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Child abuse in Nigeria
CHILD ABUSE IN NIGERIA C.
THEODORE Department
FRCP(ED), FMCPAED(NIG). DCH
OKEAHIALAM.
of Paediatrics.
University
of Nigeria
Teaching
Hospital.
Enugu.
Nigeria
Abstract-Although child abuse occurs in Nigeria, it has received httle attention. This is probably due to the emphasis placed on the more prevalent childhood problems of malnutrttion and infection. Another possible reason is the general assumption that in every African society the extended family system always provides love. care and protection to all children. Yet there are traditional child rearing practices which adversely affect some children. such as purposeful neglect or abandonment of severely handicapped children. and twins or triplets in some rural areas. With the alteration of society by rapid socioeconomic and political changes, various forms of child abuse have been identified. particularly in the urban areas. These may be considered the outcome of abnormal interactions of the child. parents/guardians and society. They include abandonment of normal infants by unmarried or very poor mothers in cities. increased child labour and exploitation of children from rural areas in urban elite families. and abuse of children in urban nuclear families by childminders. Preventive measures include provision of infrastructural facilities and employment opportunities in the rural areas in order to prevent drift of the young population to the cities. This would sustain the supportive role of the extended family system which is rapidly being eroded. There is need for more effective legal protection for the handicapped child. and greater awareness of the existence of child abuse in the community by health and social workers. R&sum6-La maltraitance d’enfants survient au Nigeria-cdmme ailleurs. mais jusqu’8 tout recemment. on n’y a guere prete d’attention. Les probltmes de malnutrition et d’infection qui sont au premier plan masquent Cvidemment cet autre probleme que sont les s&ices. Une autre raison possible est que l’on a assume que dans toute socittt africaine. le systeme de la famille &endue foumit toujours de I’alTection. des soins et une certaine protection a tous les enfants. Cependant. meme si l’on se limite aux moeurs traditionnelles. on trouve qu’il y a de la maltraitance. telle que negligence delibiree ou abandon des enfants severement handicap&. et parfois meme. des jumeaux ou des triples. Naturellement. dans les regions urbaines. la societe traditionnelle a ete bouleverste par les changements politiques et socio-tconomiques et il n’est pas question de families &endues. De tres jeunes meres pauvres. non ma&es. ont tendance a abandonner leurs enfants. meme s’ils sont normaux: les enfants qui viennent de la campagne a la ville ont tendance a Ctre exploit& comme travailleurs dans les families urbaines de la classe economiquement plus forte. Une des mesures que l’on peut prendre pour prottger l’enfant est d’assurer l’emploi dans les regions rurales, afin d’eviter la migration vers les villes. Une telle mesure apporterait un certain support au systeme de la famille &endue. qui est en voie d’etre detruit. 11 faudrait une protection ligale plus grande pour l’enfant handicape et egalement un souci plus grand dans la communaute en general. de ne pas exercer de violences a l’egard des enfants.
INTRODUCTION PROBLEMS OF CHILD ABUSE. particularly those associated with the battered baby svndrome. have been extensively documented in industrialised countries ever since early findings [l-3] alerted society to these aspects of child health. Studies of the pathogenesis and epidemiology of child abuse have shown that in every society the child who is subjected to battering may also be the victim of emotional. social and nutritional deprivation. There is an impression that child abuse does not occur in the traditional African society. This is fostered by the sociological concept of the extended family as a system which provides profound love. protection. security and care to the child within the cultural milieu. The social advantages of this system tend to minimise the effects of some traditional practices which are abusive to THE
Presented
at the Fourth
International
Congress
on Child Abuse 69
and Neglect.
Paris. September
1982.
Theodore
70
C. Okeahialam
children. In addition, little attention is focussed on child abuse due to the prevalence of malnutrition and infections which are the major paediatric problems. Recent reports [4-61 confirm the existence of child abuse in Africa. There are traditional child rearing practices related to discipline and treatment of childhood diseases which inflict physical and emotional trauma on the child. Examples include severe corporal punishment for minor offenses and scalding of the feet as a method of controlling convulsions. In Nigeria. various forms of child abuse have been observed in paediatric practice. Many of these are related to the culture and tradition of the rural society. Some are the effects of urbanisation and rural-urban migration which have resulted from socioeconomic and political changes in the country. Child abuse may be considered as the outcome of abnormal interactions between the child, parents/guardians and society. Against this background this paper seeks to highlight the problems of child abuse in an African society with a population of approximately 90 million.
THE CHILD
AT RISK
In urban areas, children at risk include those with gross physical abnormalities such as hydrocephalus and spina bifida. mental handicaps or chronic diseases [7]. Congenital malformations are considered in some cultures as consequences of mystical influences, curses by the gods, wrath of ancestors who need to be placated. or the effect of witchcraft. The affected children may be abandoned and left to die. The birth of twins or triplets was accepted as an ill omen in many parts of Nigeria until the intervention of missionaries in the 19th century, notably Mary Slessor in Calabar. Multiple births were regarded as procreative features of animals only and infants so born were usually hidden away or abandoned. In some ethnic groups of the country, this belief is still held. On the other hand, traditional society places much emphasis on the social development of the normal child. He is taught early the roles expected of him within the family and the community. These include sibling caretaking, cleaning and caring for the home, cooking and farming. It is not unusual in a village to find 4- and 5-year-olds carrying their younger siblings on their backs while playing. Sibling caretaking is an accepted norm of the society; most children enjoy it and it is not abusive. It contributes to the emotional and social development of the sibling. The alteration of society by economic and political trends is unfortunately eroding the influence of the extended family, and, therefore. some beneficial traditional child rearing practices are disappearing. As young persons migrate from the rural areas to cities. the nuclear family takes precedence in the urban area over the traditional system. Children of poor families in the villages are increasingly taking part in the labour force of the cities. They are separated from their parents at an early age and hired out as servants or childminders in urban elite nuclear families. Some of the girls are exposed to sexual abuse under such circumstances. Child labour is common in Nigeria. but the incidence is unknown.
ABUSIVE
PARENTS
AND/OR
GUARDIANS
Purentul A huse Most parents will deny deliberate infliction of injury on their children or wards. The abuser is usually a young parent who may be physically ill. It is important to note that psychiatric illness such as schizophrenia or acute depression is rarely associated with battering. The parent may be an alcoholic, unemployed and with extreme financial and social stresses.
Child abuse in Nigeria
71
Nigeria. like most developing African countries. is undergoin g rapid political and socioeconomic changes without adequate infrastructural facilities to cope with them. There is continuous rural urban migration of many unskilled and unemployed young persons who swell the population of peri-urban slums. As a result there is a high incidence of births to single mothers which results in the abandonment of many babies in such places as public toilets, dustbins and street corners [9].
Guardian
and Childminder
Abuse
In Nigeria, a child may be abused not only by the parents but by a guardian or childminder. The guardian may be an aunt or one of the wives in a polygamous family if the mother of the child is dead. In the urban areas, the extended family seldom exists, and among the elite class, the nuclear family lives in a flat or house. Both parents go to work and in the absence of a grandmother, the care of the infant is left in the hands of a young childminder. Unlike the au pair girl, the nanny or childminder [S] of Western countries, this is an inexperienced child, usually a girl, between the ages of 7 and 12 years, from a village. The trend is for the rural poor Nigerian families to provide the child labour force for the care of children of elite urban families. In a few cases the childminder is integrated into the new family and may benefit from some education as part of the contractual agreement between the two families. In most cases, however, these children are exploited. The average childminder works long hours throughout the day: she not only cares for the child when the mother is away, she also keeps the house, shops, sometimes cooks for the family, and does other duties in the home. Under such circumstances, the child who is being cared for may become a target for abuse in the form of emotional and nutritional deprivation as well as physical assault. The latter is likely to occur if the child is hyperactive, exhibits temper tantrums, cries persistently, or demands the attention of a childminder who may be overworked and emotionally disturbed by the separation from her own family. Children of well-to-do elite parents have been known to suffer from bruises. fractures of the skull and limbs, purported to be due to accidental falls. Some children of working mothers develop marasmus as a result of inadequate nutritional care given by inexperienced childminders. The quality of attention an infant receives is usually directly proportional to the favours granted to the childminder by her employers. A mother who is strict and metes out corporal punishment on her childminder may precipitate physical abuse on her child during her absence from home. The childminder may eventually leave without any warning and return to her village. It is not unusual for a child to be cared for by as many as four childminders within the first year of life. This frequent change of the mother substitute does not enhance attachment and distorts the emotional development of the child [lo]. The incidence of child abuse by childminders in Nigeria is not known: it is certainly an interesting topic for social research.
URBAN
STRESS
The changing pattern of life, particularly in the cities with inadequate accommodation. lack or recreational facilities, irregular water and electricity supplies, creates a new psychosocial problem. urban stress, which erodes marital harmony. This is worse if the parents are unemployed or have financial difficulties. The child in a large family living in an overcrowded one room accommodation in the peri-urban slum is likely to be abused by an irritable and stressed parent. Lack of provision of adequate educational and recreational facilities in the
72
Theodore C. Okeahialam
society contribute to emotional and social neglect of the child. The unemployed mother is likely to abandon her child to society [II].
ABUSIVE
T~DITIONAL
unmarried
PRACTICES
There are traditional childrearing practices which are associated with unnecessary physical abuse. A typical example is female circumcision which is still practised in some parts of the country. The physical complications have been described [ 121, although the ultimate psychosocial consequences cannot easily be assessed. Corporal punishment is often used as a deterrent against unacceptable forms of behaviour such as stealing and lying. it is within the culture of all ethnic groups of Nigeria and forms an important aspect of traditional childrearing practices for the maintenance of discipline. However, many elite parents who have experienced such traditional disciplinary measures during their childhood but who later have been influenced by the culture. education and child rearing practices of Western societies, generally have ambivalent views on the effects of corporal punishment. There is a continuous debate within the educational systems of the country on their position on discipline of children, for corporal punishment is still used in many schools.
MANAGEMENT
OF CHILD
ABUSE
It is often difficult to get a history which could lead to the diagnosis of child abuse in Nigeria. Doctors. nurses, and social workers working in developing countries should be aware of the existence of this childhood problem. particularly in the urban areas. A child who appears neglected, malnourished, with bruises or other forms of injury should be examined and thoroughly investigated [ 131. Helpful to remember is that child abuse may often be traced to the childminder. especially in the urban areas. In our institution, every suspected case of child abuse is usually admitted and with the help of social workers and nurses, the precipitating social factors are identified without reprimanding the parents. Children in Nigeria are protected against all forms of assault under the Children and Young Persons Laws. The protection of the child is enshrined in the Constitution of the Federal Republic 1141 in a clause which states that “the State shall direct its policy towards ensuring the children. young persons, and the aged are protected against any esploitation whatsoever and moral and material neglect.” There are also legal and social agencies that should protect the interests of an affected child. but quite often they are not etr‘ective. There is need for public awareness of the existence of the various forms of child abuse in the society. There should be employment opportunities and provision of basic infrastructural facilities in the rural areas in order to discourage rural-urban migration of young persons and to prevent further disintegration of that important social editice. the extended family bystem. Legal protection for handicapped children, twins and triplets is mandatory in all States of the Federation. Child Welfare Committees have been established to f~~ltil the c&jectiws of the International Year of the Child, namely. to uphold the Declaration adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1959. These ten principles by the world body seek to protect the child from every form of abuse. It is hoped that these Welfare Committees in Nigeria will. in addition to other functions. keep registers of children “at risk” of child abuse.
Child abuse in Nigeria
73
especially those who have already been exposed. The committees should function as the social agencies with liaison with the medical profession and legal institutions in all cases of child abuse.
REFERENCES 1. CAFFEY, J. The presence of multiple fractures in the long bones of infants suffering from chronic subdural haematoma. Amencan Journal of Roentgenologv 56: 163-73 ( 1946). 2. SILVERMAN, F. N. The roentgen manifestation of unrecognised skeletal trauma in infants. Amerrcan Journal of Roenrgenologv 69:413-27 (1953). 3. KEMPE. C. H.. SILVERMAN, C. N. STEELE. B. F.. DROGEMUELLER. W. and SILVER. H. K. The battered baby syndrome. Journal of the American Acadqv of Medrcine 181: 18-24 (1962). 4. BWIBO. N. 0. Battered baby syndrome. Easr African Medical Journal 48:56-61 (1971). 5. NWAKO. F. A. Child abuse syndrome in Nigeria. Medicme. &fence, and fhe L.uw 2: 130-133 (1979). 6. OFODILE. F. Child abuse and neglect in Africa. Posr Graduate Docror 3:94-98 (198 I). 7. FRODI. A. M. Contributions of infant characteristics to child abuse. American Journal of Memo/ Deficiencres 85:341-349 (1981). 8. JACKSON. B. and JACKSON. S. Childminder. A Stud?, in Acrron Research. Penguin Books. New York, p. 18 (1981). 9. ANIMASHAUN. A. Abandoned children in Lagos. Nfgerran Medical Journal 7:408-41 I (1977). IO. EGELAND. B. and SROUFE. L. A. Attachment and maltreatment. Child Developmen/ 52:44-52 (1981). 11. GARBARINO. J. and SHERMAN, D. High risk neighborhood and high risk families: The human ecology of child maltreatment. Child Developmenf 5: 188-198 (1980). 12. EGWUATU. V. E. and AGUGUA. N. E. N. Complications of female circumcision in Nigerian Igbos. Brirlsh Journal of Obsrerrics and Gvnaecologv 88: 1090- 1093 ( 198 I ), 13. EMERY. J.C. The deprived and starved child. Medicme, Science and [he Luw, 18: 138-142 (1978). 14. Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, Section 17, 3(f) Government Printer. Lagos (1979).
THEODORE Department
FRCP(ED), FMCPAED(NIG). DCH
OKEAHIALAM.
of Paediatrics.
University
of Nigeria
Teaching
Hospital.
Enugu.
Nigeria
Abstract-Although child abuse occurs in Nigeria, it has received httle attention. This is probably due to the emphasis placed on the more prevalent childhood problems of malnutrttion and infection. Another possible reason is the general assumption that in every African society the extended family system always provides love. care and protection to all children. Yet there are traditional child rearing practices which adversely affect some children. such as purposeful neglect or abandonment of severely handicapped children. and twins or triplets in some rural areas. With the alteration of society by rapid socioeconomic and political changes, various forms of child abuse have been identified. particularly in the urban areas. These may be considered the outcome of abnormal interactions of the child. parents/guardians and society. They include abandonment of normal infants by unmarried or very poor mothers in cities. increased child labour and exploitation of children from rural areas in urban elite families. and abuse of children in urban nuclear families by childminders. Preventive measures include provision of infrastructural facilities and employment opportunities in the rural areas in order to prevent drift of the young population to the cities. This would sustain the supportive role of the extended family system which is rapidly being eroded. There is need for more effective legal protection for the handicapped child. and greater awareness of the existence of child abuse in the community by health and social workers. R&sum6-La maltraitance d’enfants survient au Nigeria-cdmme ailleurs. mais jusqu’8 tout recemment. on n’y a guere prete d’attention. Les probltmes de malnutrition et d’infection qui sont au premier plan masquent Cvidemment cet autre probleme que sont les s&ices. Une autre raison possible est que l’on a assume que dans toute socittt africaine. le systeme de la famille &endue foumit toujours de I’alTection. des soins et une certaine protection a tous les enfants. Cependant. meme si l’on se limite aux moeurs traditionnelles. on trouve qu’il y a de la maltraitance. telle que negligence delibiree ou abandon des enfants severement handicap&. et parfois meme. des jumeaux ou des triples. Naturellement. dans les regions urbaines. la societe traditionnelle a ete bouleverste par les changements politiques et socio-tconomiques et il n’est pas question de families &endues. De tres jeunes meres pauvres. non ma&es. ont tendance a abandonner leurs enfants. meme s’ils sont normaux: les enfants qui viennent de la campagne a la ville ont tendance a Ctre exploit& comme travailleurs dans les families urbaines de la classe economiquement plus forte. Une des mesures que l’on peut prendre pour prottger l’enfant est d’assurer l’emploi dans les regions rurales, afin d’eviter la migration vers les villes. Une telle mesure apporterait un certain support au systeme de la famille &endue. qui est en voie d’etre detruit. 11 faudrait une protection ligale plus grande pour l’enfant handicape et egalement un souci plus grand dans la communaute en general. de ne pas exercer de violences a l’egard des enfants.
INTRODUCTION PROBLEMS OF CHILD ABUSE. particularly those associated with the battered baby svndrome. have been extensively documented in industrialised countries ever since early findings [l-3] alerted society to these aspects of child health. Studies of the pathogenesis and epidemiology of child abuse have shown that in every society the child who is subjected to battering may also be the victim of emotional. social and nutritional deprivation. There is an impression that child abuse does not occur in the traditional African society. This is fostered by the sociological concept of the extended family as a system which provides profound love. protection. security and care to the child within the cultural milieu. The social advantages of this system tend to minimise the effects of some traditional practices which are abusive to THE
Presented
at the Fourth
International
Congress
on Child Abuse 69
and Neglect.
Paris. September
1982.
Theodore
70
C. Okeahialam
children. In addition, little attention is focussed on child abuse due to the prevalence of malnutrition and infections which are the major paediatric problems. Recent reports [4-61 confirm the existence of child abuse in Africa. There are traditional child rearing practices related to discipline and treatment of childhood diseases which inflict physical and emotional trauma on the child. Examples include severe corporal punishment for minor offenses and scalding of the feet as a method of controlling convulsions. In Nigeria. various forms of child abuse have been observed in paediatric practice. Many of these are related to the culture and tradition of the rural society. Some are the effects of urbanisation and rural-urban migration which have resulted from socioeconomic and political changes in the country. Child abuse may be considered as the outcome of abnormal interactions between the child, parents/guardians and society. Against this background this paper seeks to highlight the problems of child abuse in an African society with a population of approximately 90 million.
THE CHILD
AT RISK
In urban areas, children at risk include those with gross physical abnormalities such as hydrocephalus and spina bifida. mental handicaps or chronic diseases [7]. Congenital malformations are considered in some cultures as consequences of mystical influences, curses by the gods, wrath of ancestors who need to be placated. or the effect of witchcraft. The affected children may be abandoned and left to die. The birth of twins or triplets was accepted as an ill omen in many parts of Nigeria until the intervention of missionaries in the 19th century, notably Mary Slessor in Calabar. Multiple births were regarded as procreative features of animals only and infants so born were usually hidden away or abandoned. In some ethnic groups of the country, this belief is still held. On the other hand, traditional society places much emphasis on the social development of the normal child. He is taught early the roles expected of him within the family and the community. These include sibling caretaking, cleaning and caring for the home, cooking and farming. It is not unusual in a village to find 4- and 5-year-olds carrying their younger siblings on their backs while playing. Sibling caretaking is an accepted norm of the society; most children enjoy it and it is not abusive. It contributes to the emotional and social development of the sibling. The alteration of society by economic and political trends is unfortunately eroding the influence of the extended family, and, therefore. some beneficial traditional child rearing practices are disappearing. As young persons migrate from the rural areas to cities. the nuclear family takes precedence in the urban area over the traditional system. Children of poor families in the villages are increasingly taking part in the labour force of the cities. They are separated from their parents at an early age and hired out as servants or childminders in urban elite nuclear families. Some of the girls are exposed to sexual abuse under such circumstances. Child labour is common in Nigeria. but the incidence is unknown.
ABUSIVE
PARENTS
AND/OR
GUARDIANS
Purentul A huse Most parents will deny deliberate infliction of injury on their children or wards. The abuser is usually a young parent who may be physically ill. It is important to note that psychiatric illness such as schizophrenia or acute depression is rarely associated with battering. The parent may be an alcoholic, unemployed and with extreme financial and social stresses.
Child abuse in Nigeria
71
Nigeria. like most developing African countries. is undergoin g rapid political and socioeconomic changes without adequate infrastructural facilities to cope with them. There is continuous rural urban migration of many unskilled and unemployed young persons who swell the population of peri-urban slums. As a result there is a high incidence of births to single mothers which results in the abandonment of many babies in such places as public toilets, dustbins and street corners [9].
Guardian
and Childminder
Abuse
In Nigeria, a child may be abused not only by the parents but by a guardian or childminder. The guardian may be an aunt or one of the wives in a polygamous family if the mother of the child is dead. In the urban areas, the extended family seldom exists, and among the elite class, the nuclear family lives in a flat or house. Both parents go to work and in the absence of a grandmother, the care of the infant is left in the hands of a young childminder. Unlike the au pair girl, the nanny or childminder [S] of Western countries, this is an inexperienced child, usually a girl, between the ages of 7 and 12 years, from a village. The trend is for the rural poor Nigerian families to provide the child labour force for the care of children of elite urban families. In a few cases the childminder is integrated into the new family and may benefit from some education as part of the contractual agreement between the two families. In most cases, however, these children are exploited. The average childminder works long hours throughout the day: she not only cares for the child when the mother is away, she also keeps the house, shops, sometimes cooks for the family, and does other duties in the home. Under such circumstances, the child who is being cared for may become a target for abuse in the form of emotional and nutritional deprivation as well as physical assault. The latter is likely to occur if the child is hyperactive, exhibits temper tantrums, cries persistently, or demands the attention of a childminder who may be overworked and emotionally disturbed by the separation from her own family. Children of well-to-do elite parents have been known to suffer from bruises. fractures of the skull and limbs, purported to be due to accidental falls. Some children of working mothers develop marasmus as a result of inadequate nutritional care given by inexperienced childminders. The quality of attention an infant receives is usually directly proportional to the favours granted to the childminder by her employers. A mother who is strict and metes out corporal punishment on her childminder may precipitate physical abuse on her child during her absence from home. The childminder may eventually leave without any warning and return to her village. It is not unusual for a child to be cared for by as many as four childminders within the first year of life. This frequent change of the mother substitute does not enhance attachment and distorts the emotional development of the child [lo]. The incidence of child abuse by childminders in Nigeria is not known: it is certainly an interesting topic for social research.
URBAN
STRESS
The changing pattern of life, particularly in the cities with inadequate accommodation. lack or recreational facilities, irregular water and electricity supplies, creates a new psychosocial problem. urban stress, which erodes marital harmony. This is worse if the parents are unemployed or have financial difficulties. The child in a large family living in an overcrowded one room accommodation in the peri-urban slum is likely to be abused by an irritable and stressed parent. Lack of provision of adequate educational and recreational facilities in the
72
Theodore C. Okeahialam
society contribute to emotional and social neglect of the child. The unemployed mother is likely to abandon her child to society [II].
ABUSIVE
T~DITIONAL
unmarried
PRACTICES
There are traditional childrearing practices which are associated with unnecessary physical abuse. A typical example is female circumcision which is still practised in some parts of the country. The physical complications have been described [ 121, although the ultimate psychosocial consequences cannot easily be assessed. Corporal punishment is often used as a deterrent against unacceptable forms of behaviour such as stealing and lying. it is within the culture of all ethnic groups of Nigeria and forms an important aspect of traditional childrearing practices for the maintenance of discipline. However, many elite parents who have experienced such traditional disciplinary measures during their childhood but who later have been influenced by the culture. education and child rearing practices of Western societies, generally have ambivalent views on the effects of corporal punishment. There is a continuous debate within the educational systems of the country on their position on discipline of children, for corporal punishment is still used in many schools.
MANAGEMENT
OF CHILD
ABUSE
It is often difficult to get a history which could lead to the diagnosis of child abuse in Nigeria. Doctors. nurses, and social workers working in developing countries should be aware of the existence of this childhood problem. particularly in the urban areas. A child who appears neglected, malnourished, with bruises or other forms of injury should be examined and thoroughly investigated [ 131. Helpful to remember is that child abuse may often be traced to the childminder. especially in the urban areas. In our institution, every suspected case of child abuse is usually admitted and with the help of social workers and nurses, the precipitating social factors are identified without reprimanding the parents. Children in Nigeria are protected against all forms of assault under the Children and Young Persons Laws. The protection of the child is enshrined in the Constitution of the Federal Republic 1141 in a clause which states that “the State shall direct its policy towards ensuring the children. young persons, and the aged are protected against any esploitation whatsoever and moral and material neglect.” There are also legal and social agencies that should protect the interests of an affected child. but quite often they are not etr‘ective. There is need for public awareness of the existence of the various forms of child abuse in the society. There should be employment opportunities and provision of basic infrastructural facilities in the rural areas in order to discourage rural-urban migration of young persons and to prevent further disintegration of that important social editice. the extended family bystem. Legal protection for handicapped children, twins and triplets is mandatory in all States of the Federation. Child Welfare Committees have been established to f~~ltil the c&jectiws of the International Year of the Child, namely. to uphold the Declaration adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1959. These ten principles by the world body seek to protect the child from every form of abuse. It is hoped that these Welfare Committees in Nigeria will. in addition to other functions. keep registers of children “at risk” of child abuse.
Child abuse in Nigeria
73
especially those who have already been exposed. The committees should function as the social agencies with liaison with the medical profession and legal institutions in all cases of child abuse.
REFERENCES 1. CAFFEY, J. The presence of multiple fractures in the long bones of infants suffering from chronic subdural haematoma. Amencan Journal of Roentgenologv 56: 163-73 ( 1946). 2. SILVERMAN, F. N. The roentgen manifestation of unrecognised skeletal trauma in infants. Amerrcan Journal of Roenrgenologv 69:413-27 (1953). 3. KEMPE. C. H.. SILVERMAN, C. N. STEELE. B. F.. DROGEMUELLER. W. and SILVER. H. K. The battered baby syndrome. Journal of the American Acadqv of Medrcine 181: 18-24 (1962). 4. BWIBO. N. 0. Battered baby syndrome. Easr African Medical Journal 48:56-61 (1971). 5. NWAKO. F. A. Child abuse syndrome in Nigeria. Medicme. &fence, and fhe L.uw 2: 130-133 (1979). 6. OFODILE. F. Child abuse and neglect in Africa. Posr Graduate Docror 3:94-98 (198 I). 7. FRODI. A. M. Contributions of infant characteristics to child abuse. American Journal of Memo/ Deficiencres 85:341-349 (1981). 8. JACKSON. B. and JACKSON. S. Childminder. A Stud?, in Acrron Research. Penguin Books. New York, p. 18 (1981). 9. ANIMASHAUN. A. Abandoned children in Lagos. Nfgerran Medical Journal 7:408-41 I (1977). IO. EGELAND. B. and SROUFE. L. A. Attachment and maltreatment. Child Developmen/ 52:44-52 (1981). 11. GARBARINO. J. and SHERMAN, D. High risk neighborhood and high risk families: The human ecology of child maltreatment. Child Developmenf 5: 188-198 (1980). 12. EGWUATU. V. E. and AGUGUA. N. E. N. Complications of female circumcision in Nigerian Igbos. Brirlsh Journal of Obsrerrics and Gvnaecologv 88: 1090- 1093 ( 198 I ), 13. EMERY. J.C. The deprived and starved child. Medicme, Science and [he Luw, 18: 138-142 (1978). 14. Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, Section 17, 3(f) Government Printer. Lagos (1979).