Children's perceptions of peer influence on eating concerns

BEHAVIORTHERAPY27, 25-39, 1996

Children's Perceptions of Peer Influence on Eating Concerns KRISTA K. OLIVER MARK H . THELEN

University of Missouri at Columbia This study explored how children's perceptions of peer influence were associated with their eating and body image concerns and how children's eating concerns and perceptions of peer influence differed by grade and gender. Children's perceptions of peer messages (e.g., being teased about one's weight), peer interactions (e.g., talking about food or dieting), and peer likability (i.e., the belief that being thin will increase how much peers like them) were measured with the Inventory of Peer Influence on Eating Concerns. This inventory, along with the Body Image and Eating Questionnaire, and 3 scales of the Eating Disorder Inventory for Children, were administered to third- and fifth-grade children (n = 264). Results indicated that likability was the major contributor in predicting eating and body concerns; messages and likability related significantly with the eating and body image concern measures; and girls reported more eating-related concerns than boys. Results are discussed in terms of the potential role that peers play in children's eating-related concerns.

Recent literature indicates that body image dissatisfaction, dieting, and eating disorders may begin during childhood (Collins, 1991; Hawley, 1985; Maloney, McGuire, Daniels, & Specker, 1989; Thelen, Powell, Lawrence, & Knhnert, 1992). The onset of dieting and concerns about weight have been reported as early as 8 to 11 years of age (Koff & Rierdan, 1991; Moreno & Thelen, 1995; Olsen, 1984). Thelen, Powell, et al. (1992) found that many fourthand sixth-grade girls indicated concern about being or becoming overweight, distress about the effects of eating, and a desire to be thinner than their perceived body figure, and exhibited a history of dieting behavior. In a study of 8- to 13-year-olds (Maloney et al.), 45% indicated a desire to be thinner, 37% reported that they had tried to lose weight, and 7% scored in the anorexia nervosa range on the Children's Eating Attitudes Test (CHEAT; Maloney, McGuire, & Daniels, 1988). Collins found that first-, second-, and third-grade females selected an Ideal Self significantly thinner than Self. Although no The authors wish to thank the children and staff of the Columbia Public Schools for their support of and assistance with this research. Please send reprint requests to Mark H. Thelen, 210 McAlester Hall, Psychology Department, University of Missouri-Columbia, Columbia, Missouri 65211. 25 0005-7894/96/0025-003951.00/0 Copyright 1996 by Associationfor Advancementof BehaviorTherapy All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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research has addressed the prevalence of bulimia nervosa in young children, specific cases of prepubertal anorexia nervosa have been reported (Hawley; Irwin, 1981; Jacobs & Isaacs, 1986; Theander, 1970; Warren, 1968). The increasing evidence of body image dissatisfaction and eating concerns in childhood leads researchers to question where, how, and from whom are children developing these eating-related problems? Evidence indicates that children, especially girls, learn from their families, from the mass media, and at school that their appearance, including body shape and weight, is especially important (Striegel-Moore, Silberstein, & Rodin, 1986; Thelen, Lawrence, & Powell, 1992). Peer influence on children's eating concerns has received very little attention. Teasing during childhood has been suggested as one influence on eating and weight concerns (Fabian & Thompson, 1989; Maloney et al., 1989; Thompson, 1991; Thompson & Psaltis, 1988). Irwin (1981) described a 9-yearold anorexic girl for whom teasing by boys about being fat appeared to be the precipitating factor for the disorder. Warren (1968) reported that 3 of the 20 girls he studied with anorexia nervosa had been teased as children, which led to dieting and eventually eating disorders. The perception of having been teased as a child has lasting effects on women's body satisfaction (Cash, Winstead, & Janda, 1986). Both teasing frequency and perceived effect of teasing (i.e., how upsetting it was for the individual) have been significantly and positively related to eating and body image disturbances in women (Kanakis & Thelen, 1995; Thompson, 1991; Thompson & Psaltis, 1988). Fabian and Thompson (1989) extended these findings to 10to 15-year-old pre- and post-menarcheal girls and found that the degree of upset about being teased significantly added to the prediction of eating disturbance and overestimation of body size. Although these studies do not specify the origins of teasing, it is reasonable to speculate that a large proportion came from peers, given that children spend much of their time with peers. Therefore, it is possible that direct messages from peers, such as teasing, may influence children's development of eating disturbances and body dissatisfaction. Peers may also have an influence on body image and eating concerns simply through modeling behaviors and interacting about these issues. One study revealed that adolescents frequently discussed weight and dieting with their peers (Desrnond, Price, Gray, & O'Connell, 1986). Another study found that middle school girls' reports of peer dieting and weight management techniques, combined with the frequency with which they reported talking with peers about dieting and weight loss, correlated significantly with the children's own weight management techniques and disturbed eating (Levine, Smolak, Moodey, Shuman, & Hessen, 1994). Finally, the degree to which children believe being thin will increase how much peers like them may influence their own perceptions of their body as well as their eating practices. In a study of boys and girls in Grades 3 through 6, 15% claimed that they believed their friends would like them more if they

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were thinner, and this belief significantly contributed to the prediction of eating disturbance (Maloney et al., 1989). It appears that messages from peers (e.g., teasing), interactions with peers surrounding weight and eating issues, and the degree to which children believe being thin will increase their likability with peers may all play a role in influencing children's body image and eating disturbances. The purpose of this study was to explore the association between these potential peer influence factors and eating and body issues in a child population. Because no instrument was available to measure peer influence, a measure of peer factors relating to eating and body concerns in childhood was developed. Both boys and girls were examined in this study in order to explore the nature and prevalence of these issues for children in general. Grade 3 was chosen because researchers (Maloney et al., 1989; Thelen, Powell, et al., 1992) have determined that body image concerns and eating problems emerge around this time. Grade 5 was chosen in order to examine age effects as well as minimize the number of girls beginning puberty, because there is evidence that body image concerns and eating disturbances increase after pubertal onset (Brooks-Gunn, 1988; Cohn, Adler, Irwin, Millstein, Kegeles, & Stone, 1987; Gralen, Levine, Smolak, & Murnen, 1990).

Method Subjects For pilot testing of the Inventory of Peer Influence on Eating Concerns (I-PIEC), subjects were 35 third graders (15 boys and 20 girls, mean age = 9 years 2 months, SD = 6 months) and 41 fifth graders (24 boys and 17 girls, mean age = 11 years 3 months, SD = 6 months) drawn from a Midwestern public elementary school. The primary sample consisted of 98% of the available subjects and included 142 third graders (77 boys and 65 girls, mean age = 9 years 3 months, SD = 5 months) and 122 fifth graders (59 boys and 63 girls, mean age = 11 years 3 months, SD = 5 months). Subjects were drawn from 12 health classes at two different public elementary schools in a Midwestern community serving neighborhoods of predominantly middle socioeconomic status. Of the subjects who participated in the primary study, 70% were Caucasian/White, 23% were African American/Black, 4% were Hispanic American/Latino, and 3% were other. Instruments The I-PIEC is a self-report measure of peer influence on children's eating and body concerns for which the items were based on three constructs: Messages, Interactions, and Likability. Each of these constructs was originally subdivided by gender of the influencing peer, resulting in six scales: Messages/Girls, Messages/Boys, Interactions/Girls, Interactions/Boys, Likability/ Girls, and Likability/Boys. Based on a factor analysis (see Results), the Messages/Girls and Messages/Boys scales were combined into one, leaving the

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I-PIEC with 5 factors and a total of 30 items (see Appendix). Each item uses a 5-point Likert scale (1 = Never, 2 = Almost Never, 3 = Not Very Often, 4 = Sometimes, 5 = A Lot), and responses to the items making up each of the scales are averaged to obtain mean scale scores. The Messages factor addresses the frequency with which children receive negative messages from boys and girls about their bodies or eating habits. Interactions/Boys and Interactions/Girls concern the frequency with which children interact (e.g., talk, exercise, compare bodies) with boys and girls about eating or body issues. Likability/Boys and Likability/Girls assess the degree to which children believe being thin will increase their likability with boys and girls. The Body Image and Eating Questionnaire for Children (BIEQ; Thelen, Powell, et al., 1992) is a 14-item, self-report inventory to which children respond either using a yes-no format or a 4- or 5-point Likert scale. This inventory yields three factors: Diet (assesses dieting practices), Overweight (focuses on concerns about being overweight), and Restraint (pertains to food restraint). In addition, two questions are included with this measure to determine a subject's Body Image score (Thelen, Powell, et al.). Subjects are shown five numbered silhouettes of same-gender body figures, which range from very thin to very heavy. Subjects are asked to first indicate the figure they think they look most like (real body figure) and then the figure they would most like to resemble (ideal body figure). Subjects' ideal scores are subtracted from their real scores, providing Body Image scores. Positive numbers indicate a desire to be thinner, and negative numbers indicate a desire to be heavier. Because the items comprising the different scales of the BIEQ are dichotomous or Likert-type, the data from this measure, along with the Body Image scores, are first standardized (M = 0, SD = 1). Responses to the items making up each of the scales are then averaged to obtain mean scale scores. Higher scores indicate more dieting, concerns about being overweight, and restraint behaviors. Coefficient alphas for these factors have ranged from .55 to .89 (Thelen, Powell, et al.). For the primary sample in this study, the coefficient alphas were as follows: Diet = .83, Overweight = .87, and Restraint = .78. The Eating Disorder Inventory for Children (EDI-C; Garner, 1984) is a downward extension from the original Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI; Garner, Olmsted, & Polivy, 1983). Children respond to items using a 6-point Likert scale ranging from "Never" to 'Always" Of the eight scales, three (Bulimia, Drive for Thinness, and Body Dissatisfaction) were used in this study. Responses to the items making up each of the scales are averaged to obtain mean scale scores. The coefficient alphas were as follows: Bulimia = .76, Drive for Thinness = .80, and Body Dissatisfaction = .81. In order to control for the effects of the subject's actual body mass, Body Mass Index (BMI) was calculated by dividing the subject's weight by squared height (Keys, Findanza, Karvonen, Kimura, & Taylor, 1972). A 2 x 2 (Grade x Gender) ANOVA revealed that fifth graders (M = .0263, SD = .0051) had a significantly greater BMI than third graders (M = .0247, SD = .0046), F(1, 258) = 6.75, p < .05.

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Procedure For pilot testing and the primary data collection, measures were administered by one experimenter and two research assistants during regularly scheduled health classes. All measures were completed anonymously. During pilot testing, demographic items and the I-PIEC were administered. Primary data collection differed in that children completed three measures (BIEQ, EDI-C, I-PIEC), and the order of administration of the measures was counterbalanced. Also, the children's weight and height were measured privately.

Results

Psychometric Analyses of the I-PIEC A pool of 60 items was originally developed through consultation with three licensed clinical psychologists and an eating-disorder research group consisting of 10 clinical psychology graduate students. The items appeared to have face validity in accordance with the six conceptual constructs. After pilot testing the original 60-item pool for the I-PIEC, items with the lowest item-total correlation were dropped sequentially from each of the six conceptually based scales in order to determine which scale required the most items to maintain a coefficient alpha of .80. Interactions/Girls required the most, at six items. In order to reduce the length of the measure while maintaining consistency across scales, items with the lowest item-total correlations were dropped from the other five scales to reach six items per scale. This resulted in 36 items with six conceptually based scales. The range of the item-total correlations and the coefficient alphas were as follows: Messages/Boys, .48-.72, Alpha = .84; Messages/Girls, .53-.85, Alpha = .88; Interactions/Boys, .48-.76, Alpha = .87; Interactions/Girls, .42-.70, Alpha = .82; Likability/Boys, .57-.82, Alpha = .89; Likability/Girls, .57-.80, Alpha = .88. The 36-item measure was then administered to the primary sample of 264 subjects. A principal components factor analysis was conducted, and five factors emerged using a .50 loading as the cut-off. This factor constellation used 30 items and eliminated 6, 3 from the Interactions/Boys scale, and 1 each from Messages/Girls, Interactions/Girls, and Likability/Boys. The remaining items from the two Messages scales, along with one item from the Likability/Girls scale (item 26), comprised one factor. The items from the other four conceptually based scales loaded on their respective factors (see Appendix). Since the factor analysis generally supported the conceptual development of the I-PIEC, the results will be presented according to the empirically derived factors. The range of the item-total correlations and the coefficient alphas for each scale were as follows: Messages, .59-.74, Alpha = .92; Interactions/Boys, .53-.65, Alpha = .76; Interactions/Girls, .46-.70, Alpha = .80; Likability/Boys, .61-.80, Alpha = .88; Likability/Girls, .66-.76, Alpha = .88. The intercorrelations for the five scales were significant, except for the two between Interactions/Boys and Messages for girls, and Interactions/Boys and Likability/Boys for girls (see Table 1).

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TABLE 1 INTERCORRELATIONS OF I - P I E C SCALES BY GENDER

1

2

3

4

2 = Interactions/Boys

.18 .42*

-

3 = Interactions/Girls

.31" .68*

.38* .51"

4 = Likability/Boys

.57* .80*

.19 .33*

.38* .60*

5 = Likability/Girls

.61" .76*

.34* .34*

.40*

.65*

.54*

.69*

5

1 = Messages

Note. Top intercorrelations in bold are for girls; and those below are for boys. * p < .002 after Bonferroni adjustment for p < .05 on 20 correlations.

Descriptive Data On the I-PIEC, scores for boys ranged f r o m a mean of 1.45 (SD = .81) on the Interactions/Girls scale to a mean of 1.65 on both the Likability/Girls scale (SD = 1.05) and the Likability/Boys scale (SD = 1.08). For girls, mean scores ranged from 1.39 (SD = .84) on Interactions/Boys to 2.17 (SD = 1.20) on Likability/Boys. Since the range of all of the items was 1 to 5, it appears that the majority of the children scored on the lower end of the I - P I E C scales, but some children reported high levels of peer influence. M e a n s for each of the I-PIEC scales by gender may be found in Table 2.

Grade and Gender Effects A 2 x 2 (Grade × Gender) multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) examining the five I - P I E C scales revealed significant main effects for both grade, Wilks' L a m b d a (A) = .94, F(5, 254) = 2.96, p < .01, and gender, A = .84, F(5, 254) = 9.29, p < .001. Follow-up analyses of variance (ANOVAs) revealed a significant grade effect for Interactions/Boys, F(1, 259) = 5.80, p < .05, such that third graders (M = 1.55, SD = .97) endorsed a greater n u m b e r of interactions with boys than fifth graders (M = 1.30, SD = .67). Gender results revealed that girls scored significantly higher than boys on Interactions/Girls, Likability/Boys, and Likability/Girls (see Table 2). The 2 x 2 (Grade × Gender) MANOVA on the B I E Q scales revealed a main effect for grade, A = .95, F(4, 249) = 2.81, p < .05, and gender, A = .92, F(4, 249) = 4.44, p < .01. Follow-up ANOVAs showed a significant grade effect for Overweight, F(1, 252) = 4.35, p < .05, with the fifth graders (M = .09, SD = .73) reporting feeling m o r e overweight than the third graders

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TABLE 2 ANALYSES BY GENDER FOR THE I-PIEC AND BIEQ

Scale

Boys M

Girls M

(SD)

(SD)

F

I-PIEC Messages

1.54 (.82)

1.68 (.88)

1.55

.21

Interactions/Boys

1.49 (.86)

1.39 (.84)

.67

.41

Interactions/Girls

1.45 (.81)

1.97 (.91)

24.12

.001

Likability/Boys

1.65 (1.08)

2.17 (1.20)

14.01

.001

Likability/Girls

1.65 (1.05)

1.91 (1.16)

3.90

.05

Diet

- . 13 (.80)

.14 (.91)

6.51

.05

Overweight

- . 17 (.69)

.18

16.06

.001

(.72)

- . 16 (.82)

12.49

.001

(.82)

-.21 (.99)

.21 (.97)

11.62

.001

BIEQ

Restraint Body Image

.18

(M = -.07, SD = .71). Girls scored significantly higher than boys on Diet, Overweight, Restraint, and Body Image (see Table 2). The 2 × 2 (Grade × Gender) MANOVA on the EDI-C scales revealed only a main effect for gender, A = .94, F(3, 258) = 4.80, p < .01. Follow-up ANOVAs revealed that girls' responses on the Drive for Thinness scale (M = .60, SD = .72) were significantly higher than those of the boys (M = .40, SD = .61), F(1, 260) = 5.71, p < .05. When MANOVAs were conducted on the I-PIEC, BIEQ, and EDI-C using BMI as a covariate, the results did not change.

Correlations of I-PIEC with EDI-C and BIEQ Zero-order correlational analyses by gender were conducted between the I-PIEC scales and the EDI-C and BIEQ scales. For girls, looking across and down Table 3, Messages and Likability correlated significantly with all of the eating and body image disturbance variables except Bulimia. Interactions/

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TABLE 3 ZERO-ORDERCORRELATIONSBETWEENI-PIEC, ANDBIEQ ANDEDI-C SCALESBYGENDER I-PIEC Scales Messages

EDIC B DT BD BIEQ D O R BI

Likability/ Boys

Likability/ Girls

Interactions/ Interactions/ Boys Girls

Girls

Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls B o y s

Girls Boys

.24 .48* .37*

.60* .48* .50*

.20 .49* .41"

.56* .57* .39*

.28 .50* .34*

.43* .55* .48*

.24 .25 .06

.30* .07 .11

.40* .42* .23

.59* .35* .30*

.50* .52* .46* .44*

.37* .53* .52* .44*

.40* .55* .43* .42*

.35* .45* .54* .40*

.48* .52* .42* .36*

.44* .55* .54* .51"

.05 .06 .14 .07

.05 .10 .10 .15

.25 .37* .38* .27

.20 .25 .32* .24

Note. B = Bulimia, DT = Drive for Thinness, BD = Body Dissatisfaction, D = Diet, O = Overweight, R --- Restraint, and BI = Body Image. *p < .0007 after Bonferroni adjustment for p < .05 on 70 correlations.

Boys did not correlate significantly with any of the BIEQ or EDI-C scales for girls, while Interactions/Girls significantly correlated with Bulimia, Drive for Thinness, Overweight, and Restraint. Similar significant associations were found for boys between Messages and Likability, and the eating and body image disturbance variables. For boys, Bulimia was the only variable that correlated significantly with Interactions/Boys, while Interactions/Girls correlated significantly with Bulimia, Drive for Thinness, Body Dissatisfaction, and Restraint (see Table 3). Most of the correlations remained significant at the Bonferroni-adjusted level when BMI was partialled out, but a few discrepancies resulted. For boys, the correlation between Interactions/Girls and Body Dissatisfaction lost its significance (r --- .28). For girls, the following correlations lost significance: Messages and Body Dissatisfaction (r -- .27), Messages and Body Image (r -- .26), Likability/Girls and Body Dissatisfaction (r -- .29), and Likability/Girls and Body Image (r -- .27). One correlation became significant for girls after partialling out the effects of BMI: Interactions/Girls and Body Image (r = .33).

Regressions Multiple regression analyses were conducted using Drive for Thinness, Diet, Overweight, and Body Image as the criterion variables and gender, grade, Body Mass Index, and the five I-PIEC variables as predictors. Conceptually, Restraint and Body Dissatisfaction were very similar to Drive for Thinness and Body Image, respectively, and therefore only the latter two were used

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TABLE 4 SUMMARY OF REGRESSIONS EXAMINING THE PREDICTION OF B I E Q AND E D I - C VARIABLES BY DEMOGRAPHICS AND I - P I E C VARIABLES

Criterion Variables

Predictor

Drive for Thinness B

Diet B

Overweight B

Body Image B

Gender Grade Body Mass Index Messages Interactions/Boys Interactions/Girls Likability/Boys Likability/Girls

- .01 .02 .11" .05 - .03 .17"* .24*** .25***

-.08 -.04 .28*** .11 - . 10 .06 .05 .29***

- . 12" .06 .30*** .10 - .09 .10 .16" .26***

- . 12" - .01 ~38"** .06 - .02 .08 .16" - . 15

Full p r e d i c t o r set

R 2 = .34***

R 2 = .49***

R 2 = .39***

R 2 = .39***

* p < .05, * * p < .01, * * * p < .001.

as criterion measures. Also, Bulimia was not used as a criterion measure because it did not consistently correlate significantly with the peer scales. Gender and grade were used as predictors so that the regressions could be split if gender or grade added significantly to the proportion of variance accounted for by the model. BMI was also entered as a predictor because if it made a significant contribution to the prediction of a criterion variable, it would be partialled out by forcing it first into a stepwise regression. For Drive for Thinness, a significant portion of the variance was accounted for by the predictors, F(8, 252) = 19.80, p < .001. Significant predictors in the model were BMI, Interactions/Girls, Likability/Boys, and Likability/Girls (see Table 4). After the effect of BMI was taken out, using the stepwise regression, Likability/Boys, Likability/Girls, and Interactions/Girls made significant contributions to predicting Drive for Thinness (see Table 5). For Diet, the predictors accounted for a significant proportion of the variance, F(8, 252) = 16.51, p < .001. BMI and Likability/Girls made significant contributions to the variance accounted for by the model (see Table 4). Likability/Girls was the only variable which made a significant contribution to predicting Diet in the stepwise regression, which partialled out BMI (see Table 5). For the regression with Overweight as the criterion measure, a significant proportion of the variance was accounted for by the model, F(8, 252) = 29.76, p < .001. Gender, BMI, Likability/Boys, and Likability/Girls made significant contributions to predicting Overweight (see Table 4). After BMI was partialled out in the stepwise regression, Likability/Girls and Interactions/Girls significantly

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TABLE 5 SUMMARY OF FOLLOW-UP STEPWISE REGRESSIONS WITH BODY MASS INDEX FORCED FIRST IN THE MODEL

Criterion Variables

Variables Entered

Drive for Thinness

Likability/Boys Likability/Girls Interactions/Girls

.25 .04 .02

Diet

Likability/Girls

Overweight Girls Boys Body Image Girls Boys

Unique R 2 Model R 2

F

p

.32 .36 .38

94.45 17.68 8.58

.001 .001 .004

.15

.31

55.59

.001

Likability/Girls Interactions/Girl s Likability/Girls Messages

.21 .04 .18 .02

.39 .44 .47 .49

42.27 9.66 44.89 4.25

.001 .002 .001 .04

Likability/Boys Interactions/Boys Likability/Girls

.09 .03 .16

.37 .40 .36

17.12 6.08 31.44

.001 .01 .001

contributed to predicting Overweight for girls, and Likability/Girls and Messages were significant predictors of Overweight for boys (see Table 5). Finally, when Body Image was the criterion measure, a significant proportion of the variance was accounted for by the predictors, F(8, 244) = 19.51, p < .001. Gender, BMI, and Likability/Boys were significant predictors in the model (see Table 4). When partialling out BMI, Likability/Boys and Interactions/Boys significantly added to the prediction of Body Image for girls, and Likability/Girls was a significant predictor of Body Image for boys (see Table 5).

Discussion Overall, third- and fifth-grade children's perceptions of peer influence on eating concerns (particularly peer messages and peer likability) were associated with their eating and body image concerns. Peer likability played the strongest role in predicting children's eating-related concerns. The belief that being thin will increase peer likability was stronger for girls than for boys. This could be the result of family and sociocultural influences being more salient and influential for girls and also being directed more toward girls than boys. Studies have demonstrated a relation between family factors (e.g., history of obesity and/or eating disorder, high levels of conflict/low levels of nurturance) and eating disturbances for young girls but not for young boys (Attie & Brooks-Gunn, 1989; Humphrey, 1987; Jacobs & Isaacs, 1986). Also, the media's association of femininity, success, and desirability with being slender, and having the "ideal thin figure" is a powerful message for young

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girls, but this cultural ideal or expectation does not extend to boys (Feldman, Feldman, & Goodman, 1988; Freedman, 1984). Finally, the cultural stereotype of associating chubbiness with negativity appears to be more salient for girls than for boys (Leon, Bemis, Meland, & Nussbaum, 1978; Lerner & Gellert, 1969). These influences emphasize being thin, which is a femaletypical weight concern, and this focus on thinness may potentially account for the gender discrepancy on the Likability scales. The finding that the Likability scales, not Messages or Interactions, were the primary contributors in predicting weight and body concerns is consistent with a previous study, which found that third- through sixth-grade children's belief that their friends would like them more if they were thinner significantly contributed to predicting maladaptive eating attitudes (Maloney et al., 1989). It is possible that children are not directly influenced by peer messages or interactions. Children may learn through sociocultural influences that they will be liked and accepted more by their peers if they are thin. If they experience any form of rejection by their peers, they may believe that being thinner would be one way to increase peer acceptance. Therefore, the peer environment may or may not be the originating source of maladaptive eating concerns, but eating and body image concerns may be one way that children attempt to improve their peer relationships. Future research might further address this issue with a prospective study which could examine children's eating attitudes and peer influence concerns prior to different peer experiences and then reevaluate their concerns. Hopefully, this could help to disentangle the direct contribution that peers may play. Interestingly, children did not respond differently to negative messages from boys or from girls, and boys and girls did not differ in the frequency that they reported receiving these messages. However, children's reports of negative messages they received about their bodies from boys and girls related significantly to their reports of eating and body image concerns. This is consistent with previous work with undergraduate women (Thompson, Fabian, Moulton, Dunn, & Altabe, 1991; Thompson & Psaltis, 1988) and female adolescents (Fabian & Thompson, 1989), which found an association between their reports of the frequency with which they had been teased about their weight or bodies as children and current maladaptive eating and body concerns. Unlike the women and female adolescents used in the previous work, the present study documents an association between negative messages about one's body and eating and body concerns during childhood; further, the study documents this association not only among girls but also among boys. Children's responses to Interactions were affected by the gender of the influencing child such that girls were more likely than boys to report interacting with girls surrounding eating and body issues. This is consistent with the majority of children's interactions with their peers at this age (Epstein & Karweit, 1983). Overall, Interactions did not predict, or relate with, the eating and body variables as strongly as Messages or Likability. This suggests that children's perceptions of interactions, particularly with boys, about eating and body issues

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do not have as strong of an association with their body and eating disturbances as their perceptions of negative messages from peers and their belief that being thin will increase their likability. A previous study examining middle-schoolgirls suggests that interactions with peers about dieting and eating issues may have a stronger association with girls' own weight management and eatingrelated concerns with increasing age (Levine et al., 1994). It appears that the relationship between peer influence factors and Body Dissatisfaction and Body Image may be affected by children's body mass because five correlations involving Body Dissatisfaction or Body Image lost their significance when BMI was partialled out. Also, BMI was a significant predictor of eating and body image concerns. These findings are consistent with previous studies on eating concerns among children and college women, which revealed that many results were mediated by body mass (Kanakis & Thelen, 1995; Thelen & Cormier, 1995). Although boys reported some eating and body concerns, girls reported significantly more eating-related disturbances than boys. This finding is consistent with previous research (Collins, 1991; Thelen, Powell, et al., 1992). This finding was also expected because this study addressed primarily female-typical weight concerns, which emphasize thinness, whereas some pre-adolescent males desire to be bigger than their current body shape (Cohn et al., 1987). The fact that fifth graders reported more concern with being overweight than third graders is consistent with a study that found that fourth- and sixthgrade girls reported more concern with being overweight and a greater desire to be thinner than second-grade girls (Thelen, Powell, et al., 1992).The paucity of grade effects indicates that an increase in body and eating-related disturbances may occur from second to third grade for girls and then level off for both boys and girls until pubertal onset, with the exception of an increasing concern about being overweight. The fact that third-grade boys and girls reported more interactions with boys about eating-related issues than did fifthgrade children also supports this idea, as these interactions would likely increase near the onset of the eating concerns and then decline. The I-PIEC proved to be a useful measure for exploring children's perceptions of peer influence on eating and body concerns. The five scales revealed high item-total correlations and internal consistencies. The intercorrelations between the scales were sufficiently high to suggest convergent validity. However, they were sufficiently low to suggest that the scales measured different constructs. Also, the production of the factors from the factor analysis revealed that the scales were measuring different constructs. The significant correlations between the I-PIEC and the BIEQ and EDI-C begin to establish concurrent and predictive validity for the I-PIEC, but external validation of the I-PIEC is necessary, as is an exploration of its relationship to other psychological measures, such as children's overall sensitivity level, self-esteem, and depression. Reliability testing of the I-PIEC is also needed to determine the consistency of the measure across time. As an aid to intervention, it would be of value to use the I-PIEC with chil-

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dren of different ages in order to better assess at what age children perceive peer influence beginning and when it is the strongest. It would also be helpful to determine if, at some age, children responded differently as a result of the gender of the child giving a negative message. One limitation of the I-PIEC, and the study in general, is that the data came only from the children themselves. Data from teachers and parents, as well as observational research, could assist in validating the I-PIEC. Future research might also use observational techniques to examine whether the relationship between peer influence and eating-related concerns in children occurs because the children with maladaptive eating concerns actually have received more peer influence, or because these children simply perceive more influence because of their eating-related concerns or some other sensitivity factor.

References Attic, I., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1989). Development of eating problems in adolescent girls: A longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 25, 70-79. Brooks-Giann, J. (1988). Antecedents and consequences of variations in girls' maturational timing. Journal of Adolescent Health Care, 9, 365-373. Cash, T. E, Winstead, B. A., & Janda, L. H. (1986, April). The great American shape-up. Psychology Today, 30-37. Cohn, L. D., Adler, N. E., Irwin, C. E., Millstein, S. G., Kegeles, S. M., & Stone, G. (1987). Body figure preferences in male and female adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 96, 276-279. Collins, M. E. (1991). Body figure perceptions and preferences among preadolescent children. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 10, 199-208. Desmond, S. M., Price, J. H., Gray, N., & O'Connell, J. K. (1986). The etiology of adolescents' perceptions of their weight. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 15, 461-474. Epstein, J. L., & Karweit, N. (1983). Friends in school: Patterns of selection and influence in secondary schools. New York: Academic Press, Fabian, L. J., & Thompson, J. K. (1989). Body image and eating disturbance in young females. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 8, 63-74. Feldman, W., Feldman, E., & Goodman, J. T. (1988). Culture versus biology: Children's attitudes toward thinness and fatness. Pediatrics, 81, 190-194. Freedman, R. J. (1984). Reflections on beauty as it relates to health in adolescent females. Women and Health, 9, 29-45. Garner, D. M. (1984). Eating disorder inventoryfor children (EDI-C). Unpublished manuscript. Garner, D. M., Olmsted, M. P., & Polivy, J. (1983). Development and validation of a multidimensional eating disorder inventory for anorexia nervosa and bulimia. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 2, 15-34. Gralen, S. J., Levine, M. P., Smolak, L., & Murnen, S. K. (1990). Dieting and disordered eating during early and middle adolescence: Do the influences remain the same? International Journal of Eating Disorders, 9, 501-512. Hawley, R. M. (1985). The outcome of anorexia nervosa in younger subjects. British Journal of Psychiatry, 146, 657-660. Humphrey, L. L. (1987). A comparison of bulimic-anorexic and non-distressed families using structural analysis of social behavior. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 26, 248-255.

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Irwin, M. (1981). Diagnosis of anorexia nervosa in children and the validity of DSM-III. Clinical and Research Reports, 138, 1382-1383. Jacobs, B. W., & Isaacs, S. (1986). Pre-pubertal anorexia nervosa: A retrospective controlled study. Journal of ChiM Psychology and Psychiatry, 27, 237-250. Kanakis, D., & Thelen, M. H. (1995). Parental variables associated with bulimia nervosa. Addictive Behaviors, 20, 491-500. Keys, A., Findanza, E, Karvonen, M, J., Kimura, N., & Taylor, H. L. (1972). Indices of relative weight and obesity. Journal of Chronic Diseases, 25, 329-343. Koff, E., & Rierdan, J. (1991). Perceptions of weight and attitudes toward eating in early adolescent girls. Journal of Adolescent Health, 12, 307-312. Leon, G. R., Bemis, K. M., Meland, M., & Nussbaum, D. (1978). Aspects of body image perception in obese and normal-weight youngsters. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 6, 361-371. Lerner, R. M., & Gellert, E. (1969). Body build identification, preference, and aversion in children. Developmental Psychology, 1,456-462. Levine, M. P., Smolak, L., Moodey, A. E, Shuman, M. D., & Hessen, L. D. (1994). Normative developmental challenges and dieting and eating disturbances in middle school girls. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 15, 11-20. Maloney, M. J., McGuire, J. B., & Daniels, S. R. (1988). Reliability testing of a children's version of the Eating Attitude Test. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 27, 541-543. Maloney, M. J., McGuire, J., Daniels, S. R., & Specker, B. (1989). Dieting behaviors and eating attitudes in children. Pediatrics, 84, 482-489. Moreno, A. B,, & Thelen, M. H. (1995). Eating behavior in junior high school females. Adolescence, 30, 171-174. Olsen, L. (1984). A report on teenagers' eating habits and nutritional status. Oakland, CA: Citizens Policy Center. Striegel-Moore, R. H., Silberstein, L. R., & Rodin, J. (1986). Toward an understanding of risk factors for bulimia. American Psychologist, 41,246-263. Theander, S. (1970). Anorexia nervosa: A psychiatric investigation of 94 female patients. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica Supplementum, 214, 1-194. Thelen, M. H., & Cormier, J. (1995). Desire to be thinner and weight control among children and their parents. Behavior Therapy, 26, 85-99. Thelen, M. H., Lawrence, C. M., & Powell, A. L. (1992). Body image, weight control, and eating disorders among children. In J. H. Crowther, S. E. Hobfoll, M. A. P. Stephens, & D. L. Tennenbaum (Eds.), Etiology ofbulimia: The individual and family context (pp. 81-98). Washington, DC: Hemisphere Publishers. Thelen, M. H., Powell, A. L., Lawrence, C., & Kuhnert, M. E. (1992). Eating and body image concerns among children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 21, 41-46. Thompson, J. K. (1991). Body shape preferences: Effects of instructional protocol and level of eating disturbance. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 10, 193-198. Thompson, J. K., Fabian, L. J., Moulton, D. O., Dunn, M. E., & Altabe, M. N. (1991). Development and validation of the Physical Appearance Related Teasing Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 56, 513-521. Thompson, J. K., & Psaltis, K. (1988). Multiple aspects and correlates of body figure ratings: A replication and extension of Fallon and Rozin (1985). International Journal of Eating Disorders, 7, 813-817. Warren, W. (1968). A study of anorexia nervosa in young girls. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 9, 27-40. RECEIVED: January 20, 1995 ACCEPTED: September 19, 1995

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Appendix Inventory of Peer Influence on Eating Concerns 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

Girls and I compare how our bodies look in our clothes. Boys say that they don't like me because of my body. I think that boys think I would look better thinner. Girls say that I am fat. Boys and I compare the size and shape of our bodies. Boys say that I am fat. IfI were thinner, I think that girls would want to sit next to me more often. Boys tease me or make fun of me about the size or shape of my body. Boys and I compare how our bodies look in the mirror. Girls laugh at me or make fun of me because of my body. Boys and I compare how our bodies look in our clothes. I think that girls think I would look better thinner. I think that girls would want to play with me more if I were thinner. Girls and I talk about what we would like our bodies to look like. Girls say that I should go on a diet. Boys say that I eat food that will make me fat. I talk with girls about what types of food make people fat. Girls tease me or make fun of me about the size or shape of my body. I think that boys would talk to me more if I were thinner. Girls and I compare how our bodies look in the mirror. I think that having a thin body is a good way for me to be liked by boys. Girls say that I would look better if I were thinner. Boys laugh at me or make fun of me because of my body. I think that boys would like me more if I were thinner. IfI were thinner, I think that boys would want to sit next to me more often. I think that girls think I am fat. Boys say that I would look better if I were thinner. Girls and I compare the size and shape of our bodies. I think that girls would talk to me more if I were thinner. If I had a thinner body, I think that girls would pay more attention to me.

Note:

Items comprising each scale: Messages = 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 15, 16, 18, 22, 23, 26, 27; Interactions/Boys = 5, 9, 11; Interactions/Girls = 1, 14, 17, 20, 28; Likability/Boys = 3, 19, 21, 24, 25; Likability/Girls = 7, 12, 13, 29, 30