- Email: [email protected]
Chili Pepper
C H A P T E R
9 Chili Pepper Saba Idrees1, Muhammad Asif Hanif1, Muhammad Adnan Ayub2, Asma Hanif1, Tariq Mahmood Ansari3 1 2
Department of Chemistry, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan; Department of Chemistry, University of Okara, Okara, Pakistan; 3 Institute of Chemical Sciences, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
O U T L I N E 1. Botany 1.1 Introduction 1.2 History/Origin 1.3 Demography/Location 1.4 Botany, Morphology, Ecology
114 114 115 116 116
2. Chemistry
116
3. Post harvest Technology
117
4. Processing
118
5. Value Addition
119
6. Uses
119
7. Pharmacological Uses 7.1 Antioxidant Activity 7.2 Antiviral Property 7.3 Anticancer Property 7.4 Antiinflammatory Activity
120 120 120 121 121
Medicinal Plants of South Asia https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102659-5.00009-4
113
Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
114
9. CHILI PEPPER
7.5 Antiobesity Activity 7.6 Antifungal Activity 7.7 Antiplatelet Effects
121 122 122
8. Side Effects and Toxicity
122
References
122
1. BOTANY 1.1 Introduction Chili Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) (Fig. 9.1) is an annual herb that belongs to Solanaceae family (Greenleaf, 1986). It has been used for thousands of years and has become an important ingredient of cooking. The genus Capsicum consists a range of 25e30 species and is indigenous to Central and South America (Kothari et al., 2010). The uncertainty in the exact number of species within the genus is largely attributed to great variability among the constituent species. Fruits from different species of pepper differ in flavor, color, form, and size from very hot to mild or pleasantly pungent. Mostly, plants are self-pollinated; however about 17% cross-pollination through wind or insects generally occurs. Capsicum species are generally self-pollinated, and chili pepper is a moderately selfcompatible crop; self-pollination can be enhanced by wind or related mechanical process (Raw, 2000). Capsicum annuum is known by different names in the world depending upon types and place. In English is typically called chilies, long chilies, or red chilies. In Pakistan, in Urdu, it is called surkhmirch. In India, especially in Hindi, it called lalmirca. In Arabic, it is called filfil-e-ahmar. The most common Capsicum is Capsicum annuum. Only five species (Capsicum frutescens, Capsicum pubescens, Capsicum annuum L., Capsicum chinense Jacq., and Capsicum baccatum L.) are cultivated and domesticated
FIGURE 9.1 Chili pepper at various ripening stages.
1. BOTANY
115
(Costa et al., 2009; Orobiyi et al., 2013). Chili Peppers are perennial woody plants, grown as herbaceous annuals. The plant can vary in size from 2 to 4 feet tall depending on the species. Leaves are typically smooth, simple, or entire, glabrous, without hairs, flat, and differ in shape from ovate to elongate depending on the variety. The flowers are usually solitary, creamy white, and seeds are straw colored. All species of Capsicum are perennials when grown in favorable (semitropical or tropical) climates. Chili pepper is also cultivated ornamentally, particularly due to their bright, shiny fruits with a broad range of colors. The essential oil content of chili pepper is equally variable between species and cultivar and is thought to be related to growing conditions, genetic factors, geographic origin, same chemo-types, and differences in the nutritional status of plants. The major chemicals of chili pepper essential oil are trans-b-ocimene, linalool, 2-methoxy-3-isobutylpyrazine, limonene, hex-cis-3-enol, and methyl salicylate. It is clear that chili pepper is morphologically and chemically highly variable. The origin, source, and growing conditions of chili pepper have an impact on the plant uses, flavors, aromas, and medicinal uses.
1.2 History/Origin Capsicum annuum is native to South and Central America. It has been cultivated since 3500 BCE and has been used since 7000 BCE in Mexico. The generic name Capsicum comes from Latin word “capsa” meaning box or chest due to the fruit’s shape that encloses seeds precisely, like in box. Chili has been known to the Western world since Christopher Columbus discovered American in 1493. Capsicum was brought toward Europe through Columbus in 1493 as a peppery spice. The ready appeal of Capsicum was such that within half a century it was distributed as far as Asia, and it was incorporated and continues to be diversified in cultures worldwide, as it had been originally in the Americas (Yamamoto and Nawata, 2004, 2005). Nowadays, chili pepper is present in several sizes, colors, and shapes all over the world. Mexican Indians probably used chili peppers before the birth of Christ (Govindarajan and Salzer, 1985). R. S. Macneish, an archaeologist,found seeds of pepper from about 7500 BCE in Mexico (DeWitt and Bosland, 1993). Chauca, a physician, on the next voyage of Columbus toward the New World noted medicinal and cooking use of chili peppers by Native Americans. Native Americans used irritant smoke, which was produced with burning of chili peppers, against invaders. In the early 19th century, chemical research on constituents present in chili peppers had been started. In 1846, Thresh crystallized the active constituent in chili peppers, and he named the component capsaicin. In the early 20th century, Dawson and Nelson found the chemical structure of capsaicin (Nelson, 1919; Nelson and Dawson, 1923).
116
9. CHILI PEPPER
1.3 Demography/Location Chili pepper is grown in optimum conditions. It requires a warm and humid climate for growth and dry weather during maturity (Hussain and Abid, 2011). It is very susceptible to frost and grows poorly. Chili pepper is grown widely in Pakistan, India, China, Ethiopia, Myanmar, Mexico, Vietnam, Turkey, Peru, Ghana, Bangladesh, Japan, Africa, and America (Khan et al., 2012). The major producers of capsicum fruit are the United States, Italy, Pakistan, India, Mexico, Japan, and Brazil, where this crop holds economic value (Cruz et al., 2005). The world production is over 19 million tons fresh fruit, with 1.5 million hectares through Nigeria, which is the largest producer in Africa (Raji Abdul Ganiy et al., 2010). Pakistan is among the top five producers in the world. It is the biggest producer of red chilies,with an annual production at 85,000 tons.
1.4 Botany, Morphology, Ecology C. annuum is an erect or prostrate annual herb and grows up to 0.75e1.8 m in cultivated varieties with several angular branches (Quresh et al., 2015). The leaves are simple, alternate, varying shapes, and oval to lanceolate, with smooth margins, generally wrinkled. The flowers are small, having a diameter of 1.5 or 1 in., and the color is white or violet, in clusters of two or more. The length of pedicel varies with cultivars, ranging from 3 to 8 cm. The color of petals is generally white with five to seven individual stamens that differ in color from pale blue to purple anthers (Berke, 2000). The fruits are berry-like and have several seeds that may be ovoid, elongated, cylindrical, obtuse, or oblong, but do not have sutures, and have a smooth, shiny surface and red color when ripe. The length of fruit is 12e25 cm and width is 7 mm. It has a characteristic aroma and pungent taste. Fruit colors are orange, green, black, yellow, and red to purple, white, and brown (Chaim et al., 2003). Chili peppers are warm-season and day-neutral plants. The best seed germination temperature ranges from 25 to 30 C. Optimum temperatures for productivity range from 18 to 30 C. Peppers are tolerant to a broad range of soil conditions. Though, well-drained soils and fertile, medium loams and a pH of 5.5e6.8 are generally considered most appropriate. If pH falls below 5.5, the result will be small growth of pepper plants and poor yields.
2. CHEMISTRY The fruit of chili pepper possess capsaicin and numerous associated chemicals that have straight-chain alkyl vanillylamides and homologous series branched, together called capsaicinoids as their main chemical unit.
3. POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGY
117
The main capsaicinoids present are capsaicin and 6,7-dihydrocapsaicin, and the minor capsaicinoids that are present are nordihydrocapsaicin, homodihydrocapsaicin, and homocapsaicin. Other parts of the plant have steroidal alkaloid and glycosides. Seeds contain the steroidal glycosides capsicoside A through D and allfurostanol. Chili pepper is rich in carotenoid pigments, involving cucurbitaxanthin A, carotene, zeaxanthin, capsorubin, lutein, zeaxanthin and capsanthin. Chili pepper contains no cholesterol, no fat content, and brings less caloric value (Bosland et al., 2012). It is a good source of several vitamins like vitamin E, vitamin C, vitamin A, and vitamin B complex and minerals such as thiamine, folate, molybdenum, manganese, potassium, calcium, iron, polyphenols (mainly luteolin), flavonoids, and quercetin (Chuah et al., 2008; Materska and Perucka, 2005). Peppers contain phenolics and flavonoids, carotenoids, and alkaloids (Materska and Perucka, 2005). Capsaicinoids are a group of alkaloids present in it. The major carotene pigments in chili peppers are lutein, b-carotene, and capsanthin, and they are mostly provitamin A (Howard and Wildman, 2006). Other phytochemicals present are alanine, scopoletin, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, linalool, amyrin, camphor, carvone, citric acid, linoleic acid, oleic, cinnamic, piperine, vitamins B1, C,B3, and E.Chili has seven times more vitamin C than oranges. Vitamins A and C and beta-carotenoids in chilies are powerful antioxidants that demolish free radicals (Simonne et al., 1997). Capsicum also has magnesium, sodium, phosphorus, sulfur, and selenium. The fruit of Capsicum species contain low volatile or essential oil contents that range from 0.1% to 2.6% in paprika. The pepper oil has major chemicals such as trans-b-ocimene, linalool, 2-methoxy-3-isobutylpyrazine, limonene, hex-cis-3-enol, and methyl salicylate. The other constituents recognized in higher amounts in oil separated at atmospheric pressure are nona-trans, non-1-en-4-one, nontrans-2-en-4-one, trans-2, 5-dien-4-one, benzaldehyde, and 2-entylfuran. The flavor component of chili pepper is 2-isobutyll-3-methoxy pyraxine. Components such as nona-trans, cis-2, 6-dienal and decatrans, and trans-2, 4-dienal are responsible for aroma. Fixed oil obtained from seeds has triglycerides of about 60% in which linoleic acid and other unsaturation fatty acids are present. There are different fatty acids present such as palmitic acid, behenic acid, linolenic acid, stearic acid, arachidic acid, lignoceric acid, tricosanoic acid, linoleic acid and tricosanoic acid. Active components of red chilies are shown in Fig. 9.2.
3. POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGY Chili peppers may be harvested in the green immature or red mature stage. Fruits can be harvested weekly. The best harvesting is in the cool hours of the day. For dry chili, it is essential to preserve red color of the
118
9. CHILI PEPPER CH3
OH
O
COOH C H 3C
OH
CH 2
Methyl Salicylate
Limonene
Linalool
CH 3 O HO H N
H
O
FIGURE 9.2
Capsaicin
Active components of red chilies.
mature fruits. Drying of chili pepper in the sun is the common method, but this can bleach the fruits, and dew or rain support decay of fruit. Ordinarily, they have a short storage life of only 1e2 weeks. A wet, cool environment (45e50 F and 85%e90% comparative humidity) is the best condition for storing peppers. Another choice is to cut, wash, and freeze the peppers. The fruit of chilis are susceptible to chilling injury; therefore temperature management is important in maintaining quality. Mature green chili peppers hold best at temperatures between 10 and 12 C; if temperatures fall below 7 C, pepper injury will occur. Holding pepper fruit at the recommended temperatures and at 90e95% relative humidity allows peppers to be stored for up to 2 weeks.
4. PROCESSING Chili pepper is an herbaceous plant, used in different ways for different purposes. Chili peppers can be used entire, chopped, or in several processed forms, for example, fresh, ground into powder, dried, or as an extract. They can be preserved in fresh form by refrigeration or dried through different drying methods, for example, electric drying, sun drying, solar drying, and oven drying. They can also be preserved by dehydration through freeze-drying or spray-drying. They can be
6. USES
119
processed by pickling, canning, or freezing and dehydrated to produce chili powder and paprika. Characteristic processing methods comprise freezing of peppers, in turn to store the fruit for a longer time. These processes may influence the content and bioaccessibility of the carotenoids contained in food (Pugliese et al., 2013). Chili pepper is traditionally dried in the sun (ONI, 2015). In the Southern United States, typically chili pepper is sun dried by scattering fruits on drying racks on the ground or on a roof. Blanching the fruits in warm water at 65 C for 3 min and removing calyx and pedicel can reduce drying time, enhance color retention, and reduce postharvest losses.
5. VALUE ADDITION Dry chili is used widely as a spice in all kinds of curried dishes in India and abroad. Ground, roasted, dry chili combined with other condiments like turmeric, coriander, cumin, and farinaceous substances is used to make curry powder. It can be used in seasonings, eggs, meats, and fresh preparation. Chili pepper can be a chief ingredient in dairy foods, salad dressing, salsa, baked items, candies, mayonnaise, hot sauces, beverages, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals (Bosland et al., 2012).
6. USES Many herbs and spices have good health effect because they are full of antioxidants and mineral compounds. Chili pepper is a good source of vitamins and minerals; in addition to this, it is fat-free and full of antioxidants (Bosland et al., 2012). In security agencies, it is used in tear gas to control crowds. Chili pepper has many uses ranging from culinary to pharmaceutical. Chili is a vital spice used as a key ingredient in a vast variety of cuisines throughout the world. It is also used as a flavoring, colorant, and adds taste to the other bland foods. The species of Capsicum are used alone or entire and ground or in combination with other flavoring agents, mainly in stews, barbequed items, or pickles (Ravishankar et al., 2003). In industries, they are used as flavoring and coloring agents in processed meats, alcoholic beverages, soups, lunches, sweets, and sauces (Kollmannsberger et al., 2011). They can be used dried, fresh, in conserves, or in the form of pepper sauces. Sweet peppers are a ingredient in pizza and pasta. The use of red paprika in tomato ketchup and sauces isalso encourage for improving color, so chili or paprika color may have a good demand as a natural plant colorant, as a substitute for synthetic color in the food industry. Besides the use in food processing
120
9. CHILI PEPPER
industries, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries use chili oleoresin of high pungency and low color. This oleoresin is used in pain balms, vapor rubs, and liniments since the pungent principle capsaicin serves as an effective counter irritant. They are also used in traditional medicine for their antimicrobial, sedative, and anticonvulsive properties (Cremer and Eichner, 2000). Capsaicin is used to relieve pain from migraines, cough, arthritis, or stuffy nose. It was also shown to have anticlotting activity.
7. PHARMACOLOGICAL USES 7.1 Antioxidant Activity Chili pepper has maximum antioxidant action in the red mature stage, and antioxidants present in it arelycopene, vitamin C (ascorbic acid), p-coumaryl alcohol, ethoxyquin, and capsaicinoids. Phytochemicals, which are isolated from chilis, were reported efficient against Fe-induced lipid peroxidation (Oboh et al., 2007). In another study, methanolic extracts of chili pepper were reported to reduce H2O2-induced DNA and 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal-induced damage (Park et al., 2012). In another study, the antioxidant property of chili pepper fruits measured through DPPH radical scavenging activity augmented significantly with ripening in all cultivars. Strong positive correlations between antioxidant action and vitamin C, vitamin E, b-carotene, and total phenol during the entire ripening process were observed. These phytochemicals are good antioxidant compounds. Additionally, strong positive correlations among the phytochemicals have been observed, representing that accumulation of these substances was the major source of increase in antioxidant action in chili pepper fruits with progress of ripening (Aires et al., 2011).
7.2 Antiviral Property Capsicum was found to be rich in those chemical components that are effective against viruses. Civamide (Cis-capsaicin) is active against HVS disease in guinea pigs and was also found to cure migraine headache pain. It is found to inhibit the viral replication cycle. It was found that capsaicin has a particular effect on sensory neurons involved in spreading and determination of herpes simplex virus disease (Bourne et al., 1999). Vanilloid capsaicin, isolated from chili pepper, was found active against pathogenesis of herpes simplex virus in models of animals, while chemicals separated from chili show antiviral action.
7. PHARMACOLOGICAL USES
121
7.3 Anticancer Property Capsaicin is efficient in vivo and in vitro against prostate cancer cell growth (Mori et al., 2006). Capsaicinoids, a class of compound in chilis, showed antitumour activity (Luo et al., 2011). Using Mexican plants in ethnomedicine, capsicum was found efficient against gastric cancer (Alonso-Castro et al., 2011). In another report, carotenoids, which are separated from red paprika, were noted for their cancer chemopreventive action (Maoka et al., 2001). Red pepper also has lycopene, which has anticancer activity (Simonne et al., 1997).
7.4 Antiinflammatory Activity Red chili pepper possesses significant antiinflammatory activity. Capsaicinoids and capsianoside compounds have been found to reveal antiinflammatory actions and pain-reducing properties. In a lipopolysaccharide-stimulated macrophage model, maximum antiinflammatory activity of chili pepper was identified (Mueller et al., 2010). To reduce pain of rheumatoid arthritis, capsaicin was used in a previous study (Fraenkel et al., 2004).
7.5 Antiobesity Activity Capsaicin, which is main chemical component of chili pepper, has antiobesity activity. Adipose tissue delivery between visceral and subcutaneous places is controlled by afferent nerves present in intestinal mucosa. Adipogenesis can be inhibited via capsaicin by activation of transient receptor potential vanilloid-1 channels. Sensitive sensory nerves’ neurogenic mechanism affectsfat metabolism regulation by acting on transient receptor potential vanilloid-1, enabling selective activation of the network that regulates nerve action, causing a lipolytic effect in reaction toward gastrointestinal transient receptor potential channel stimulation. Expression of adiponectin and its receptor can be increased by nutritional capsaicin, thus reducing metabolic dysregulation of obese diabetic mice. The effects of capsaicin in liver and adipose tissue are due to its double action on transient receptor potential vanilloid-1activation and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha. Upon capsaicin action on white adipose tissue, proteins that are related to lipid metabolism and thermogenesis are changed. Capsaicin hinders adipogenesis in adipocytes and preadipocytes and induces apoptosis. Statistics of epidemiologic display that utilization of foods having capsaicin is related with a lesser incidence of obesity. Experimental data shows capsaicin acts as an antiobesity compound. Ingestion of capsaicin is related with an
122
9. CHILI PEPPER
increase in energy expenses during the activation of brown adipose tissue, thus increasing fat oxidation and improving lipolysis (Leung, 2014).
7.6 Antifungal Activity Peptides, which are separated from chili pepper seeds, repressed yeast growth of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida parapsilosis, Pichia membrane faciens, Candida tropicalis, Candida albicans, Kluyveromyces marxiannus, and Candida guilliermondii. Peptides showed strong fungicidal action against Schizosaccharomyces pombe, S. cerevisiae, and C. albicans and also promoted numerous morphologic variations to C. albicans. It also reduced glucosestimulated acidification of the medium mediated by H(þ)-ATPase of S. cerevisiae cells in a dose-dependent mode and caused permeabilization of yeast plasma membrane toward dye SYTOX Green, as confirmed in confocal laser microscopy.
7.7 Antiplatelet Effects Capsaicin has been found to be an effective inhibitor in aggregation of platelets and discharge reaction. It reduced hemolysis of red blood cells produced via hydrogen peroxide. Capsaicin has a membrane-stabilizing property through activation of phospholipase A2 interference (Wang et al., 1984).
8. SIDE EFFECTS AND TOXICITY Eating chili peppers could cause heartburn, problems with ingestion, rectal pain, and skin problems.
References Aires, A., Fernandes, C., Carvalho, R., Bennett, R.N., Saavedra, M.J., Rosa, E.A., 2011. Seasonal effects on bioactive compounds and antioxidant capacity of six economically important Brassica vegetables. Molecules 16, 6816e6832. Alonso-Castro, A.J., Villarreal, M.L., Salazar-Olivo, L.A., Gomez-Sanchez, M., Dominguez, F., Garcia-Carranca, A., 2011. Mexican medicinal plants used for cancer treatment: pharmacological, phytochemical and ethnobotanical studies. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 133, 945e972. Berke, T.G., 2000. Hybrid seed production in Capsicum. Journal of New Seeds 1, 49e67. Bosland, P.W., Votava, E.J., Votava, E.M., 2012. Peppers: Vegetable and Spice Capsicums. Cabi. Bourne, N., Bernstein, D., Stanberry, L., 1999. Civamide (cis-capsaicin) for treatment of primary or recurrent experimental genital herpes. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 43, 2685e2688.
REFERENCES
123
Chaim, A.B., Borovsky, Y., Rao, G., Tanyolac, B., Paran, I., 2003. fs3. 1: a major fruit shape QTL conserved in Capsicum. Genome 46, 1e9. Chuah, A.M., Lee, Y.-C., Yamaguchi, T., Takamura, H., Yin, L.-J., Matoba, T., 2008. Effect of cooking on the antioxidant properties of coloured peppers. Food Chemistry 111, 20e28. Costa, L.V., Lopes, R., Lopes, M.T.G., de Figueiredo, A.F., Barros, W.S., Alves, S.R.M., 2009. Cross compatibility of domesticated hot pepper and cultivated sweet pepper. Crop Breeding and Applied Biotechnology 9, 37e44. Cremer, D.R., Eichner, K., 2000. Formation of volatile compounds during heating of spice paprika (Capsicum annuum) powder. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 48, 2454e2460. Cruz, D.d.O., Freitas, B.M., Silva, L.A.d., Silva, E.M.S.d., Bomfim, I.G.A., 2005. Pollination efficiency of the stingless bee Melipona subnitida on greenhouse sweet pepper. Pesquisa agropecua´ria brasileira 40, 1197e1201. DeWitt, D., Bosland, P.W., 1993. The Pepper Garden. Ten Speed Press, Berkeley, Calif. Fett, D.D., 2003. Botanical briefs: capsicum peppers. Cutis 72, 21. Fraenkel, L., Bogardus, S.T., Concato, J., Wittink, D.R., 2004. Treatment options in knee osteoarthritis: the patient’s perspective. Archives of Internal Medicine 164, 1299e1304. Govindarajan, V., Salzer, U.J., 1985. Capsicum-production, technology, chemistry, and quality part 1: history, botany, cultivation, and primary processing. Critical Reviews in Food Science & Nutrition 22, 109e176. Greenleaf, W., 1986. Pepper breeding. Breeding Vegetable Crops 67e134. Howard, L.R., Wildman, R.E., 2006. Antioxidant vitamin and phytochemical content of fresh and processed pepper fruit (Capsicum annuum). In: Handbook of Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods, second ed. CRC Press, pp. 165e191. Hussain, F., Abid, M., 2011. Pest and diseases of chilli crop in Pakistan: a review. International Journal of Biology and Biotechnology 8, 325e332. Khan, H.A., Ziaf, K., Amjad, M., Iqbal, Q., 2012. Exogenous application of polyamines improves germination and early seedling growth of hot pepper. Chilean Journal of Agricultural Research 72, 429. Kollmannsberger, H., Rodrı´guez-Burruezo, A., Nitz, S., Nuez, F., 2011. Volatile and capsaicinoid composition of ajı´ (Capsicum baccatum) and rocoto (Capsicum pubescens), two Andean species of Chile peppers. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 91, 1598e1611. Kothari, S., Joshi, A., Kachhwaha, S., Ochoa-Alejo, N., 2010. Chilli peppersda review on tissue culture and transgenesis. Biotechnology Advances 28, 35e48. Leung, F.W., 2014. Capsaicin as an Anti-obesity Drug, Capsaicin as a Therapeutic Molecule. Springer, pp. 171e179. Luo, X.-J., Peng, J., Li, Y.-J., 2011. Recent advances in the study on capsaicinoids and capsinoids. European Journal of Pharmacology 650, 1e7. Maoka, T., Mochida, K., Kozuka, M., Ito, Y., Fujiwara, Y., Hashimoto, K., Enjo, F., Ogata, M., Nobukuni, Y., Tokuda, H., 2001. Cancer chemopreventive activity of carotenoids in the fruits of red paprika Capsicum annuum L. Cancer Letters 172, 103e109. Materska, M., Perucka, I., 2005. Antioxidant activity of the main phenolic compounds isolated from hot pepper fruit (Capsicum annuum L.). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 53, 1750e1756. Mori, A., Lehmann, S., O’Kelly, J., Kumagai, T., Desmond, J.C., Pervan, M., McBride, W.H., Kizaki, M., Koeffler, H.P., 2006. Capsaicin, a component of red peppers, inhibits the growth of androgen-independent, p53 mutant prostate cancer cells. Cancer Research 66, 3222e3229. Mueller, M., Hobiger, S., Jungbauer, A., 2010. Anti-inflammatory activity of extracts from fruits, herbs and spices. Food Chemistry 122, 987e996.
124
9. CHILI PEPPER
Nelson, E., 1919. The constitution of capsaicin, the pungent principle of capsicum. Journal of the American Chemical Society 41, 1115e1121. Nelson, E., Dawson, L., 1923. The constitution of capsaicin, the pungent principle of Capsicum. III. Journal of the American Chemical Society 45, 2179e2181. Oboh, G., Puntel, R., Rocha, J., 2007. Hot pepper (Capsicum annuum, Tepin and Capsicum chinese, Habanero) prevents Fe 2þ-induced lipid peroxidation in brainein vitro. Food Chemistry 102, 178e185. Oni, S., 2015. Growth and fruit yield of pepper (Capsicum frutescens L.) as influenced by arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) inoculation and fertilizers under greenhouse and field conditions. Applied Tropical Agriculture 15, 126e133. Orobiyi, A., Dansi, M., Assogba, P., Loko, L., Vodouhe, R., Akouegninou, A., Sanni, A., 2013. Chili (Capsicum annuum L.) in Southern Benin: Production Constraints, Varietal Diversity, Preference Criteria and Participatory Evaluation. Park, J.-H., Jeon, G.-I., Kim, J.-M., Park, E., 2012. Antioxidant activity and antiproliferative action of methanol extracts of 4 different colored bell peppers (Capsicum annuum L.). Food Science and Biotechnology 21, 543e550. Pugliese, A., Loizzo, M.R., Tundis, R., O’Callaghan, Y., Galvin, K., Menichini, F., O’Brien, N., 2013. The effect of domestic processing on the content and bioaccessibility of carotenoids from chili peppers (Capsicum species). Food Chemistry 141, 2606e2613. Quresh, W., Alam, M., Ullah, H., Jatoi, S.A., Khan, W.U., 2015. Evaluation and characterization of Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) germplasm for some morphological and yield characters. Pure and Applied Biology 4, 628. Raji Abdul Ganiy, O., Falade Kolawole, O., Abimbolu Fadeke, W., 2010. Effect of sucrose and binary solution on osmotic dehydration of bell pepper (chilli) (Capsicum spp.) varieties. Journal of Food Science and Technology 47, 305e309. Ravishankar, G., Suresh, B., Giridhar, P., Rao, S.R., Johnson, T.S., 2003. Biotechnological studies on Capsicum for metabolite production and plant improvement. Capsicum: The Genus Capsicum 96e128. Raw, A., 2000. Foraging behaviour of wild bees at hot pepper flowers (Capsicum annuum) and its possible influence on cross pollination. Annals of Botany 85, 487e492. Simonne, A., Simonne, E., Eitenmiller, R., Mills, H., Green, N., 1997. Ascorbic acid and provitamin A contents in unusually colored bell peppers (Capsicum annuum L.). Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 10, 299e311. Wang, J.-P., Hsu, M.-F., Teng, C.-M., 1984. Antiplatelet effect of capsaicin. Thrombosis Research 36, 497e507. Yamamoto, S., Nawata, E., 2004. Morphological characters and numerical taxonomic study of Capsicum frutescens in Southeast and East Asia. Tropics 14, 111e121. Yamamoto, S., Nawata, E., 2005. Capsicum frutescens L. in southeast and east Asia, and its dispersal routes into Japan. Economic Botany 59, 18e28.
9 Chili Pepper Saba Idrees1, Muhammad Asif Hanif1, Muhammad Adnan Ayub2, Asma Hanif1, Tariq Mahmood Ansari3 1 2
Department of Chemistry, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan; Department of Chemistry, University of Okara, Okara, Pakistan; 3 Institute of Chemical Sciences, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
O U T L I N E 1. Botany 1.1 Introduction 1.2 History/Origin 1.3 Demography/Location 1.4 Botany, Morphology, Ecology
114 114 115 116 116
2. Chemistry
116
3. Post harvest Technology
117
4. Processing
118
5. Value Addition
119
6. Uses
119
7. Pharmacological Uses 7.1 Antioxidant Activity 7.2 Antiviral Property 7.3 Anticancer Property 7.4 Antiinflammatory Activity
120 120 120 121 121
Medicinal Plants of South Asia https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102659-5.00009-4
113
Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
114
9. CHILI PEPPER
7.5 Antiobesity Activity 7.6 Antifungal Activity 7.7 Antiplatelet Effects
121 122 122
8. Side Effects and Toxicity
122
References
122
1. BOTANY 1.1 Introduction Chili Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) (Fig. 9.1) is an annual herb that belongs to Solanaceae family (Greenleaf, 1986). It has been used for thousands of years and has become an important ingredient of cooking. The genus Capsicum consists a range of 25e30 species and is indigenous to Central and South America (Kothari et al., 2010). The uncertainty in the exact number of species within the genus is largely attributed to great variability among the constituent species. Fruits from different species of pepper differ in flavor, color, form, and size from very hot to mild or pleasantly pungent. Mostly, plants are self-pollinated; however about 17% cross-pollination through wind or insects generally occurs. Capsicum species are generally self-pollinated, and chili pepper is a moderately selfcompatible crop; self-pollination can be enhanced by wind or related mechanical process (Raw, 2000). Capsicum annuum is known by different names in the world depending upon types and place. In English is typically called chilies, long chilies, or red chilies. In Pakistan, in Urdu, it is called surkhmirch. In India, especially in Hindi, it called lalmirca. In Arabic, it is called filfil-e-ahmar. The most common Capsicum is Capsicum annuum. Only five species (Capsicum frutescens, Capsicum pubescens, Capsicum annuum L., Capsicum chinense Jacq., and Capsicum baccatum L.) are cultivated and domesticated
FIGURE 9.1 Chili pepper at various ripening stages.
1. BOTANY
115
(Costa et al., 2009; Orobiyi et al., 2013). Chili Peppers are perennial woody plants, grown as herbaceous annuals. The plant can vary in size from 2 to 4 feet tall depending on the species. Leaves are typically smooth, simple, or entire, glabrous, without hairs, flat, and differ in shape from ovate to elongate depending on the variety. The flowers are usually solitary, creamy white, and seeds are straw colored. All species of Capsicum are perennials when grown in favorable (semitropical or tropical) climates. Chili pepper is also cultivated ornamentally, particularly due to their bright, shiny fruits with a broad range of colors. The essential oil content of chili pepper is equally variable between species and cultivar and is thought to be related to growing conditions, genetic factors, geographic origin, same chemo-types, and differences in the nutritional status of plants. The major chemicals of chili pepper essential oil are trans-b-ocimene, linalool, 2-methoxy-3-isobutylpyrazine, limonene, hex-cis-3-enol, and methyl salicylate. It is clear that chili pepper is morphologically and chemically highly variable. The origin, source, and growing conditions of chili pepper have an impact on the plant uses, flavors, aromas, and medicinal uses.
1.2 History/Origin Capsicum annuum is native to South and Central America. It has been cultivated since 3500 BCE and has been used since 7000 BCE in Mexico. The generic name Capsicum comes from Latin word “capsa” meaning box or chest due to the fruit’s shape that encloses seeds precisely, like in box. Chili has been known to the Western world since Christopher Columbus discovered American in 1493. Capsicum was brought toward Europe through Columbus in 1493 as a peppery spice. The ready appeal of Capsicum was such that within half a century it was distributed as far as Asia, and it was incorporated and continues to be diversified in cultures worldwide, as it had been originally in the Americas (Yamamoto and Nawata, 2004, 2005). Nowadays, chili pepper is present in several sizes, colors, and shapes all over the world. Mexican Indians probably used chili peppers before the birth of Christ (Govindarajan and Salzer, 1985). R. S. Macneish, an archaeologist,found seeds of pepper from about 7500 BCE in Mexico (DeWitt and Bosland, 1993). Chauca, a physician, on the next voyage of Columbus toward the New World noted medicinal and cooking use of chili peppers by Native Americans. Native Americans used irritant smoke, which was produced with burning of chili peppers, against invaders. In the early 19th century, chemical research on constituents present in chili peppers had been started. In 1846, Thresh crystallized the active constituent in chili peppers, and he named the component capsaicin. In the early 20th century, Dawson and Nelson found the chemical structure of capsaicin (Nelson, 1919; Nelson and Dawson, 1923).
116
9. CHILI PEPPER
1.3 Demography/Location Chili pepper is grown in optimum conditions. It requires a warm and humid climate for growth and dry weather during maturity (Hussain and Abid, 2011). It is very susceptible to frost and grows poorly. Chili pepper is grown widely in Pakistan, India, China, Ethiopia, Myanmar, Mexico, Vietnam, Turkey, Peru, Ghana, Bangladesh, Japan, Africa, and America (Khan et al., 2012). The major producers of capsicum fruit are the United States, Italy, Pakistan, India, Mexico, Japan, and Brazil, where this crop holds economic value (Cruz et al., 2005). The world production is over 19 million tons fresh fruit, with 1.5 million hectares through Nigeria, which is the largest producer in Africa (Raji Abdul Ganiy et al., 2010). Pakistan is among the top five producers in the world. It is the biggest producer of red chilies,with an annual production at 85,000 tons.
1.4 Botany, Morphology, Ecology C. annuum is an erect or prostrate annual herb and grows up to 0.75e1.8 m in cultivated varieties with several angular branches (Quresh et al., 2015). The leaves are simple, alternate, varying shapes, and oval to lanceolate, with smooth margins, generally wrinkled. The flowers are small, having a diameter of 1.5 or 1 in., and the color is white or violet, in clusters of two or more. The length of pedicel varies with cultivars, ranging from 3 to 8 cm. The color of petals is generally white with five to seven individual stamens that differ in color from pale blue to purple anthers (Berke, 2000). The fruits are berry-like and have several seeds that may be ovoid, elongated, cylindrical, obtuse, or oblong, but do not have sutures, and have a smooth, shiny surface and red color when ripe. The length of fruit is 12e25 cm and width is 7 mm. It has a characteristic aroma and pungent taste. Fruit colors are orange, green, black, yellow, and red to purple, white, and brown (Chaim et al., 2003). Chili peppers are warm-season and day-neutral plants. The best seed germination temperature ranges from 25 to 30 C. Optimum temperatures for productivity range from 18 to 30 C. Peppers are tolerant to a broad range of soil conditions. Though, well-drained soils and fertile, medium loams and a pH of 5.5e6.8 are generally considered most appropriate. If pH falls below 5.5, the result will be small growth of pepper plants and poor yields.
2. CHEMISTRY The fruit of chili pepper possess capsaicin and numerous associated chemicals that have straight-chain alkyl vanillylamides and homologous series branched, together called capsaicinoids as their main chemical unit.
3. POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGY
117
The main capsaicinoids present are capsaicin and 6,7-dihydrocapsaicin, and the minor capsaicinoids that are present are nordihydrocapsaicin, homodihydrocapsaicin, and homocapsaicin. Other parts of the plant have steroidal alkaloid and glycosides. Seeds contain the steroidal glycosides capsicoside A through D and allfurostanol. Chili pepper is rich in carotenoid pigments, involving cucurbitaxanthin A, carotene, zeaxanthin, capsorubin, lutein, zeaxanthin and capsanthin. Chili pepper contains no cholesterol, no fat content, and brings less caloric value (Bosland et al., 2012). It is a good source of several vitamins like vitamin E, vitamin C, vitamin A, and vitamin B complex and minerals such as thiamine, folate, molybdenum, manganese, potassium, calcium, iron, polyphenols (mainly luteolin), flavonoids, and quercetin (Chuah et al., 2008; Materska and Perucka, 2005). Peppers contain phenolics and flavonoids, carotenoids, and alkaloids (Materska and Perucka, 2005). Capsaicinoids are a group of alkaloids present in it. The major carotene pigments in chili peppers are lutein, b-carotene, and capsanthin, and they are mostly provitamin A (Howard and Wildman, 2006). Other phytochemicals present are alanine, scopoletin, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, linalool, amyrin, camphor, carvone, citric acid, linoleic acid, oleic, cinnamic, piperine, vitamins B1, C,B3, and E.Chili has seven times more vitamin C than oranges. Vitamins A and C and beta-carotenoids in chilies are powerful antioxidants that demolish free radicals (Simonne et al., 1997). Capsicum also has magnesium, sodium, phosphorus, sulfur, and selenium. The fruit of Capsicum species contain low volatile or essential oil contents that range from 0.1% to 2.6% in paprika. The pepper oil has major chemicals such as trans-b-ocimene, linalool, 2-methoxy-3-isobutylpyrazine, limonene, hex-cis-3-enol, and methyl salicylate. The other constituents recognized in higher amounts in oil separated at atmospheric pressure are nona-trans, non-1-en-4-one, nontrans-2-en-4-one, trans-2, 5-dien-4-one, benzaldehyde, and 2-entylfuran. The flavor component of chili pepper is 2-isobutyll-3-methoxy pyraxine. Components such as nona-trans, cis-2, 6-dienal and decatrans, and trans-2, 4-dienal are responsible for aroma. Fixed oil obtained from seeds has triglycerides of about 60% in which linoleic acid and other unsaturation fatty acids are present. There are different fatty acids present such as palmitic acid, behenic acid, linolenic acid, stearic acid, arachidic acid, lignoceric acid, tricosanoic acid, linoleic acid and tricosanoic acid. Active components of red chilies are shown in Fig. 9.2.
3. POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGY Chili peppers may be harvested in the green immature or red mature stage. Fruits can be harvested weekly. The best harvesting is in the cool hours of the day. For dry chili, it is essential to preserve red color of the
118
9. CHILI PEPPER CH3
OH
O
COOH C H 3C
OH
CH 2
Methyl Salicylate
Limonene
Linalool
CH 3 O HO H N
H
O
FIGURE 9.2
Capsaicin
Active components of red chilies.
mature fruits. Drying of chili pepper in the sun is the common method, but this can bleach the fruits, and dew or rain support decay of fruit. Ordinarily, they have a short storage life of only 1e2 weeks. A wet, cool environment (45e50 F and 85%e90% comparative humidity) is the best condition for storing peppers. Another choice is to cut, wash, and freeze the peppers. The fruit of chilis are susceptible to chilling injury; therefore temperature management is important in maintaining quality. Mature green chili peppers hold best at temperatures between 10 and 12 C; if temperatures fall below 7 C, pepper injury will occur. Holding pepper fruit at the recommended temperatures and at 90e95% relative humidity allows peppers to be stored for up to 2 weeks.
4. PROCESSING Chili pepper is an herbaceous plant, used in different ways for different purposes. Chili peppers can be used entire, chopped, or in several processed forms, for example, fresh, ground into powder, dried, or as an extract. They can be preserved in fresh form by refrigeration or dried through different drying methods, for example, electric drying, sun drying, solar drying, and oven drying. They can also be preserved by dehydration through freeze-drying or spray-drying. They can be
6. USES
119
processed by pickling, canning, or freezing and dehydrated to produce chili powder and paprika. Characteristic processing methods comprise freezing of peppers, in turn to store the fruit for a longer time. These processes may influence the content and bioaccessibility of the carotenoids contained in food (Pugliese et al., 2013). Chili pepper is traditionally dried in the sun (ONI, 2015). In the Southern United States, typically chili pepper is sun dried by scattering fruits on drying racks on the ground or on a roof. Blanching the fruits in warm water at 65 C for 3 min and removing calyx and pedicel can reduce drying time, enhance color retention, and reduce postharvest losses.
5. VALUE ADDITION Dry chili is used widely as a spice in all kinds of curried dishes in India and abroad. Ground, roasted, dry chili combined with other condiments like turmeric, coriander, cumin, and farinaceous substances is used to make curry powder. It can be used in seasonings, eggs, meats, and fresh preparation. Chili pepper can be a chief ingredient in dairy foods, salad dressing, salsa, baked items, candies, mayonnaise, hot sauces, beverages, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals (Bosland et al., 2012).
6. USES Many herbs and spices have good health effect because they are full of antioxidants and mineral compounds. Chili pepper is a good source of vitamins and minerals; in addition to this, it is fat-free and full of antioxidants (Bosland et al., 2012). In security agencies, it is used in tear gas to control crowds. Chili pepper has many uses ranging from culinary to pharmaceutical. Chili is a vital spice used as a key ingredient in a vast variety of cuisines throughout the world. It is also used as a flavoring, colorant, and adds taste to the other bland foods. The species of Capsicum are used alone or entire and ground or in combination with other flavoring agents, mainly in stews, barbequed items, or pickles (Ravishankar et al., 2003). In industries, they are used as flavoring and coloring agents in processed meats, alcoholic beverages, soups, lunches, sweets, and sauces (Kollmannsberger et al., 2011). They can be used dried, fresh, in conserves, or in the form of pepper sauces. Sweet peppers are a ingredient in pizza and pasta. The use of red paprika in tomato ketchup and sauces isalso encourage for improving color, so chili or paprika color may have a good demand as a natural plant colorant, as a substitute for synthetic color in the food industry. Besides the use in food processing
120
9. CHILI PEPPER
industries, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries use chili oleoresin of high pungency and low color. This oleoresin is used in pain balms, vapor rubs, and liniments since the pungent principle capsaicin serves as an effective counter irritant. They are also used in traditional medicine for their antimicrobial, sedative, and anticonvulsive properties (Cremer and Eichner, 2000). Capsaicin is used to relieve pain from migraines, cough, arthritis, or stuffy nose. It was also shown to have anticlotting activity.
7. PHARMACOLOGICAL USES 7.1 Antioxidant Activity Chili pepper has maximum antioxidant action in the red mature stage, and antioxidants present in it arelycopene, vitamin C (ascorbic acid), p-coumaryl alcohol, ethoxyquin, and capsaicinoids. Phytochemicals, which are isolated from chilis, were reported efficient against Fe-induced lipid peroxidation (Oboh et al., 2007). In another study, methanolic extracts of chili pepper were reported to reduce H2O2-induced DNA and 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal-induced damage (Park et al., 2012). In another study, the antioxidant property of chili pepper fruits measured through DPPH radical scavenging activity augmented significantly with ripening in all cultivars. Strong positive correlations between antioxidant action and vitamin C, vitamin E, b-carotene, and total phenol during the entire ripening process were observed. These phytochemicals are good antioxidant compounds. Additionally, strong positive correlations among the phytochemicals have been observed, representing that accumulation of these substances was the major source of increase in antioxidant action in chili pepper fruits with progress of ripening (Aires et al., 2011).
7.2 Antiviral Property Capsicum was found to be rich in those chemical components that are effective against viruses. Civamide (Cis-capsaicin) is active against HVS disease in guinea pigs and was also found to cure migraine headache pain. It is found to inhibit the viral replication cycle. It was found that capsaicin has a particular effect on sensory neurons involved in spreading and determination of herpes simplex virus disease (Bourne et al., 1999). Vanilloid capsaicin, isolated from chili pepper, was found active against pathogenesis of herpes simplex virus in models of animals, while chemicals separated from chili show antiviral action.
7. PHARMACOLOGICAL USES
121
7.3 Anticancer Property Capsaicin is efficient in vivo and in vitro against prostate cancer cell growth (Mori et al., 2006). Capsaicinoids, a class of compound in chilis, showed antitumour activity (Luo et al., 2011). Using Mexican plants in ethnomedicine, capsicum was found efficient against gastric cancer (Alonso-Castro et al., 2011). In another report, carotenoids, which are separated from red paprika, were noted for their cancer chemopreventive action (Maoka et al., 2001). Red pepper also has lycopene, which has anticancer activity (Simonne et al., 1997).
7.4 Antiinflammatory Activity Red chili pepper possesses significant antiinflammatory activity. Capsaicinoids and capsianoside compounds have been found to reveal antiinflammatory actions and pain-reducing properties. In a lipopolysaccharide-stimulated macrophage model, maximum antiinflammatory activity of chili pepper was identified (Mueller et al., 2010). To reduce pain of rheumatoid arthritis, capsaicin was used in a previous study (Fraenkel et al., 2004).
7.5 Antiobesity Activity Capsaicin, which is main chemical component of chili pepper, has antiobesity activity. Adipose tissue delivery between visceral and subcutaneous places is controlled by afferent nerves present in intestinal mucosa. Adipogenesis can be inhibited via capsaicin by activation of transient receptor potential vanilloid-1 channels. Sensitive sensory nerves’ neurogenic mechanism affectsfat metabolism regulation by acting on transient receptor potential vanilloid-1, enabling selective activation of the network that regulates nerve action, causing a lipolytic effect in reaction toward gastrointestinal transient receptor potential channel stimulation. Expression of adiponectin and its receptor can be increased by nutritional capsaicin, thus reducing metabolic dysregulation of obese diabetic mice. The effects of capsaicin in liver and adipose tissue are due to its double action on transient receptor potential vanilloid-1activation and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha. Upon capsaicin action on white adipose tissue, proteins that are related to lipid metabolism and thermogenesis are changed. Capsaicin hinders adipogenesis in adipocytes and preadipocytes and induces apoptosis. Statistics of epidemiologic display that utilization of foods having capsaicin is related with a lesser incidence of obesity. Experimental data shows capsaicin acts as an antiobesity compound. Ingestion of capsaicin is related with an
122
9. CHILI PEPPER
increase in energy expenses during the activation of brown adipose tissue, thus increasing fat oxidation and improving lipolysis (Leung, 2014).
7.6 Antifungal Activity Peptides, which are separated from chili pepper seeds, repressed yeast growth of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida parapsilosis, Pichia membrane faciens, Candida tropicalis, Candida albicans, Kluyveromyces marxiannus, and Candida guilliermondii. Peptides showed strong fungicidal action against Schizosaccharomyces pombe, S. cerevisiae, and C. albicans and also promoted numerous morphologic variations to C. albicans. It also reduced glucosestimulated acidification of the medium mediated by H(þ)-ATPase of S. cerevisiae cells in a dose-dependent mode and caused permeabilization of yeast plasma membrane toward dye SYTOX Green, as confirmed in confocal laser microscopy.
7.7 Antiplatelet Effects Capsaicin has been found to be an effective inhibitor in aggregation of platelets and discharge reaction. It reduced hemolysis of red blood cells produced via hydrogen peroxide. Capsaicin has a membrane-stabilizing property through activation of phospholipase A2 interference (Wang et al., 1984).
8. SIDE EFFECTS AND TOXICITY Eating chili peppers could cause heartburn, problems with ingestion, rectal pain, and skin problems.
References Aires, A., Fernandes, C., Carvalho, R., Bennett, R.N., Saavedra, M.J., Rosa, E.A., 2011. Seasonal effects on bioactive compounds and antioxidant capacity of six economically important Brassica vegetables. Molecules 16, 6816e6832. Alonso-Castro, A.J., Villarreal, M.L., Salazar-Olivo, L.A., Gomez-Sanchez, M., Dominguez, F., Garcia-Carranca, A., 2011. Mexican medicinal plants used for cancer treatment: pharmacological, phytochemical and ethnobotanical studies. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 133, 945e972. Berke, T.G., 2000. Hybrid seed production in Capsicum. Journal of New Seeds 1, 49e67. Bosland, P.W., Votava, E.J., Votava, E.M., 2012. Peppers: Vegetable and Spice Capsicums. Cabi. Bourne, N., Bernstein, D., Stanberry, L., 1999. Civamide (cis-capsaicin) for treatment of primary or recurrent experimental genital herpes. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 43, 2685e2688.
REFERENCES
123
Chaim, A.B., Borovsky, Y., Rao, G., Tanyolac, B., Paran, I., 2003. fs3. 1: a major fruit shape QTL conserved in Capsicum. Genome 46, 1e9. Chuah, A.M., Lee, Y.-C., Yamaguchi, T., Takamura, H., Yin, L.-J., Matoba, T., 2008. Effect of cooking on the antioxidant properties of coloured peppers. Food Chemistry 111, 20e28. Costa, L.V., Lopes, R., Lopes, M.T.G., de Figueiredo, A.F., Barros, W.S., Alves, S.R.M., 2009. Cross compatibility of domesticated hot pepper and cultivated sweet pepper. Crop Breeding and Applied Biotechnology 9, 37e44. Cremer, D.R., Eichner, K., 2000. Formation of volatile compounds during heating of spice paprika (Capsicum annuum) powder. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 48, 2454e2460. Cruz, D.d.O., Freitas, B.M., Silva, L.A.d., Silva, E.M.S.d., Bomfim, I.G.A., 2005. Pollination efficiency of the stingless bee Melipona subnitida on greenhouse sweet pepper. Pesquisa agropecua´ria brasileira 40, 1197e1201. DeWitt, D., Bosland, P.W., 1993. The Pepper Garden. Ten Speed Press, Berkeley, Calif. Fett, D.D., 2003. Botanical briefs: capsicum peppers. Cutis 72, 21. Fraenkel, L., Bogardus, S.T., Concato, J., Wittink, D.R., 2004. Treatment options in knee osteoarthritis: the patient’s perspective. Archives of Internal Medicine 164, 1299e1304. Govindarajan, V., Salzer, U.J., 1985. Capsicum-production, technology, chemistry, and quality part 1: history, botany, cultivation, and primary processing. Critical Reviews in Food Science & Nutrition 22, 109e176. Greenleaf, W., 1986. Pepper breeding. Breeding Vegetable Crops 67e134. Howard, L.R., Wildman, R.E., 2006. Antioxidant vitamin and phytochemical content of fresh and processed pepper fruit (Capsicum annuum). In: Handbook of Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods, second ed. CRC Press, pp. 165e191. Hussain, F., Abid, M., 2011. Pest and diseases of chilli crop in Pakistan: a review. International Journal of Biology and Biotechnology 8, 325e332. Khan, H.A., Ziaf, K., Amjad, M., Iqbal, Q., 2012. Exogenous application of polyamines improves germination and early seedling growth of hot pepper. Chilean Journal of Agricultural Research 72, 429. Kollmannsberger, H., Rodrı´guez-Burruezo, A., Nitz, S., Nuez, F., 2011. Volatile and capsaicinoid composition of ajı´ (Capsicum baccatum) and rocoto (Capsicum pubescens), two Andean species of Chile peppers. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 91, 1598e1611. Kothari, S., Joshi, A., Kachhwaha, S., Ochoa-Alejo, N., 2010. Chilli peppersda review on tissue culture and transgenesis. Biotechnology Advances 28, 35e48. Leung, F.W., 2014. Capsaicin as an Anti-obesity Drug, Capsaicin as a Therapeutic Molecule. Springer, pp. 171e179. Luo, X.-J., Peng, J., Li, Y.-J., 2011. Recent advances in the study on capsaicinoids and capsinoids. European Journal of Pharmacology 650, 1e7. Maoka, T., Mochida, K., Kozuka, M., Ito, Y., Fujiwara, Y., Hashimoto, K., Enjo, F., Ogata, M., Nobukuni, Y., Tokuda, H., 2001. Cancer chemopreventive activity of carotenoids in the fruits of red paprika Capsicum annuum L. Cancer Letters 172, 103e109. Materska, M., Perucka, I., 2005. Antioxidant activity of the main phenolic compounds isolated from hot pepper fruit (Capsicum annuum L.). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 53, 1750e1756. Mori, A., Lehmann, S., O’Kelly, J., Kumagai, T., Desmond, J.C., Pervan, M., McBride, W.H., Kizaki, M., Koeffler, H.P., 2006. Capsaicin, a component of red peppers, inhibits the growth of androgen-independent, p53 mutant prostate cancer cells. Cancer Research 66, 3222e3229. Mueller, M., Hobiger, S., Jungbauer, A., 2010. Anti-inflammatory activity of extracts from fruits, herbs and spices. Food Chemistry 122, 987e996.
124
9. CHILI PEPPER
Nelson, E., 1919. The constitution of capsaicin, the pungent principle of capsicum. Journal of the American Chemical Society 41, 1115e1121. Nelson, E., Dawson, L., 1923. The constitution of capsaicin, the pungent principle of Capsicum. III. Journal of the American Chemical Society 45, 2179e2181. Oboh, G., Puntel, R., Rocha, J., 2007. Hot pepper (Capsicum annuum, Tepin and Capsicum chinese, Habanero) prevents Fe 2þ-induced lipid peroxidation in brainein vitro. Food Chemistry 102, 178e185. Oni, S., 2015. Growth and fruit yield of pepper (Capsicum frutescens L.) as influenced by arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) inoculation and fertilizers under greenhouse and field conditions. Applied Tropical Agriculture 15, 126e133. Orobiyi, A., Dansi, M., Assogba, P., Loko, L., Vodouhe, R., Akouegninou, A., Sanni, A., 2013. Chili (Capsicum annuum L.) in Southern Benin: Production Constraints, Varietal Diversity, Preference Criteria and Participatory Evaluation. Park, J.-H., Jeon, G.-I., Kim, J.-M., Park, E., 2012. Antioxidant activity and antiproliferative action of methanol extracts of 4 different colored bell peppers (Capsicum annuum L.). Food Science and Biotechnology 21, 543e550. Pugliese, A., Loizzo, M.R., Tundis, R., O’Callaghan, Y., Galvin, K., Menichini, F., O’Brien, N., 2013. The effect of domestic processing on the content and bioaccessibility of carotenoids from chili peppers (Capsicum species). Food Chemistry 141, 2606e2613. Quresh, W., Alam, M., Ullah, H., Jatoi, S.A., Khan, W.U., 2015. Evaluation and characterization of Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) germplasm for some morphological and yield characters. Pure and Applied Biology 4, 628. Raji Abdul Ganiy, O., Falade Kolawole, O., Abimbolu Fadeke, W., 2010. Effect of sucrose and binary solution on osmotic dehydration of bell pepper (chilli) (Capsicum spp.) varieties. Journal of Food Science and Technology 47, 305e309. Ravishankar, G., Suresh, B., Giridhar, P., Rao, S.R., Johnson, T.S., 2003. Biotechnological studies on Capsicum for metabolite production and plant improvement. Capsicum: The Genus Capsicum 96e128. Raw, A., 2000. Foraging behaviour of wild bees at hot pepper flowers (Capsicum annuum) and its possible influence on cross pollination. Annals of Botany 85, 487e492. Simonne, A., Simonne, E., Eitenmiller, R., Mills, H., Green, N., 1997. Ascorbic acid and provitamin A contents in unusually colored bell peppers (Capsicum annuum L.). Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 10, 299e311. Wang, J.-P., Hsu, M.-F., Teng, C.-M., 1984. Antiplatelet effect of capsaicin. Thrombosis Research 36, 497e507. Yamamoto, S., Nawata, E., 2004. Morphological characters and numerical taxonomic study of Capsicum frutescens in Southeast and East Asia. Tropics 14, 111e121. Yamamoto, S., Nawata, E., 2005. Capsicum frutescens L. in southeast and east Asia, and its dispersal routes into Japan. Economic Botany 59, 18e28.