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Children's physical activity: An exploratory study of psychological correlates
Sot. Sci. Med. Vol. 34, No. 3, pp. 325-331, 1992 F’rinted in Great Britain. All rights reserved
0277-9536/92 S5.00 + 0.00 1992 Pergamon Pz%l plc
Copyright Q
CHILDREN’S PHYSICAL ACTIVITY: STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGICAL
AN EXPLORATORY CORRELATES
STUART BIDDLE and NEIL ARMSTRONG Physical Education Association Research Centre, School of Education, University of Exeter, Exeter EXI 2LU, U.K. Abstract-Data are now accumulating that show that some children have apparently low levels of habitual physical activity, as measured by heart rate telemetry. However, relatively little is known about the likely correlates or determinants of such activity patterns. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to explore the extent to which activity levels were related to selected psychological factors. The heart rates of 1l/12-year old boys and girls (N = 72) were monitored continuously for 12 hr on each of three school days. The same subjects completed psychological inventories assessing physical self-perceptions and motivation. Intrinsic motivation towards physical education and sport was significantly correlated with activity levels for boys. Motivational orientations also predicted activity, but differently for boys and girls. Evidence was found for a discrimination between ‘active’ and ‘less active’ girls on the basis of their physical self-perception and motivation scores. Key words-children,
physical activity, motivation, self-perception
Similarly, the literature on the psychology of children in competitive sport contain studies that have used these perspectives with some success [13]. Gender differences are often found when investigating these variables and this may help in the identification of gender differences in activity levels [12].
The impact of physical activity and exercise on physical and mental health in adults is now well
documented [I]. However, data on children are relatively sparse, despite the increasing concern be_ing expressed about the apparently low levels of physical activity experienced by children, and adolescent girls would appear to be. significantly less active than boys [2]. Recent position statements have stressed the importance of physical activity and exercise for children’s health and have emphasised the need for children to sustain activity into adulthood [3,4]. Despite the increasing interest being shown in children’s physical activity, exercise and health, little is known about the correlates of such behaviour patterns. Although a psychological perspective on exercise is now being adopted [5], and the correlates of physical activity and exercise in adults are better documented [6-81, the literature on the factors affecting children’s activity is sparse [9]. Dishman and Dunn [lo] suggest that “naturally occurring relationships between activity patterns and behavioural variables must be described for children and youth” and “the variables chosen to describe these relationships must be based on theory in order to increase standardisation and the likelihood of generalisability” (p. 186). Consequently, there is a need to address the issue of psychological correlates of children’s involvement in physical activity. Clearly, a large number of factors have the potential to impact on this kind of behaviour, and variables identified may affect boys and girls differently. Current perspectives in psychology suggest that there is merit in investigating motivation and self-perception variables [I 11. This is supported by the emphasis being placed on cognitive factors in the determination of choice behaviours [12].
Motivational orientation
Intrinsic motivation is the motivation to do something for its own sake in the absence of extrinsic rewards and is related to feelings of mastery, control and self-determination [14]. It is often thought that the development of intrinsic motivation is important for engaging in physical activity. Similarly, it has been suggested that the motivational stance adopted by the child reflects underlying reasons for participation, and as such could be a useful marker of physical activity [ 151. Harter [ 161 points out that children who are more intrinsically motivated are those who often perceive themselves as more competent and feel responsible for their successes and failures. Feelings of self-determination and control, therefore, would appear to be worthy of study within the context of physical activity. Surprisingly, data so far have not been reported for boys and girls separately [ 15, 161, although gender differences might be expected. Physical self-perception There has been a great deal of interest shown recently in factors associated with self-esteem and exercise [17]. Not only has it been proposed that self-esteem can be changed as a result of involvement in physical activity (181. some have suggested that high self-esteem may also be a factor predisposing people to be physically active [19].
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STUART BIDDLE and NEIL ARMSTRONG
Self-esteem is both multidimensional in structure, in so far as people hold differing perceptions of themselves across varying domains of their life, and also hierarchical. This means that global perceptions of self-esteem are underpinned by ever-more differentiated and transient self-perceptions. Fox and co-workers [20,21] have shown that, in addition to perceptions of physical self-worth, American collegeage adults hold meaningful perceptions of themselves in domains associated with sports competence, physical condition, physical strength, and body attractiveness. Fox [20] has reported higher scores on all four of these domains for males compared with females and this has been confirmed with children by Whitehead and Corbin [25]. Fox [20] recommends that analyses should be conducted separately for each gender. This study, therefore, is an investigation of the relationship between motivation and self-perceptions, and physical activity in children. The potential importance of the study is in the identification of psychological factors related, or not related, to physical activity in an age group thought by many to be less active than is desirable from a health perspective. This may shed light on issues associated with preventive medicine and health promotion in children. METHOD
Subjects
Thirty-five girls and 37 boys aged 11 and 12 years [M = 12.2, SD = 0.31 years] participated in the study. The children attended one of two ‘Middle’ schools located in a city in the south west of England. Middle schools educate children between the ages of 8 and 12 years, with final year children progressing to secondary education one year later than the traditional primary-secondary transition. Participation in the study was voluntary. Informed consent procedures for children were used such that the parents/guardians and the children signed a letter of agreement to allow participation. The letter contained information on the nature of the study, but was written in such a way as to try to avoid biasing responses or behaviours of the children during the study. The schools contained a range of socioeconomic backgrounds, although no assessment was made of the exact composition. This age group was selected for two main reasons. First, the children were moving from childhood into adolescence-an important time in the development of behaviours of the young person. Second, it was felt that this was the youngest age with which the psychological inventories could be employed without encountering significant problems associated with reading and interpretation. Procedures Assessment
(frequency,
of physical
intensity
and
activity.
duration)
The volume of physical
activity was estimated from continuous heart rate monitoring over three weekdays during the school summer term. Physical activity is not directly measured using this methodology but the relative stress being placed on the cardiopulmonary system is monitored. However, for ease of exposition, it will be. assumed that volume of heart rate response is indicative of magnitude of physical activity. A self-contained computerised telemetry system, (Sport Tester 3000) was used to continuously record minute by minute heart rates. The Sport Tester 3000 consists of a lightweight transmitter, which is fixed to the chest with electrodes, and a receiver and microcomputer which is worn as a watch on the wrist. It has been found to be a reliable and valid means of recording heart rate with children. A recent survey of the most popular commercially available heart rate monitors concluded that the Sport Tester 3000 “in addition to having validity and stability it permits almost total freedom of motion” [22, p. 1461, although the effect of wearing the equipment on activity levels has yet to be demonstrated. The Sport Tester 3000 is capable of storing and replaying minute by minute heart rates for up to 16 hr and if it is interfaced with a microcomputer the development of a simple program allows sustained periods of heart rate above specified thresholds to be identified and recorded. Each child was monitored from 09.00 hr until 21.00 hr during a normal school day. The receivers were retrieved, replaced and re-fitted the following morning and the process was repeated over three days. Simons-Morton et al. [23] reviewed statements on physical activity and exercise for children and concluded that recommendations (for health/fitness) usually included three or more 20min periods per week at an intensity eliciting heart rates greater than or equal to 140 beats/min (approximately 70% of the maximal heart rate). Other reviewers [24], however, have indicated that more intense exercise, up to 80% of maximum heart rate (greater than or equal to 160 beats/min), is necessary for the improvement of children’s cardiopulmonary fitness. Accordingly, we have analysed physical activity in terms of the percentage of time spent with heart rate above 139 and 159 bpm. Although the percentage of time spent above the specified thresholds yields useful information, it will also include elevations due to transient emotional states, climatic conditions and other factors unrelated to exercise. Therefore, we have noted the number of sustained 20 min periods spent with heart rates above these thresholds. Given that children, for reasons of attention span, sporadic play patterns etc., are unlikely to sustain activity for this duration, sustained 10 min periods of elevated heart rate were also analysed. Psychological measures. Two psychological inventories were administered in the classroom at the end of the period of the activity assessments. These
Psychology
and children’s physical activity
were the Motivational Orientation in Sport Scale, MOSS [15], and the Physical Self-Perception Profile [20,21], modified for use with children, PSPP-C, [25]. Motivational orientation. The MOSS is a multidimensional measure of children’s intrinsic and extrinsic motivational orientations in sport and physical education. It is a modification of Harter’s [16] motivational orientation scale for the classroom. Although it is a scale developed for use in physical education and sport, rather than physical activity per se, it is likely that the perceptions children hold about physical education and sport will be important factors in the determination of physical activity. The MOSS contains five sub-scales:
Table
I.
Description
A four-choice structured alternative item format is used for the MOSS. For example, question 1 states: some kids like hard other kids prefer sport skills because BUT sport skills they they’re a challenge are sure they can do The subjects then choose which statement is true for them, and then rate it as either ‘really true for me’ or ‘sort of true for me’. High scores on each sub-scale reveal a preference for intrinsic motivational orientation. The maximum score for each subscale is 4 and the minimum 1. Analyses used one of three measures: the five individual subscale scores, a composite intrinsic motivation (IM) score (mean of all five scales), and the intrinsic mastery motivation (IMM) and autonomous judgement (AI) composite subscales. These were derived by Harter and Connell [26] from mean scores of the subscales of challenge, curiosity and mastery for IMM, and judgement and criteria for AI. IMM refers to wants, likes, and preferen?s, whereas AJ is thought to refer to cognitiveinformational structures of the child, or the ways the child thinks about making decisions. Physical self-perception. The PSPP is a multidimensional measure of physical self-worth. Fox [20] has identified four sub-domains of physical selfworth: sports competence, body attractiveness, physical strength, and physical condition. In addition, the PSPP provides a measure of physical self-worth. These domains are explained in Table 1.
of physical self-perception (from Fox [20])
construct
mcasura
Lkscrintion r
~~~-
Physical self-worth
General feelings of happiness, satisfaction, pride, respect, and confidence in the physical self.
Sports competence
Perceptions of sport and athletic ability, ability to learn sport skills, and confidence in the sports environment.
Physical condition
Perceptions of level of physical condition, stamina and fitness, ability to maintain exercise, and confidence in the exercise and fitness setting.
Body attractiveness
Perceived attractiveness of figure or physique, ability to maintain an attractive body, and confidence in appearance.
Physical strength
Perceived strength. muscle development, and confidence in situations requiring strength.
(4 challenge:
preference for challenging tasks (intrinsic pole; I) vs preference for easy skills (extrinsic pole; E); (b) curiosity: to satisfy one’s own curiosity/interest (I) versus pleasing the teacher/coach (E); (4 mastery: preference for independent problemsolving and mastery attempts (I) vs dependence on teacher/coach for help or guidance (E); independent judgement of what to (4 judgement: ._. do (I) vs reliance on the judgement of the teacher/coach about what to do (E); (e) criteria: internal criteria of sense of success/ failure (I) vs dependence on external criteria of teacher/coach for determining success/failure (E).
327
Subscale questions were modified for use with children by Whitehead and Corbin [25] and the final version of the PSPP-C also included Hatter’s global self-esteem questions from her Perceived Competence Scale for Children [271. Initial psychometric evaluation has shown that the PSPP-C has adequate internal reliability, a factorial structure corresponding to the adult version, and construct validity for children 12-13 years of age [27]. The structured alternative format, as used for the MOSS, is also used on the PSPP-C. The maximum score for each subscale is 24, and minimum 6, with the midpoint at 15. RESULTS
Physical activity
Boys were found to spend a significantly greater percentage of time above 159 bpm than girls [t(70) = 2.23, P < 0.051, but no difference was found above the 139 bpm threshold (P > 0.05) (see Fig. 1). On the basis of the sustained periods of elevated heart rate, two groups were created for analyses. The subjects in the ‘active group’ were those who had at least one period of 10 or 20 min of heart rate above the stated threshold, whereas those classified as ‘less active’ had no periods above the threshold. 2 x 2 chi-square analyses (gender by activity group) revealed no relationship between gender and activity for 10 or- 20 minute periods above 139 bpm (P > 0.05). However, a relationship was observed for the higher heart rate periods such that boys were more likely to be in the active group for 10 min above 159 bpm l’~*= 4.37 (Id’), P < 0.051 and for 20 min above 159 bpm Ix* with Yates’ correction = 3.66 (Id’), P = 0.061 (see Fig. 2). Psychological correlates of physical activity
Descriptive statistics for all psychological measures are shown separately for boys and girls in Table 2. There were significant differences between the sexes on most of the variables or multivariate profiles and these are highlighted in the footnote to Table 2.
STUARTBIDDLEand
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NEIL ARMSTRONG
Table 2. Descriptive statistics for psychological variables for boys and girls Boys
t
m e >139bpm
‘159bpm
HeartRateCategories
Fig. 1. Percentage of total monitoring time spent above 139 and 159 bpm for boys and girls. Significant gender difference is shown at 159 bpm only.
Results for the ‘active’ and ‘less active’ groups, also differentiated by gender, are shown in Table 3 and correlations between psychological variables and heart rate are shown in Table 4. IMM scores positively correlated with heart rate for boys and not girls, whereas AJ scores negatively correlated with heart rate for girls, but not boys. Correlations between heart rate and physical selfperceptions were stronger for boys and close to zero for girls. However, only sports competence was significantly associated with heart rate, and this was for boys only. The relationship between activity data, expressed as percentage of time above a specified heart rate, and psychological factors, was analysed by use of stepwise multiple regression analyses, with the percentage of time as the dependent variable. For the activity data expressed as sustained periods of heart rate above specified thresholds, ‘active’ and ‘less active’ groups were used as already described. These groups were
Twwtymirwl59tpn
TwedymirwWbpm
Tenmhs>l%pm
Ten mins>l39bpm
Percentageof SubjectGroup Fig. 2. Percentage of boys and girls with at least one period of sustained heart rate at the levels specified during the study period.
Girls
Construct
M
SD
M
SD
Motivational orientations’ Challenge Curiosity Judgement Mastery Criteria Composite intrinsic motivation’ Intrinsic mastery motivation’ Autonomous judgement’
3.31 3.22 3.16 3.1 I 2.87 2.78 3.21 3.01
0.74 0.67 0.51 0.63 0.73 0.43 0.56 0.51
2.85 2.74 2.74 2.75 2.91 2.52 2.78 2.83
0.78 0.67 0.46 0.46 0.47 0.38 0.53 0.42
16.03 17.56 la.31 18.78 17.88 la.72
3.86 3.78 4.10 3.02 3.11 3.88
14.31 14.31 16.07 16.17 16.07 17.72
3.37 3.82 3.87 3.73 4.20 3.90
Physical self-perceptions’ Attractive body Physical strength Sports competence Physical condition Physical self-worth6 Global self-esteem’
Gender differences: ‘Discriminant analysis: Wilks’ Lambda = 0.66, x2 = 21.05 (4df) P < 0.0003. ‘t(52) = 2.43 P < 0.02. ‘f(53) = 2.98 P < 0.004. ‘f (53) = I .49 P > 0.05. ‘Discriminant analysis: Wilks’ Lambda = 0.83, x1 = I I, I (2d/) P < 0.005. %(59) = 1.92 P = 0.06. ‘r(59) = 1.00 P > 0.05.
then subjected to a stepwise discriminant analysis, separately for boys and girls, with the psychological factors as the discriminating variables. Percentage of time above heart rate threshok The five MOSS subscales and four PSPP-C subscales were used as predictor variables in stepwise multiple regression analyses. Zero-order correlations between all these variables were sufficiently low that multicollinearity was not a problem. For boys, the only significant predictor of percentage of time spent above a heart rate of 159 bpm was the MOSS curiosity factor, accounting for 22.4% of the variance. This was also the case for heart rates above 139 bpm, with 19.6% of the variance explained. In both cases, high scores on the intrinsic pole of the curiosity subscale were related to a greater percentage of time spent at higher heart rates. For girls, heart rate above 159 bpm was predicted only by the MOSS judgement factor, with 19.8% of the variance accounted for. Similar results were found for the heart rates above 139, with the judgement factor accounting for 19.6% of the variance. Sustained periorLF of elevated heart rate. To see whether active and less active children could be discriminated from each other on the basis of their scores on the MOSS and PSPP-C, stepwise discriminant analyses were conducted separately for boys and girls. Due to the few numbers of sustained periods of elevated heart rates across the whole sample, and in particular among the girls, it was only possible to use this type of analysis by classifying active and less active subjects on the basis of whether they had one period of sustained heart rate above 139 bpm during the testing period.
Psychology and children’s
physical
activity
329
Table 3. Descriptive statistics for ‘active’ and ‘less active’ subjects, separately for boys and girls Active Boys (N = 18) Construct Motivational orientations Challenge Curiosity Judgement Mastery Criteria Composite intrinsic motivation’ Intrinsic mastery motivation’ Autonomous judgement’ Physical self-perceptions Attractive body Physical strength Sports competence Physical condition Physical self-worth’ Global self-esteems
Less active Girls (N = 19)
Boys (N = 14)
Girls (N = 10)
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
3.32 3.26 3.22 3.04 2.77 2.78 3.20 2.99
0.56 0.75 0.52 0.68 0.77 0.45 0.65 0.51
2.94 2.90 2.65 2.76 2.89 2.55 2.87 2.77
0.84 0.57 0.50 0.52 0.45 0.42 0.57 0.44
3.32 3.18 3.05 3.24 3.06 2.83 3.25 3.05
0.84 0.53 0.52 0.54 0.63 0.38 0.39 0.54
2.70 2.48 2.88 2.72 2.96 2.50 2.63 2.92
0.66 0.78 0.35 0.36 0.28 0.33 0.43 0.38
15.8 17.8 la.8 i a.4 18.1 19.1
3.8 3.8 4.0 3.1 3.5 3.9
15.1 14.3 16.9 16.7 16.8 la.2
3.6 4.0 4.0 3.5 3.4 4.1
16.3 17.3 17.6 19.3 17.6 18.3
4.0 3.9 4.3 2.9 2.7 4.0
12.9 14.3 14.5 15.1 14.6 16.9
2.5 3.7 3.3 4.1 5.3 3.5
2 x 2 (gender by activity groups) ANOVAs: ‘Significant main effect for gender [F(I,54) = 6.29, P < 0.021. No significant interaction. *Significant main effect for gender (F(l.54) = 23.49, P < O.OOS].No significant interaction. ‘No significant main effects or interaction. ‘Significant main effect for gender [F(1,69) = 4.21, P < O.OS].No significant interaction. ‘No significant main effects or interaction.
Results showed that for boys it was not possible to discriminate active from less active on the basis of their scores on the psychological inventories [Wilks’ Lambda = 0.69, x2 = 8.2, P > 0.051. For girls, the discriminant function was significant [Wilks’ Lambda = 0.51, x2 = 14.6, P < 0.031. A cross-classification analysis showed that 85.2% of girls were correctly classified. Standardised canonical discriminant function coefficients showed that the best discriminators between active and less active girls were the MOSS subscales of challenge, curiosity and judgement, and PSPP-C measures of perceived body attractiveness, physical self-worth, and global self-esteem. The direction of the coefficients suggests that membership in the active group for girls is best predicted by intrinsic scores on curiosity, external scores on judgement and challenge, as well as higher scores on physical self-worth, global selfesteem and body attractiveness. Table 4. Correlation coefficients for boys and girls between percentage of time spent at heart rates above 139 and I59 bpm and psychological measures
Challenge Curiosity Judgement Mastery Criteria Intrinsic motivation Intrinsic mastery motivation Autonomous judgement Attractive body Physical strength Sports competence Physical condition Physical self-worth Global self-esteem ‘P < 0.05.
HR > 139 bpm
HR> I59bpm
Boys
Girls
Boys
Girls
0.34 0.47. 0.18 0.14 0.18 0.36. 0.38. 0.24 0.25 0.29 0.39’ 0.29 -0.07 0.24
-0.01 0.03 -0.48’ -0.30 -0.28 -0.24 -0.08 -0.39. 0.18 -0.03 0.06 0.11 -0.19 0.10
0.34 0.45. 0.17 0.08 0.29 0.43.. 0.42. 0.29 0.29 0.15 0.43. 0.22 -0.07 0.16
-0.14 0.03 -0.479 -0.28 -0.24 z&i; -0f37’ 0.04 -0.12 0.03 0.04 -0.24 0.07
DISCUSSION
The evidence from this study confirms earlier findings [2] that children would appear to have quite low levels of physical activity from a physical fitness/health perspective, and this is particularly so for girls. The identification of psychological correlates of physical activity, therefore, would appear to be. a priority for sport and exercise scientists, as well as public health specialists and medical/health psychologists. Although both motivational and self-perception variables were found to be related to physical activity in children, each of these will be discussed in turn. Motivational orientations The activity of boys was significantly and positively correlated with intrinsic motivation for physical education (PE) and sports, and this was mainly due to the intrinsic mastery motivation variable. Although causality cannot be inferred, these results do suggest that boys of this age can enjoy physical activity for its own sake and are willing to be active for reasons of independent problem-solving and intrinsic mastery. Consequently, they appear to be less dependent on the teacher, less interested in pleasing the teacher and obtaining good marks, but interested in a challenge for its own sake. However, an opposite trend was found for the girls. The more active girls showed a tendency towards extrinsic autonomous judgement whereby they were dependent on the teacher’s opinion or judgement about what to do and how well they have done in PE and sport. The discriminant analysis also showed that active girls were more likely to be characterised by extrinsic motivation on the challenge scale. That is to say they were motivated more by a preference for
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STUART BIDDLE and NEIL ARMSTRONG
easy skills than challenging tasks. Overall, these results may reflect socialisation factors, even at this early age, where it is more socially acceptable to be involved in sports as a boy [28]. Girls have also been shown to require a stronger social support network than boys [29]. Evidence with adult women has suggested that females may lack self-confidence in sport and exercise contexts [30, 311. The results here suggest that this may be the case with girls, hence, they seek approval and guidance from the teacher for participation, or seek easy tasks. This requires followup but appears tenable at this stage. Further research may usefully investigate developmental trends since Harter and Connell [26] suggest that the intrinsic mastery motivation scores will become more extrinsic between the ages of 8 and 14 years, whereas the autonomous judgement scores will become more intrinsic. Since these trends are for classroom settings, further research is required in physical activity contexts. However, the results reported suggest that girls in particular may require physical activity that has a high social component, and is not perceived as being an achievement or challenge-type situation. Creating social enjoyment may be important for motivation in this case. Physical self-perceptions Results for physical self-perceptions showed that the active girls were characterised moie by higher scores on perceptions of attractive body, as well as physical self-worth and global self-esteem. Physical appearance is a predictably important factor, either as an antecedent or consequent variable, and is likely to increase in importance with age, particularly as these girls move into adolescence. Feelings of high physical self-worth and self-esteem suggest that there is little conflict for these girls between being physically active and being a girl. Whether this changes in adolescence and adulthood remains to be seen. Similarly, it could be argued that for girls to be active they may need more positive perceptions of their physical and general selves in order to combat negative stereotypic attitudes associated with gender roles and physical activity. In summary, this exploratory study has identified that physical activity levels of children may be related to factors of intrinsic/extrinsic motivation. Selfperception variables also contributed to the discrimination between active and less active girls. A great deal more research is required and replication is needed. The results do show gender differences and, given the differences also shown between boys and girls in physical activity levels, these results require follow-up. This exploratory study, however, highlights a number of methodological issues for future research of this nature. First, the type of physical activity will need to be identified as well as the quantity. In the present study, all types of activity were assessed, including school physical education classes, since the
research was designed to study levels rather than types of activity. Research needs to discover the type of activity generally indulged in by young children by choice, and such investigations, despite the logistical problems involved, will have to involve children outside of the school term. This is because children are likely not to have as much control over their physical activity patterns during the school week as at other times. There are occasions when they may want to engage in physical activities, but are obliged to sit in class, and other times when they may wish to be sedentary, but are required to participate in physical education. Again, this highlights the need to study the type of activity engaged in by children. This will require greater use of self-report data, despite the problems inherent in such approaches with children [32]. The psychological factors identified in this study may be less important in influencing children’s physical activity during the school term than at other times. Sustained periods of high heart rate, indicative of fitness and exercise routines of adults, may be inappropriate for children who are likely to indulge in more sporadic, less intense, but higher frequency bouts of physical activity. This is a particular problem when using the heart rate assessment method adopted here since it is likely that children could be active for less than IO min, but this would categorise the child into the less active group. This method is likely to yield a number of ‘false negative’ classifications. Similarly, there is no evidence to show that promoting fitness development in children based on criteria for the improvement of fitness in adults will increase the likelihood of children becoming active adults [23]. emotional climatic and Finally, although factors will play only a small role in the elevation of sustained periods of heart rate, they could, nevertheless, still be accounting for part of the heart rate score. This exploratory study, despite the low statistical power associated with the small sample sizes, and some of the inherent problems outlined, has identified psychological factors associated with physical activity levels of children. Future work, however, requires other constructs to be investigated, including the identification of the types of physical activity participated in by choice. Acknowledgements-This study was funded by the University of Exeter. Appreciation is extended to Jenny Frost and Dr Jayne Mitchell for their work on data collection, to Alison Husband for data preparation, and to Dr Ken Fox and two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments on earlier drafts of this paper. REFERENCES Bouchard C., Shephard R. J., Stephens T., Sutton J. R. and McPherson B. D. (Eds) Exercise, Fitness and Health: A Consensus of Current Knowledge, Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL, 1990.
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pp. 219-250. JAI Press, Greenwich, 1984. 27. Harter S. The Perceived Competence Scale for Children. Child Devel. 53. 87-97.
1982.
28. Coakley J. J. ‘Children and the sport socialization process. In Advances in Pediatric Sport Sciences: II, Behavioural Issues (Edited bv Gould D. and Weiss M.). pp. 43-60. Human‘Kinetics: Champaign, IL, 1987. ” 29. Lewko J. H. and Greendorfer S. L. Family influences in snort socialisation of children and adolescents. In Chilhren in Sport (3rd edn) (Edited by Smoll F. L., Magi11 R. A.. and Ash M. J.), pp. 287-300. Human Kinetics. Chamoaian, IL. 1988. 30. Corbin .C. B. .-Selftonhdence of females in sports and physical activity. CIin. Sports Med. 3, 895-908, 1984. 31. Feltz D. L. Self-confidence and sports performance. Ex. Sport Sci. Rev. 16, 423457, 1988. 32. Biddle S. J. H., Mitchell J. and Armstrong
N. The assessment of physical activity in children: A comparison of continuous heart rate monitoring, self-report, and interview recall techniques. Br. J. Phys. Ed. Res. Suppl. 10, 4-8,
1992.
0277-9536/92 S5.00 + 0.00 1992 Pergamon Pz%l plc
Copyright Q
CHILDREN’S PHYSICAL ACTIVITY: STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGICAL
AN EXPLORATORY CORRELATES
STUART BIDDLE and NEIL ARMSTRONG Physical Education Association Research Centre, School of Education, University of Exeter, Exeter EXI 2LU, U.K. Abstract-Data are now accumulating that show that some children have apparently low levels of habitual physical activity, as measured by heart rate telemetry. However, relatively little is known about the likely correlates or determinants of such activity patterns. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to explore the extent to which activity levels were related to selected psychological factors. The heart rates of 1l/12-year old boys and girls (N = 72) were monitored continuously for 12 hr on each of three school days. The same subjects completed psychological inventories assessing physical self-perceptions and motivation. Intrinsic motivation towards physical education and sport was significantly correlated with activity levels for boys. Motivational orientations also predicted activity, but differently for boys and girls. Evidence was found for a discrimination between ‘active’ and ‘less active’ girls on the basis of their physical self-perception and motivation scores. Key words-children,
physical activity, motivation, self-perception
Similarly, the literature on the psychology of children in competitive sport contain studies that have used these perspectives with some success [13]. Gender differences are often found when investigating these variables and this may help in the identification of gender differences in activity levels [12].
The impact of physical activity and exercise on physical and mental health in adults is now well
documented [I]. However, data on children are relatively sparse, despite the increasing concern be_ing expressed about the apparently low levels of physical activity experienced by children, and adolescent girls would appear to be. significantly less active than boys [2]. Recent position statements have stressed the importance of physical activity and exercise for children’s health and have emphasised the need for children to sustain activity into adulthood [3,4]. Despite the increasing interest being shown in children’s physical activity, exercise and health, little is known about the correlates of such behaviour patterns. Although a psychological perspective on exercise is now being adopted [5], and the correlates of physical activity and exercise in adults are better documented [6-81, the literature on the factors affecting children’s activity is sparse [9]. Dishman and Dunn [lo] suggest that “naturally occurring relationships between activity patterns and behavioural variables must be described for children and youth” and “the variables chosen to describe these relationships must be based on theory in order to increase standardisation and the likelihood of generalisability” (p. 186). Consequently, there is a need to address the issue of psychological correlates of children’s involvement in physical activity. Clearly, a large number of factors have the potential to impact on this kind of behaviour, and variables identified may affect boys and girls differently. Current perspectives in psychology suggest that there is merit in investigating motivation and self-perception variables [I 11. This is supported by the emphasis being placed on cognitive factors in the determination of choice behaviours [12].
Motivational orientation
Intrinsic motivation is the motivation to do something for its own sake in the absence of extrinsic rewards and is related to feelings of mastery, control and self-determination [14]. It is often thought that the development of intrinsic motivation is important for engaging in physical activity. Similarly, it has been suggested that the motivational stance adopted by the child reflects underlying reasons for participation, and as such could be a useful marker of physical activity [ 151. Harter [ 161 points out that children who are more intrinsically motivated are those who often perceive themselves as more competent and feel responsible for their successes and failures. Feelings of self-determination and control, therefore, would appear to be worthy of study within the context of physical activity. Surprisingly, data so far have not been reported for boys and girls separately [ 15, 161, although gender differences might be expected. Physical self-perception There has been a great deal of interest shown recently in factors associated with self-esteem and exercise [17]. Not only has it been proposed that self-esteem can be changed as a result of involvement in physical activity (181. some have suggested that high self-esteem may also be a factor predisposing people to be physically active [19].
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Self-esteem is both multidimensional in structure, in so far as people hold differing perceptions of themselves across varying domains of their life, and also hierarchical. This means that global perceptions of self-esteem are underpinned by ever-more differentiated and transient self-perceptions. Fox and co-workers [20,21] have shown that, in addition to perceptions of physical self-worth, American collegeage adults hold meaningful perceptions of themselves in domains associated with sports competence, physical condition, physical strength, and body attractiveness. Fox [20] has reported higher scores on all four of these domains for males compared with females and this has been confirmed with children by Whitehead and Corbin [25]. Fox [20] recommends that analyses should be conducted separately for each gender. This study, therefore, is an investigation of the relationship between motivation and self-perceptions, and physical activity in children. The potential importance of the study is in the identification of psychological factors related, or not related, to physical activity in an age group thought by many to be less active than is desirable from a health perspective. This may shed light on issues associated with preventive medicine and health promotion in children. METHOD
Subjects
Thirty-five girls and 37 boys aged 11 and 12 years [M = 12.2, SD = 0.31 years] participated in the study. The children attended one of two ‘Middle’ schools located in a city in the south west of England. Middle schools educate children between the ages of 8 and 12 years, with final year children progressing to secondary education one year later than the traditional primary-secondary transition. Participation in the study was voluntary. Informed consent procedures for children were used such that the parents/guardians and the children signed a letter of agreement to allow participation. The letter contained information on the nature of the study, but was written in such a way as to try to avoid biasing responses or behaviours of the children during the study. The schools contained a range of socioeconomic backgrounds, although no assessment was made of the exact composition. This age group was selected for two main reasons. First, the children were moving from childhood into adolescence-an important time in the development of behaviours of the young person. Second, it was felt that this was the youngest age with which the psychological inventories could be employed without encountering significant problems associated with reading and interpretation. Procedures Assessment
(frequency,
of physical
intensity
and
activity.
duration)
The volume of physical
activity was estimated from continuous heart rate monitoring over three weekdays during the school summer term. Physical activity is not directly measured using this methodology but the relative stress being placed on the cardiopulmonary system is monitored. However, for ease of exposition, it will be. assumed that volume of heart rate response is indicative of magnitude of physical activity. A self-contained computerised telemetry system, (Sport Tester 3000) was used to continuously record minute by minute heart rates. The Sport Tester 3000 consists of a lightweight transmitter, which is fixed to the chest with electrodes, and a receiver and microcomputer which is worn as a watch on the wrist. It has been found to be a reliable and valid means of recording heart rate with children. A recent survey of the most popular commercially available heart rate monitors concluded that the Sport Tester 3000 “in addition to having validity and stability it permits almost total freedom of motion” [22, p. 1461, although the effect of wearing the equipment on activity levels has yet to be demonstrated. The Sport Tester 3000 is capable of storing and replaying minute by minute heart rates for up to 16 hr and if it is interfaced with a microcomputer the development of a simple program allows sustained periods of heart rate above specified thresholds to be identified and recorded. Each child was monitored from 09.00 hr until 21.00 hr during a normal school day. The receivers were retrieved, replaced and re-fitted the following morning and the process was repeated over three days. Simons-Morton et al. [23] reviewed statements on physical activity and exercise for children and concluded that recommendations (for health/fitness) usually included three or more 20min periods per week at an intensity eliciting heart rates greater than or equal to 140 beats/min (approximately 70% of the maximal heart rate). Other reviewers [24], however, have indicated that more intense exercise, up to 80% of maximum heart rate (greater than or equal to 160 beats/min), is necessary for the improvement of children’s cardiopulmonary fitness. Accordingly, we have analysed physical activity in terms of the percentage of time spent with heart rate above 139 and 159 bpm. Although the percentage of time spent above the specified thresholds yields useful information, it will also include elevations due to transient emotional states, climatic conditions and other factors unrelated to exercise. Therefore, we have noted the number of sustained 20 min periods spent with heart rates above these thresholds. Given that children, for reasons of attention span, sporadic play patterns etc., are unlikely to sustain activity for this duration, sustained 10 min periods of elevated heart rate were also analysed. Psychological measures. Two psychological inventories were administered in the classroom at the end of the period of the activity assessments. These
Psychology
and children’s physical activity
were the Motivational Orientation in Sport Scale, MOSS [15], and the Physical Self-Perception Profile [20,21], modified for use with children, PSPP-C, [25]. Motivational orientation. The MOSS is a multidimensional measure of children’s intrinsic and extrinsic motivational orientations in sport and physical education. It is a modification of Harter’s [16] motivational orientation scale for the classroom. Although it is a scale developed for use in physical education and sport, rather than physical activity per se, it is likely that the perceptions children hold about physical education and sport will be important factors in the determination of physical activity. The MOSS contains five sub-scales:
Table
I.
Description
A four-choice structured alternative item format is used for the MOSS. For example, question 1 states: some kids like hard other kids prefer sport skills because BUT sport skills they they’re a challenge are sure they can do The subjects then choose which statement is true for them, and then rate it as either ‘really true for me’ or ‘sort of true for me’. High scores on each sub-scale reveal a preference for intrinsic motivational orientation. The maximum score for each subscale is 4 and the minimum 1. Analyses used one of three measures: the five individual subscale scores, a composite intrinsic motivation (IM) score (mean of all five scales), and the intrinsic mastery motivation (IMM) and autonomous judgement (AI) composite subscales. These were derived by Harter and Connell [26] from mean scores of the subscales of challenge, curiosity and mastery for IMM, and judgement and criteria for AI. IMM refers to wants, likes, and preferen?s, whereas AJ is thought to refer to cognitiveinformational structures of the child, or the ways the child thinks about making decisions. Physical self-perception. The PSPP is a multidimensional measure of physical self-worth. Fox [20] has identified four sub-domains of physical selfworth: sports competence, body attractiveness, physical strength, and physical condition. In addition, the PSPP provides a measure of physical self-worth. These domains are explained in Table 1.
of physical self-perception (from Fox [20])
construct
mcasura
Lkscrintion r
~~~-
Physical self-worth
General feelings of happiness, satisfaction, pride, respect, and confidence in the physical self.
Sports competence
Perceptions of sport and athletic ability, ability to learn sport skills, and confidence in the sports environment.
Physical condition
Perceptions of level of physical condition, stamina and fitness, ability to maintain exercise, and confidence in the exercise and fitness setting.
Body attractiveness
Perceived attractiveness of figure or physique, ability to maintain an attractive body, and confidence in appearance.
Physical strength
Perceived strength. muscle development, and confidence in situations requiring strength.
(4 challenge:
preference for challenging tasks (intrinsic pole; I) vs preference for easy skills (extrinsic pole; E); (b) curiosity: to satisfy one’s own curiosity/interest (I) versus pleasing the teacher/coach (E); (4 mastery: preference for independent problemsolving and mastery attempts (I) vs dependence on teacher/coach for help or guidance (E); independent judgement of what to (4 judgement: ._. do (I) vs reliance on the judgement of the teacher/coach about what to do (E); (e) criteria: internal criteria of sense of success/ failure (I) vs dependence on external criteria of teacher/coach for determining success/failure (E).
327
Subscale questions were modified for use with children by Whitehead and Corbin [25] and the final version of the PSPP-C also included Hatter’s global self-esteem questions from her Perceived Competence Scale for Children [271. Initial psychometric evaluation has shown that the PSPP-C has adequate internal reliability, a factorial structure corresponding to the adult version, and construct validity for children 12-13 years of age [27]. The structured alternative format, as used for the MOSS, is also used on the PSPP-C. The maximum score for each subscale is 24, and minimum 6, with the midpoint at 15. RESULTS
Physical activity
Boys were found to spend a significantly greater percentage of time above 159 bpm than girls [t(70) = 2.23, P < 0.051, but no difference was found above the 139 bpm threshold (P > 0.05) (see Fig. 1). On the basis of the sustained periods of elevated heart rate, two groups were created for analyses. The subjects in the ‘active group’ were those who had at least one period of 10 or 20 min of heart rate above the stated threshold, whereas those classified as ‘less active’ had no periods above the threshold. 2 x 2 chi-square analyses (gender by activity group) revealed no relationship between gender and activity for 10 or- 20 minute periods above 139 bpm (P > 0.05). However, a relationship was observed for the higher heart rate periods such that boys were more likely to be in the active group for 10 min above 159 bpm l’~*= 4.37 (Id’), P < 0.051 and for 20 min above 159 bpm Ix* with Yates’ correction = 3.66 (Id’), P = 0.061 (see Fig. 2). Psychological correlates of physical activity
Descriptive statistics for all psychological measures are shown separately for boys and girls in Table 2. There were significant differences between the sexes on most of the variables or multivariate profiles and these are highlighted in the footnote to Table 2.
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NEIL ARMSTRONG
Table 2. Descriptive statistics for psychological variables for boys and girls Boys
t
m e >139bpm
‘159bpm
HeartRateCategories
Fig. 1. Percentage of total monitoring time spent above 139 and 159 bpm for boys and girls. Significant gender difference is shown at 159 bpm only.
Results for the ‘active’ and ‘less active’ groups, also differentiated by gender, are shown in Table 3 and correlations between psychological variables and heart rate are shown in Table 4. IMM scores positively correlated with heart rate for boys and not girls, whereas AJ scores negatively correlated with heart rate for girls, but not boys. Correlations between heart rate and physical selfperceptions were stronger for boys and close to zero for girls. However, only sports competence was significantly associated with heart rate, and this was for boys only. The relationship between activity data, expressed as percentage of time above a specified heart rate, and psychological factors, was analysed by use of stepwise multiple regression analyses, with the percentage of time as the dependent variable. For the activity data expressed as sustained periods of heart rate above specified thresholds, ‘active’ and ‘less active’ groups were used as already described. These groups were
Twwtymirwl59tpn
TwedymirwWbpm
Tenmhs>l%pm
Ten mins>l39bpm
Percentageof SubjectGroup Fig. 2. Percentage of boys and girls with at least one period of sustained heart rate at the levels specified during the study period.
Girls
Construct
M
SD
M
SD
Motivational orientations’ Challenge Curiosity Judgement Mastery Criteria Composite intrinsic motivation’ Intrinsic mastery motivation’ Autonomous judgement’
3.31 3.22 3.16 3.1 I 2.87 2.78 3.21 3.01
0.74 0.67 0.51 0.63 0.73 0.43 0.56 0.51
2.85 2.74 2.74 2.75 2.91 2.52 2.78 2.83
0.78 0.67 0.46 0.46 0.47 0.38 0.53 0.42
16.03 17.56 la.31 18.78 17.88 la.72
3.86 3.78 4.10 3.02 3.11 3.88
14.31 14.31 16.07 16.17 16.07 17.72
3.37 3.82 3.87 3.73 4.20 3.90
Physical self-perceptions’ Attractive body Physical strength Sports competence Physical condition Physical self-worth6 Global self-esteem’
Gender differences: ‘Discriminant analysis: Wilks’ Lambda = 0.66, x2 = 21.05 (4df) P < 0.0003. ‘t(52) = 2.43 P < 0.02. ‘f(53) = 2.98 P < 0.004. ‘f (53) = I .49 P > 0.05. ‘Discriminant analysis: Wilks’ Lambda = 0.83, x1 = I I, I (2d/) P < 0.005. %(59) = 1.92 P = 0.06. ‘r(59) = 1.00 P > 0.05.
then subjected to a stepwise discriminant analysis, separately for boys and girls, with the psychological factors as the discriminating variables. Percentage of time above heart rate threshok The five MOSS subscales and four PSPP-C subscales were used as predictor variables in stepwise multiple regression analyses. Zero-order correlations between all these variables were sufficiently low that multicollinearity was not a problem. For boys, the only significant predictor of percentage of time spent above a heart rate of 159 bpm was the MOSS curiosity factor, accounting for 22.4% of the variance. This was also the case for heart rates above 139 bpm, with 19.6% of the variance explained. In both cases, high scores on the intrinsic pole of the curiosity subscale were related to a greater percentage of time spent at higher heart rates. For girls, heart rate above 159 bpm was predicted only by the MOSS judgement factor, with 19.8% of the variance accounted for. Similar results were found for the heart rates above 139, with the judgement factor accounting for 19.6% of the variance. Sustained periorLF of elevated heart rate. To see whether active and less active children could be discriminated from each other on the basis of their scores on the MOSS and PSPP-C, stepwise discriminant analyses were conducted separately for boys and girls. Due to the few numbers of sustained periods of elevated heart rates across the whole sample, and in particular among the girls, it was only possible to use this type of analysis by classifying active and less active subjects on the basis of whether they had one period of sustained heart rate above 139 bpm during the testing period.
Psychology and children’s
physical
activity
329
Table 3. Descriptive statistics for ‘active’ and ‘less active’ subjects, separately for boys and girls Active Boys (N = 18) Construct Motivational orientations Challenge Curiosity Judgement Mastery Criteria Composite intrinsic motivation’ Intrinsic mastery motivation’ Autonomous judgement’ Physical self-perceptions Attractive body Physical strength Sports competence Physical condition Physical self-worth’ Global self-esteems
Less active Girls (N = 19)
Boys (N = 14)
Girls (N = 10)
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
3.32 3.26 3.22 3.04 2.77 2.78 3.20 2.99
0.56 0.75 0.52 0.68 0.77 0.45 0.65 0.51
2.94 2.90 2.65 2.76 2.89 2.55 2.87 2.77
0.84 0.57 0.50 0.52 0.45 0.42 0.57 0.44
3.32 3.18 3.05 3.24 3.06 2.83 3.25 3.05
0.84 0.53 0.52 0.54 0.63 0.38 0.39 0.54
2.70 2.48 2.88 2.72 2.96 2.50 2.63 2.92
0.66 0.78 0.35 0.36 0.28 0.33 0.43 0.38
15.8 17.8 la.8 i a.4 18.1 19.1
3.8 3.8 4.0 3.1 3.5 3.9
15.1 14.3 16.9 16.7 16.8 la.2
3.6 4.0 4.0 3.5 3.4 4.1
16.3 17.3 17.6 19.3 17.6 18.3
4.0 3.9 4.3 2.9 2.7 4.0
12.9 14.3 14.5 15.1 14.6 16.9
2.5 3.7 3.3 4.1 5.3 3.5
2 x 2 (gender by activity groups) ANOVAs: ‘Significant main effect for gender [F(I,54) = 6.29, P < 0.021. No significant interaction. *Significant main effect for gender (F(l.54) = 23.49, P < O.OOS].No significant interaction. ‘No significant main effects or interaction. ‘Significant main effect for gender [F(1,69) = 4.21, P < O.OS].No significant interaction. ‘No significant main effects or interaction.
Results showed that for boys it was not possible to discriminate active from less active on the basis of their scores on the psychological inventories [Wilks’ Lambda = 0.69, x2 = 8.2, P > 0.051. For girls, the discriminant function was significant [Wilks’ Lambda = 0.51, x2 = 14.6, P < 0.031. A cross-classification analysis showed that 85.2% of girls were correctly classified. Standardised canonical discriminant function coefficients showed that the best discriminators between active and less active girls were the MOSS subscales of challenge, curiosity and judgement, and PSPP-C measures of perceived body attractiveness, physical self-worth, and global self-esteem. The direction of the coefficients suggests that membership in the active group for girls is best predicted by intrinsic scores on curiosity, external scores on judgement and challenge, as well as higher scores on physical self-worth, global selfesteem and body attractiveness. Table 4. Correlation coefficients for boys and girls between percentage of time spent at heart rates above 139 and I59 bpm and psychological measures
Challenge Curiosity Judgement Mastery Criteria Intrinsic motivation Intrinsic mastery motivation Autonomous judgement Attractive body Physical strength Sports competence Physical condition Physical self-worth Global self-esteem ‘P < 0.05.
HR > 139 bpm
HR> I59bpm
Boys
Girls
Boys
Girls
0.34 0.47. 0.18 0.14 0.18 0.36. 0.38. 0.24 0.25 0.29 0.39’ 0.29 -0.07 0.24
-0.01 0.03 -0.48’ -0.30 -0.28 -0.24 -0.08 -0.39. 0.18 -0.03 0.06 0.11 -0.19 0.10
0.34 0.45. 0.17 0.08 0.29 0.43.. 0.42. 0.29 0.29 0.15 0.43. 0.22 -0.07 0.16
-0.14 0.03 -0.479 -0.28 -0.24 z&i; -0f37’ 0.04 -0.12 0.03 0.04 -0.24 0.07
DISCUSSION
The evidence from this study confirms earlier findings [2] that children would appear to have quite low levels of physical activity from a physical fitness/health perspective, and this is particularly so for girls. The identification of psychological correlates of physical activity, therefore, would appear to be. a priority for sport and exercise scientists, as well as public health specialists and medical/health psychologists. Although both motivational and self-perception variables were found to be related to physical activity in children, each of these will be discussed in turn. Motivational orientations The activity of boys was significantly and positively correlated with intrinsic motivation for physical education (PE) and sports, and this was mainly due to the intrinsic mastery motivation variable. Although causality cannot be inferred, these results do suggest that boys of this age can enjoy physical activity for its own sake and are willing to be active for reasons of independent problem-solving and intrinsic mastery. Consequently, they appear to be less dependent on the teacher, less interested in pleasing the teacher and obtaining good marks, but interested in a challenge for its own sake. However, an opposite trend was found for the girls. The more active girls showed a tendency towards extrinsic autonomous judgement whereby they were dependent on the teacher’s opinion or judgement about what to do and how well they have done in PE and sport. The discriminant analysis also showed that active girls were more likely to be characterised by extrinsic motivation on the challenge scale. That is to say they were motivated more by a preference for
330
STUART BIDDLE and NEIL ARMSTRONG
easy skills than challenging tasks. Overall, these results may reflect socialisation factors, even at this early age, where it is more socially acceptable to be involved in sports as a boy [28]. Girls have also been shown to require a stronger social support network than boys [29]. Evidence with adult women has suggested that females may lack self-confidence in sport and exercise contexts [30, 311. The results here suggest that this may be the case with girls, hence, they seek approval and guidance from the teacher for participation, or seek easy tasks. This requires followup but appears tenable at this stage. Further research may usefully investigate developmental trends since Harter and Connell [26] suggest that the intrinsic mastery motivation scores will become more extrinsic between the ages of 8 and 14 years, whereas the autonomous judgement scores will become more intrinsic. Since these trends are for classroom settings, further research is required in physical activity contexts. However, the results reported suggest that girls in particular may require physical activity that has a high social component, and is not perceived as being an achievement or challenge-type situation. Creating social enjoyment may be important for motivation in this case. Physical self-perceptions Results for physical self-perceptions showed that the active girls were characterised moie by higher scores on perceptions of attractive body, as well as physical self-worth and global self-esteem. Physical appearance is a predictably important factor, either as an antecedent or consequent variable, and is likely to increase in importance with age, particularly as these girls move into adolescence. Feelings of high physical self-worth and self-esteem suggest that there is little conflict for these girls between being physically active and being a girl. Whether this changes in adolescence and adulthood remains to be seen. Similarly, it could be argued that for girls to be active they may need more positive perceptions of their physical and general selves in order to combat negative stereotypic attitudes associated with gender roles and physical activity. In summary, this exploratory study has identified that physical activity levels of children may be related to factors of intrinsic/extrinsic motivation. Selfperception variables also contributed to the discrimination between active and less active girls. A great deal more research is required and replication is needed. The results do show gender differences and, given the differences also shown between boys and girls in physical activity levels, these results require follow-up. This exploratory study, however, highlights a number of methodological issues for future research of this nature. First, the type of physical activity will need to be identified as well as the quantity. In the present study, all types of activity were assessed, including school physical education classes, since the
research was designed to study levels rather than types of activity. Research needs to discover the type of activity generally indulged in by young children by choice, and such investigations, despite the logistical problems involved, will have to involve children outside of the school term. This is because children are likely not to have as much control over their physical activity patterns during the school week as at other times. There are occasions when they may want to engage in physical activities, but are obliged to sit in class, and other times when they may wish to be sedentary, but are required to participate in physical education. Again, this highlights the need to study the type of activity engaged in by children. This will require greater use of self-report data, despite the problems inherent in such approaches with children [32]. The psychological factors identified in this study may be less important in influencing children’s physical activity during the school term than at other times. Sustained periods of high heart rate, indicative of fitness and exercise routines of adults, may be inappropriate for children who are likely to indulge in more sporadic, less intense, but higher frequency bouts of physical activity. This is a particular problem when using the heart rate assessment method adopted here since it is likely that children could be active for less than IO min, but this would categorise the child into the less active group. This method is likely to yield a number of ‘false negative’ classifications. Similarly, there is no evidence to show that promoting fitness development in children based on criteria for the improvement of fitness in adults will increase the likelihood of children becoming active adults [23]. emotional climatic and Finally, although factors will play only a small role in the elevation of sustained periods of heart rate, they could, nevertheless, still be accounting for part of the heart rate score. This exploratory study, despite the low statistical power associated with the small sample sizes, and some of the inherent problems outlined, has identified psychological factors associated with physical activity levels of children. Future work, however, requires other constructs to be investigated, including the identification of the types of physical activity participated in by choice. Acknowledgements-This study was funded by the University of Exeter. Appreciation is extended to Jenny Frost and Dr Jayne Mitchell for their work on data collection, to Alison Husband for data preparation, and to Dr Ken Fox and two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments on earlier drafts of this paper. REFERENCES Bouchard C., Shephard R. J., Stephens T., Sutton J. R. and McPherson B. D. (Eds) Exercise, Fitness and Health: A Consensus of Current Knowledge, Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL, 1990.
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