun State, Nigeria. World Journal of Biological Research, 1(2): 1-7.
417 418 419 420 421
Fogang, H. P., Maggi, F., Tapondjou, L. A., Womeni, H. M., Papa, F., Quassinti, L., Bramicci, M., Vitali, L. A., Petrelli, D., Lupidi, G., Vittori, S., & Barboni, L. (2014). In vitro biological activities of seeds essential oil from the Cameroonian spices Afrostyrax lepidophyllus MILDBR & Scordophloeus zenkeri HARMS rich in sulphur-containing compounds. Chem. Biodivers, 11 (1): 161-169
422 423
Formica, J. V., & Regelson, W. (1995). Review of the biology of quercetin and related bioflavonoids. Food Chem Toxicology, 33: 1061-1080.
424 425 426
Frankel, E. N., Mayer, A. S. (2000). The problem of using one dimensional method to evaluate multifunctional food and biological antioxidants. antioxidants, Journal Science. Food Agriculture, 80: 1925-1941.
427 428 429 430
Gyamfi, M. A., Yonamine, M., & Aniya, Y. (1999). Free-radical scavenging action of medicinal herbs from Ghana Thonningia sanguinea on experimentally-induced liver injuries. General Pharmacology, 32: 6661-6667.
431
Iwu,M.M (1993). Hand book of African Medicinal Plant, CRC press; London Pp: 183-184.
432 433
Kaefer, C. M., & Millne, J. A. (2008). The role of herbs and spices in cancer prevention. Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, 19 (6): 347-361.
434 435
Kapseu, C. & Tchiegang, C. (1995). Chemical properties of Ricinodendron Heudelotii (Bail) seed oil. Journal of Food Lipids, 2:87-98.
436 437
Kaur, C. Kapoor, H. C. (2002). Anti-oxidant activity and total phenolic content of some Asian vegetables. International Journal of Food Science & Technology, 37(2): 153-161.
438 439 440 441
Kiin-Kabari, D. B., Barimalaa, I., Achinewhu, S. C., & Adeniji, T. A. (2011). Effect of extracts of 3 indigenous spices on the chemical stability of smoked dried catfish (Clarias lezera) during storage. African Journal Food, Agriculture, Nutrition & Development, 11(6): 7285.
442 443
Kim, D., Jeond, S., Lee, C. (2003). Antioxidant capacity of phenolic phytochemicals from various cultivars of plum, Food Chemistry, 81: 321-326.
444 445
Leakey, R.R. D. (1999). Potential for novel food from agroforestry trees: A review. Food Chemistry, 66: 1-14.
446 447 448
Manga, T. T., Fondoun, J. M., Kengue, J. & Thiengang, C. (2000). Chemical composition of Ricinodendron heudelotii: an indigenous fruit tree in Southern Cameroon. African Crop Science Journal, 8 (2): 195-201.
449 450
Manta, S., Saxena, J., Nema, R., Singh, D. & Gupta, A. (2013). Phytochemistry of medicinal plants. Journal Pharmocogphytochem, 1 (6): 168-182. 18
451 452 453
Meda, A., Lamien, C. E., Romito, M., Millogo, J. & Nacoulma, O. G. (2005). Determination of the total phenolic, flavonoid and proline content in Burkina Faso honey, as well as their tadical scavenging activity. Food Chemistry, 91:571-577.
454 455
Morufu, E. B., Besong, E. E., Serges, F., Djobissie, A., Mbamalu, O. S., Obimma, J. N. (2016). A review of Piper guineense (African Black pepper). Human Journal, 6(1):368-384.
456 457
Okafor, J.C (1987). Compound farms of South-eastern Nigeria: A predominant agroforestry homegarden system with crop and small livestock. Agroforestry System, 5(2): 153-168.
458 459 460
Okonkwo, C. & Ogu, A. (2014). Nutritional evaluation of some selected spices commonly used in the South-eastern part of Nigeria. Journal of Biology, Agriculture & Healthcare, 4(15): 97-102.
461 462 463 464
Onyenibe, N. S., Fowokemi, K. T., Emmanuel, O. B. (2015). African nutmeg (Monodora myristica) lowers cholesterol and modulates lipid peroxidation in experimentally induced hypercholesterolemic male Wistar rats. International Journal Biomedical Science, 11(2): 86-92.
465 466 467
Oyaizu, M. (1986). Studies on products of browning reaction; antioxidative activity of products of browning reaction prepared from glucosamine. Japan Journal of Nutrition, 44:307315.
468 469 470
Singeleton, V. L., Orthofer, R. & Lamuel-raventos, R. M. (1999).Analysis of total phenols and other oxidation substrate and antioxidants by means of Folin-Ciocalteu reagent. Methods Enzymology, 299:152-178.
471 472
Susheela, R. U. (2000).Handbook of spices, seasonings and flavouring (2nd Ed.): Technomic Publing Company, Lancaster, PA, 352pp.
473 474
Swanson, D., Block, R., & Mousa, S. A. (2012). Omega-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA: Health benefits throughout life. Advances in Nutrition, 3:1-7.
475 476
Tane, P., Tatsimo, S. D., Ayimele, G.A. & Connolly, J. D. (2011). 11TH NAPRECA Symposium Book of Proceedings, Antananarivo, Madagascar, 55:214-223.
477 478 479
Uhegbu, F. O., Chinedu, I. & Amadike, E. U. (2015). Effect of aqueous extract of Piper guineense seeds on some liver enzymes, antioxidant enzymes and some hematological parameters in Albino rats. International Journal Plant Science Ecology, 1(4): 167-171.
480 481 482
Uhegbu, F. O., Iweala, E. E. J. & Kanu, I. (2011). Studies on the chemical and antinutritional content of some Nigerian spices. International Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism, 3 (6): 72-76.
483 484 485
Uyoh, E. A., Ita, E. E., Nwofia, D. E. (2014). Evaluation of the chemical composition of Tetrapleura tetraptera (Schum & Thonn) Taub. Accessions from Cross River State, Nigeria. Int. J. Med. Arom. Plants,3(3):386-394.
486 487 488
Valko, M, Leibfritz D, Moncol, J, Cronin, M.t, Mazur M, Telser J (2007). Free radicals and antioxidants in antioxidants in normal physiological functions and human disease. International journal of Biochemistry and cell Biology., 39:44-84. 19
489 490
Weaver, C. M. (2013). Potassium and Health. American Society for Nutrition, Advances in Nutrition: An International Review Journal, 4(3): 368S-377S.
491 492 493 494
20
495
Caption
496
Table 1: Proximate (%), energy value (KJ/Kcal) content of spices consumed in Nigeria.
497
Table 2: Mineral composition of the spices consumed in Nigeria (mg/100g)
498
Fig 1: Pictorial presentation of the spices consumed in Nigeria.
499 500
Fig 2: Vitamin C, total phenol and flavonoid content of selected spices consumed in Southern Nigeria.
501
Fig 3: Ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) of selected spices.
502
Fig 4: DPPH radical scavenging ability of the selected spices.
503 504 505 506 507
21
508 509 510 511 512 513 514 515 516 517 518 519 520 521 522 523 524 525 526 527 528 529 530 531 532 533 534 535 536 537 538 539 540 541 542 543 544 545 546 547 548 549 550
Fig. 1.
551
22
Total phenol content(mg GAE/g)
16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Aframomum citratum
Afrostyrax Ricinodendron lepidophyllum heudelotii Various Spices
Aframomum citratum
Afrostyrax Ricinodendron lepidophyllum heudelotii Various spices
Monodora myristica
552
Total flavonoid (mg QE/g)
553 2 1.5 1 0.5 0
Monodora myristica
554 555
Vitamin C (mg AAE/g)
556 8 6 4 2 0
Aframomum citratum
Afrostyrax lepidophyllum
Ricinodendron heudelotii
Monodora myristica
Various spices
557 558 559
Fig 2.
560 23
Ferric reducing antioxidant power (mg AAE/L)
10 8 6 4 2 0 Aframomum Afrostyrax Ricinodendron citratum lepidophyllum heudelotii Various spices
Monodora myristica
561 562 563
Fig. 3:
564 565 566
24
Monodora myristica
DPPH radical scavenging ability(%)
80
A. lepidophyllum
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0
567
5
10 15 Concentration of extracts (μg/ml)
20
568 569 570
Fig. 4
571 572 573
25
574
575 576 577
Table 1: Proximate (%), energy value (KJ/Kcal) content of spices consumed in Nigeria.
Spice
Moisture Protein Fat
Ash
Fibre
Total Energy CHO* kJ/Kcal
Monodora myristica: “ehuru” Monodora spp.: “ehu” Afromomum citratum: “mfong/olima” Afrostyrax lepidophyllus: “oyim efik” Ricinodendron heudelotii: “njangsang” Piper guineense: “Uziza/odusa” Tetrapleura tetraptera: “uyayak”
6.9
13.3
13.1
2.0
8.2
64.7
1810/433
9.1 9.2
11.1 9.2
9.0 9.6
3.6 3.4
10.3 7.4
67.8 68.6
1674/400 1678/401
7.8
7.7
13.2
3.0
4.4
68.3
1780/426
7.2
30.6
24.5
3.6
9.5
34.1
2006/480
8.8
5.0
8.8
4.9
4.5
72.4
1642/393
13.5
10.5
8.5
3.4
7.5
64.1
1583/379
CHO*= Total Carbohydrate calculated by difference with crude fibre included: 100 – (moisture +protein +lipid + ash);
578 579 580 581 582 583 584 585
26
586
Table 2: Mineral composition of the spices consumed in Nigeria (mg/100g) Spice Monodora myristica: “ehuru” Monodora spp.: “ehu” Afromomum citratum: “mfong/olima” Afrostyrax lepidophyllus: “Oyim efik” Ricinodendron heudelotii: “njangsang” Piper guineense: “Uziza/odusa” Tetrapleura tetraptera: “uyayak”
587
Ca 590
K P Na 310 680 254
Mn 7.14
Mg 540
Fe Cu 11.79 1.07
Zn 3.09
Se 0.06
I 2.35
660
715 ND
225
5.85
ND
20.20 1.19
4.84
0.09
3.68
495
550 690 264
19.5
690
19.76 0.99
6.78
ND
ND
415
710 230 323
7.77
230
24.26 1.71
5.65
0.01
2.86
627
645 460 210
10.29
460
15.28 3.22
5.79
0.02
2.18
445
220 ND
9.9
ND
16.25 1.49
4.98
ND
ND
24
ND
3.68
180
2.32
6.78
0.16
1,74
280
130 18
0.93
ND = Not determined
588 589 590 591 592
27
593 594
Chemical composition and antioxidant activities of some indigenous spices consumed in Nigeria
595
Highlights
596 597 598 599 600
1. 2. 3. 4.
Aqueous extract of most spices contain potent bioactive compounds Frequent consumption of spices can contribute to adequate nutrition and good health Spices (e.g., Ricinodendron heudelotii) can be exploited as functional food Awareness of nutrient potentials and health benefits of local spices is needed
601 602 603 604
28