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Citizen Politics: A Conceptual Framework for Shaping Public Policy
Citizen Politics: A Conceptual Framework for Shaping Public Policy PATRICIA A . WAGNER Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 3261 1-0310 ABSTRACT The purpose of citizen politics, a research-based conceptual framework, is to develop and strengthen societal capacity to do effective public work. It seeks to enable all who are affected by a situation to participate in developing workable solutions. Citizen politics is based on three core concepts: (1) public, (2) diverse interests, and (3) power. Power is created by building relationships among diverse interests in order to take action on public problems and goals. Incorporation of citizen politics into contemporary political culture can help to rebuild the democratic notion of citizenship responsibility for the common good. UNE 28:80-82,1996)
INTRODUCTION Citizen politics is a research-based conceptual framework that can be applied to a range of public policy issues.'-' Its practice can enhance societal capacity to influence public policy decisions regarding nutrition, food security, and wel'~ politics seeks to bring the public fare r e f ~ r m . ~ , ' -Citizen back into politics in order to counterbalance the dominant role played by politicians and professional policy make r ~ . ~ . ~ Its . ' ~main - ' ~ purpose is to develop and strengthen societal capacity to do effective public work. Citizen politics stresses links between citizens and policy makers. It enables disenfranchised populations to develop public leadership skills and to restore belief in their ability to participate as active citizens. This article reviews the conceptual framework for citizen politics in the context of contemporary U.S. political culture and examines its central role in rebuilding the democratic notion of citizenship responsibility for the common good. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Citizen politics is based on three core concepts: (1) public, (2) diverse interests, and (3) p0wer.A brief description of each core concept follows.
Public. This concept refers to a "public world" in which people use their collective power to act on diverse self-interests to shape their environments and solve common prob1ems.This core concept is supported by public skills in critical thinking and problem solving.The public world connects individual life in a particular environment to the larger whole. Public life is distinct from, but linked to, private and Address for correspondence: Patric~aA. Wagner ,Ph.D., Univers~tyof Florida, P O Box 110310, Galnesville, FL 3261 1-0310;Tel: (352) 392-1895; Fax: (352) 392-8196. 01996 SOCIETY F O R N U T R I T I O N EDUCATION
community life. In the public world, people claim their roles as strategic players in accomplishing public work. In this context, the term "politics" (from the Greek word politicos, meaningG'theactivity of the citizen"" refers to the public work of problem solving and governance.The terms "politics" and "public problem solving" may be used interchangeably.This definition recognizes that "politics" is everywhere as a cultural practice in regard to the structures and distribution of power and allocation of resources.The term "politics" also may be used interchangeably with "public policy" to describe "the way things are done" in terms of both formal and informal rules in the environments where people live and work. The public work of problem solving and governance is carried out through "mediating institutions" (organizations and spaces, such as schools, churches, unions, and the workplace) that connect people to larger public arenas and issue^.^ Active, public citizenship is grounded in these everyday institutional environments. In this context, "citizenship" refers to the ongoing contributions by citizens to problem solving and governance in regard to their shared problems and common 1ife.Through this kind of active citizenship, power is built and exercised.This understanding of the role of the "citizen" connects people across lines of difference and links daily life and interests to larger public values and arenas.
Diverse interests. The concept of diverse interests forms the foundation for effective public ~ o r k . ' , ~ ,It' , ~refers to the variety of life experiences, perspectives, knowledge, creativity, and talents that people bring to public life. Recognition that everyone in a public setting has interests is an essential step in the practice of citizen politics. In this context, educators and other experts are not neutral or disinterested but rather are active players who bring their own interests to public discussion. Self-interest (when people are aware of the wants or needs of themselves and others and are willing to see the greater goal of satistying both) motivates participation in public life. Self-interest is neither selfish (when people disregard the wants or needs of others in favor of their own desires) nor selpess (when people disregard their own wants or needs in favor of others' desires). Self-interest refers to the ability to see one's self (or one's community) in relationship to others and as part of a larger whole. The idea of self-interest comes from the Latin term inter esse, meaning to be among or between others. Self-interest is what matters to a person. It encompasses one's background, concerns, hopes, and belie&.Self-interest is influenced by the outside world and changes over time. Recognizing where one's self-interest truly lies is critical to effective participation in public life.
Journal of Nutrition Education Volume 28 Number 2
March
In citizen politics, diverse self-interests are used as resources for identifying and solving public problems.When people with diverse interests and viewpoints work together to reframe and clari5 a situation, they are better able to build a shared understanding and to envision workable solutions. Diversity is viewed as a source of relevant experience and knowledge.The core concept of diverse interests requires public skills in communicating one's own self-interest and in one-on-one interviewing to discover other people's self-interests. Complex societal problems cannot be solved by any one perspective or power base.When diverse interests are engaged in the effort, the capacity to generate and sustain multidimensional problem-solving strategies is enhanced. This process requires mutual respect and the knowledge that working together is in everyone's self-interest. Power. Citizen politics conceptualizes power as dynamic, ~ ~ ~conceptualization ~~ is in interactive, and r e l a t i ~ n a l . "This contrast to prevailing views of power as (1) static or zero sum (one person has it, so others do not), (2) limited in amount (if someone else has power, there is less for me), (3) a force (making someone do something that they do not want to do), and/or (4) one-directional (held at the top of the hierarchy and practiced on those below). Citizen politics recognizes that each person or group has potential power, just as everyone in a public setting has interests. This idea is consistent with the basic meaning of power (from the Latin word poder, meaning "to be able") as the ability to act and make a difference. Citizen politics is based on the concept that power is created by building relationships among diverse interests to take action on shared problems and goals. This core concept is supported by public skills in conceptual thinking and power mapping and in the practice of sound judgment and accountability.The conceptualization of power as relational, interactive, and dynamic is central to the practice of citizen politics. Table 1.
April 1996
81
POLITICS AS PUBLIC PROBLEM SOLVING The term "politics" carries a negative connotation for many people, who imagine themselves as innocent outsiders and who see politics as corrupt and cynical. However, when politics is understood as "public problem solving" in the context of democratic principles, mediating institutions, and citizenship responsibility, it is possible to have a more optimistic view. In general, the contemporary culture of politics in mediating institutions tends to discourage active citizenship and the concomitant development of workable solutions to public problems. Reclaiming mediating institutions as places for citizenship education and creative problem solving first requires an understanding of the four common modes of "public problem solving" (Table l).4-6 Multiple relationships exist among these four modes of public problem solving, and each mode can be strengthened through the incorporation of citizen politics. In the context of citizen politics, diverse interests engage in the difficult, giveand-take process of public problem solving for the common good. Active citizenship is understood as practical and public spirited but is viewed as neither a panacea nor a utopian solution to complex societal problems. Through the practice of citizen politics, people become responsible citizens in a representative democracy and not merely voters, consumers, taxpayers, customers, clients, experts, or protestors. CITIZEN POLITICS A N D THE C O M M O N G O O D Incorporation of citizen politics into contemporary political culture can help to rebuild the democratic notion of citizenship responsibility for the common good. In much ofAmerican history, active citizen involvement was expressed through the vision, concept, and language of "the commonwealth."' In its most basic meaning, "commonwealth," used interchangeably with "commonweal," refers to the "common good" or the
Four common modes of public problem solving.'
Mode
Purpose
Examples
Strengths
Institutional politics
Allocates resources on large scale
Congress School board
Broad-scale effect Many levels of involvement Accountability through voting
Helping politics
Addresses individual needs
Voluntary service organizations Social services
Connects individuals to services Provides immediate assistance
Advocacy politics
Addresses rights and justice
Protests Demonstrations Boycotts
Successful organizing tool Brings attention to issues Sense of shared purpose
Community politics
Addresses local problems
Neighborhood crime watch Cooperatives
Fosters self-reliance, interdependence, problem solving, and a sense of ownership and belonging Develops citizen leadership and local institutions
'Adapted from Project Public Life.e6
Limitations Often disconnected from the needs of citizens Dependent on experts and professionals Hierarchical system of decision making Cannot solve problem on a larger scale Obscures an individual's self-interest Expert-client conceptualization of power discourages problem solving and self-reliance Divides the world into "good guys" versus "bad guys" Polarizes the issue Expects someone else to resolve the issue Diverse interests may not be represented in solving local or neighborhood problems Scale and scope are limited Cannot solve problem on a larger scale
82
Wagner/CITIZEN POLITICS
"public welfare." In American history, "con~monwealth"typically represented two major ideas: (1) the basic resources and public goods over which citizens assumed responsibility and authority and (2) a self-governing community of equals concerned about the general welfare, where citizens remained active throughout the year, not simply on Election Day.' The common good of a democratic nation is not well served in the presence of widespread conditions of poverty, hunger, and hopelessness. "~"-'j~" The research-based conceptual tools of citizen politics can empower positive action to address these conditions.'~"~'"- this citizen empowerment has been documented in some of the poorest communities of the United States and includes the work of the Industrial Areas Foundation,'s4 the Citizenship Schools'~"of the civil rights movement, and Project Public As a result of practical citizenship education and experience, people learn to interact with their elected officials at all levels of government ~'~"' may be and to hold them a c c ~ u n t a b l e . ' ~ " ~ " ~ "Citizenship viewed as the greatest common denominator in a democratic nation.When this idea is accepted, it becomes a powerful motivating factor for diverse peoples to claim a common identity and a credible basis for collaborative public problem solving.'..' Educators have important roles in the processes of informed public debate, civic organizing, reasoned action, and follow-up eval~ation.".'~."'In an educational setting, people with diverse viewpoints work together to clarify and reframe the issues, to examine stereotypical assumptions, and to constructively address anger and conflict. Through this process, participants can begin to envision workable solutions and to expand the range of acceptable policy options. The Center for Democracy and Citizenship at the University of Minnesotax' is the primary source of information and educational resources on citizen politics. At present, Cooperative Extension System faculty in several states have received training in citizen politics and can offer technical assistance and support in this area.
Humphrey Institute of Public Affairs, University of Minnesota: Harry C. Boyte (Co-Director) and Miaisha Mitchell (Senior Associate). NOTES AND REFERENCES 1. Boyte HC. Common wealth: a return to citizen politics. NewYork:The Free Press, 1989.
2. American Civic Forum. Civic declaration: a call for a new citizenship. An occasional paper of the Kettering Foundation. New Brui~swick,NJ: Walt Whit~nanCenter and Minneapolis: Hunlphrey Institute, 1994. 3. Boyte HC.Why citizenship: a project perspective. In: Public 1ife.Vol. 4, no. 3. Minneapolis: Project Publ~cLife, 1993:l-2,4-7. 4. Hogg KS, ed. Reinventing citizenship: the practice of citizen pol~tics. Minneapolis: Project Public Life, 1994.
5. Boyte HC, Hogg KS. Doing politics: an owner's manual for public life. Minneapolis: Project Public Life, 1992.
6. Breuer R , Nelson F. Building ownership: a coach's guide to teaching politics. Minneapolis: Project Public L~fe,1992. 7. Bass M. Making the rules: a public achieveillent guidebook for young people who intend to make a difference. 3rd Ed. Minneapolis: Project Public Life, 1994.
8. Markus GB.An evaluation of Project Public Life. Minneapolis: Project Publ~cLife, 1992. 9. Michels P, Kari N, Hayle P, Mitchell M . Health and politics: creating public relationships. In: Public life.Vo1 4, no. 1. Minneapolis: Project Public Life 1993:3-5. 10. Elsenberg L. A theoretical and strategic approach to achieving food security. In: Leidenfrost NB,Wilkens J, eds. Food security in the United States: a guidebook for public issues educat~on.Washington, DC: USDA, 1994:81-5. 11. Cohen MJ, ed. Hunger 1994: transforming the politics of hunger. Silver Spring, MD: Bread for the World Institute, 1993. 12. Wagner PA, Butkus S, Wilken K. A conceptual foundation for food
security public issues education: definitions and educator's roles. In: Leidenfrost NB,Wilkens J, eds. Food security in the United States: a gu~debook for public issues education.Washington, D C : USDA, 1994:7-14.
CONCLUSION
13. K a u h a n M , ed. Nutrition in public health: a handbook for develop-
Citizen politics is a research-based conceptual framework that is well grounded in the multidimensional and complex realities of public issues. A major strength is its underlying belief in the ability of ordinary people to become active participants in effective public work. In closing, incorporation of citizen politics into contemporary U.S. political culture can (1) strengthen public work in a variety of settings, (2) re-engage those who are now at the margins of public life, (3) enable all who are affected by a situation to participate in developing workable solutions, and (4) rebuild the democratic notion of citizenship responsibility for the common good.
14. Sherman LP. Statement on the link between nutrition and cognitive
ing programs and services. Rockville, MD: Aspen Publ~shers,1990. development in children. 2nd Ed. Medford, MA:Tufts University, 1995. 15. Green LW, Kreuter MW. Health promotion planning: an educational and env~ronmentalapproach. 2nd Ed. Mountain V~ew,CA: Mayfield Publishing Company, 1991. 16. Harris S. Reclaiming our democracy: healing the break between people and government. Philadelphia: Camino Books, 1994. 17. Hahn AJ.The politics of caring: human services at the local level. Boul-
der, C O : Westvtew Press, 1994. 18. Kretzmann JP, McKnight JL. Building communities from the inside out: a path toward finding and mobilizing a community's assets. Chicago: ACTA Publications, 1993.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
19. Hahn AJ, Dale D, eds. Increasing competence in resolv~ngpublic issues.
The development of this article was made possible through the resources and encouragement provided by the following individuals at the Center for Democracy and Citizenship,
20. For training resources o n citizen politics, contact: Center for Demo-
Madison, WI: University ofWisconsin Extension, 1994. cracy and Citizenship-University of Minnesota, 301 19th Avenue South, Minneapolis, M N 55455.
INTRODUCTION Citizen politics is a research-based conceptual framework that can be applied to a range of public policy issues.'-' Its practice can enhance societal capacity to influence public policy decisions regarding nutrition, food security, and wel'~ politics seeks to bring the public fare r e f ~ r m . ~ , ' -Citizen back into politics in order to counterbalance the dominant role played by politicians and professional policy make r ~ . ~ . ~ Its . ' ~main - ' ~ purpose is to develop and strengthen societal capacity to do effective public work. Citizen politics stresses links between citizens and policy makers. It enables disenfranchised populations to develop public leadership skills and to restore belief in their ability to participate as active citizens. This article reviews the conceptual framework for citizen politics in the context of contemporary U.S. political culture and examines its central role in rebuilding the democratic notion of citizenship responsibility for the common good. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Citizen politics is based on three core concepts: (1) public, (2) diverse interests, and (3) p0wer.A brief description of each core concept follows.
Public. This concept refers to a "public world" in which people use their collective power to act on diverse self-interests to shape their environments and solve common prob1ems.This core concept is supported by public skills in critical thinking and problem solving.The public world connects individual life in a particular environment to the larger whole. Public life is distinct from, but linked to, private and Address for correspondence: Patric~aA. Wagner ,Ph.D., Univers~tyof Florida, P O Box 110310, Galnesville, FL 3261 1-0310;Tel: (352) 392-1895; Fax: (352) 392-8196. 01996 SOCIETY F O R N U T R I T I O N EDUCATION
community life. In the public world, people claim their roles as strategic players in accomplishing public work. In this context, the term "politics" (from the Greek word politicos, meaningG'theactivity of the citizen"" refers to the public work of problem solving and governance.The terms "politics" and "public problem solving" may be used interchangeably.This definition recognizes that "politics" is everywhere as a cultural practice in regard to the structures and distribution of power and allocation of resources.The term "politics" also may be used interchangeably with "public policy" to describe "the way things are done" in terms of both formal and informal rules in the environments where people live and work. The public work of problem solving and governance is carried out through "mediating institutions" (organizations and spaces, such as schools, churches, unions, and the workplace) that connect people to larger public arenas and issue^.^ Active, public citizenship is grounded in these everyday institutional environments. In this context, "citizenship" refers to the ongoing contributions by citizens to problem solving and governance in regard to their shared problems and common 1ife.Through this kind of active citizenship, power is built and exercised.This understanding of the role of the "citizen" connects people across lines of difference and links daily life and interests to larger public values and arenas.
Diverse interests. The concept of diverse interests forms the foundation for effective public ~ o r k . ' , ~ ,It' , ~refers to the variety of life experiences, perspectives, knowledge, creativity, and talents that people bring to public life. Recognition that everyone in a public setting has interests is an essential step in the practice of citizen politics. In this context, educators and other experts are not neutral or disinterested but rather are active players who bring their own interests to public discussion. Self-interest (when people are aware of the wants or needs of themselves and others and are willing to see the greater goal of satistying both) motivates participation in public life. Self-interest is neither selfish (when people disregard the wants or needs of others in favor of their own desires) nor selpess (when people disregard their own wants or needs in favor of others' desires). Self-interest refers to the ability to see one's self (or one's community) in relationship to others and as part of a larger whole. The idea of self-interest comes from the Latin term inter esse, meaning to be among or between others. Self-interest is what matters to a person. It encompasses one's background, concerns, hopes, and belie&.Self-interest is influenced by the outside world and changes over time. Recognizing where one's self-interest truly lies is critical to effective participation in public life.
Journal of Nutrition Education Volume 28 Number 2
March
In citizen politics, diverse self-interests are used as resources for identifying and solving public problems.When people with diverse interests and viewpoints work together to reframe and clari5 a situation, they are better able to build a shared understanding and to envision workable solutions. Diversity is viewed as a source of relevant experience and knowledge.The core concept of diverse interests requires public skills in communicating one's own self-interest and in one-on-one interviewing to discover other people's self-interests. Complex societal problems cannot be solved by any one perspective or power base.When diverse interests are engaged in the effort, the capacity to generate and sustain multidimensional problem-solving strategies is enhanced. This process requires mutual respect and the knowledge that working together is in everyone's self-interest. Power. Citizen politics conceptualizes power as dynamic, ~ ~ ~conceptualization ~~ is in interactive, and r e l a t i ~ n a l . "This contrast to prevailing views of power as (1) static or zero sum (one person has it, so others do not), (2) limited in amount (if someone else has power, there is less for me), (3) a force (making someone do something that they do not want to do), and/or (4) one-directional (held at the top of the hierarchy and practiced on those below). Citizen politics recognizes that each person or group has potential power, just as everyone in a public setting has interests. This idea is consistent with the basic meaning of power (from the Latin word poder, meaning "to be able") as the ability to act and make a difference. Citizen politics is based on the concept that power is created by building relationships among diverse interests to take action on shared problems and goals. This core concept is supported by public skills in conceptual thinking and power mapping and in the practice of sound judgment and accountability.The conceptualization of power as relational, interactive, and dynamic is central to the practice of citizen politics. Table 1.
April 1996
81
POLITICS AS PUBLIC PROBLEM SOLVING The term "politics" carries a negative connotation for many people, who imagine themselves as innocent outsiders and who see politics as corrupt and cynical. However, when politics is understood as "public problem solving" in the context of democratic principles, mediating institutions, and citizenship responsibility, it is possible to have a more optimistic view. In general, the contemporary culture of politics in mediating institutions tends to discourage active citizenship and the concomitant development of workable solutions to public problems. Reclaiming mediating institutions as places for citizenship education and creative problem solving first requires an understanding of the four common modes of "public problem solving" (Table l).4-6 Multiple relationships exist among these four modes of public problem solving, and each mode can be strengthened through the incorporation of citizen politics. In the context of citizen politics, diverse interests engage in the difficult, giveand-take process of public problem solving for the common good. Active citizenship is understood as practical and public spirited but is viewed as neither a panacea nor a utopian solution to complex societal problems. Through the practice of citizen politics, people become responsible citizens in a representative democracy and not merely voters, consumers, taxpayers, customers, clients, experts, or protestors. CITIZEN POLITICS A N D THE C O M M O N G O O D Incorporation of citizen politics into contemporary political culture can help to rebuild the democratic notion of citizenship responsibility for the common good. In much ofAmerican history, active citizen involvement was expressed through the vision, concept, and language of "the commonwealth."' In its most basic meaning, "commonwealth," used interchangeably with "commonweal," refers to the "common good" or the
Four common modes of public problem solving.'
Mode
Purpose
Examples
Strengths
Institutional politics
Allocates resources on large scale
Congress School board
Broad-scale effect Many levels of involvement Accountability through voting
Helping politics
Addresses individual needs
Voluntary service organizations Social services
Connects individuals to services Provides immediate assistance
Advocacy politics
Addresses rights and justice
Protests Demonstrations Boycotts
Successful organizing tool Brings attention to issues Sense of shared purpose
Community politics
Addresses local problems
Neighborhood crime watch Cooperatives
Fosters self-reliance, interdependence, problem solving, and a sense of ownership and belonging Develops citizen leadership and local institutions
'Adapted from Project Public Life.e6
Limitations Often disconnected from the needs of citizens Dependent on experts and professionals Hierarchical system of decision making Cannot solve problem on a larger scale Obscures an individual's self-interest Expert-client conceptualization of power discourages problem solving and self-reliance Divides the world into "good guys" versus "bad guys" Polarizes the issue Expects someone else to resolve the issue Diverse interests may not be represented in solving local or neighborhood problems Scale and scope are limited Cannot solve problem on a larger scale
82
Wagner/CITIZEN POLITICS
"public welfare." In American history, "con~monwealth"typically represented two major ideas: (1) the basic resources and public goods over which citizens assumed responsibility and authority and (2) a self-governing community of equals concerned about the general welfare, where citizens remained active throughout the year, not simply on Election Day.' The common good of a democratic nation is not well served in the presence of widespread conditions of poverty, hunger, and hopelessness. "~"-'j~" The research-based conceptual tools of citizen politics can empower positive action to address these conditions.'~"~'"- this citizen empowerment has been documented in some of the poorest communities of the United States and includes the work of the Industrial Areas Foundation,'s4 the Citizenship Schools'~"of the civil rights movement, and Project Public As a result of practical citizenship education and experience, people learn to interact with their elected officials at all levels of government ~'~"' may be and to hold them a c c ~ u n t a b l e . ' ~ " ~ " ~ "Citizenship viewed as the greatest common denominator in a democratic nation.When this idea is accepted, it becomes a powerful motivating factor for diverse peoples to claim a common identity and a credible basis for collaborative public problem solving.'..' Educators have important roles in the processes of informed public debate, civic organizing, reasoned action, and follow-up eval~ation.".'~."'In an educational setting, people with diverse viewpoints work together to clarify and reframe the issues, to examine stereotypical assumptions, and to constructively address anger and conflict. Through this process, participants can begin to envision workable solutions and to expand the range of acceptable policy options. The Center for Democracy and Citizenship at the University of Minnesotax' is the primary source of information and educational resources on citizen politics. At present, Cooperative Extension System faculty in several states have received training in citizen politics and can offer technical assistance and support in this area.
Humphrey Institute of Public Affairs, University of Minnesota: Harry C. Boyte (Co-Director) and Miaisha Mitchell (Senior Associate). NOTES AND REFERENCES 1. Boyte HC. Common wealth: a return to citizen politics. NewYork:The Free Press, 1989.
2. American Civic Forum. Civic declaration: a call for a new citizenship. An occasional paper of the Kettering Foundation. New Brui~swick,NJ: Walt Whit~nanCenter and Minneapolis: Hunlphrey Institute, 1994. 3. Boyte HC.Why citizenship: a project perspective. In: Public 1ife.Vol. 4, no. 3. Minneapolis: Project Publ~cLife, 1993:l-2,4-7. 4. Hogg KS, ed. Reinventing citizenship: the practice of citizen pol~tics. Minneapolis: Project Public Life, 1994.
5. Boyte HC, Hogg KS. Doing politics: an owner's manual for public life. Minneapolis: Project Public Life, 1992.
6. Breuer R , Nelson F. Building ownership: a coach's guide to teaching politics. Minneapolis: Project Public L~fe,1992. 7. Bass M. Making the rules: a public achieveillent guidebook for young people who intend to make a difference. 3rd Ed. Minneapolis: Project Public Life, 1994.
8. Markus GB.An evaluation of Project Public Life. Minneapolis: Project Publ~cLife, 1992. 9. Michels P, Kari N, Hayle P, Mitchell M . Health and politics: creating public relationships. In: Public life.Vo1 4, no. 1. Minneapolis: Project Public Life 1993:3-5. 10. Elsenberg L. A theoretical and strategic approach to achieving food security. In: Leidenfrost NB,Wilkens J, eds. Food security in the United States: a guidebook for public issues educat~on.Washington, DC: USDA, 1994:81-5. 11. Cohen MJ, ed. Hunger 1994: transforming the politics of hunger. Silver Spring, MD: Bread for the World Institute, 1993. 12. Wagner PA, Butkus S, Wilken K. A conceptual foundation for food
security public issues education: definitions and educator's roles. In: Leidenfrost NB,Wilkens J, eds. Food security in the United States: a gu~debook for public issues education.Washington, D C : USDA, 1994:7-14.
CONCLUSION
13. K a u h a n M , ed. Nutrition in public health: a handbook for develop-
Citizen politics is a research-based conceptual framework that is well grounded in the multidimensional and complex realities of public issues. A major strength is its underlying belief in the ability of ordinary people to become active participants in effective public work. In closing, incorporation of citizen politics into contemporary U.S. political culture can (1) strengthen public work in a variety of settings, (2) re-engage those who are now at the margins of public life, (3) enable all who are affected by a situation to participate in developing workable solutions, and (4) rebuild the democratic notion of citizenship responsibility for the common good.
14. Sherman LP. Statement on the link between nutrition and cognitive
ing programs and services. Rockville, MD: Aspen Publ~shers,1990. development in children. 2nd Ed. Medford, MA:Tufts University, 1995. 15. Green LW, Kreuter MW. Health promotion planning: an educational and env~ronmentalapproach. 2nd Ed. Mountain V~ew,CA: Mayfield Publishing Company, 1991. 16. Harris S. Reclaiming our democracy: healing the break between people and government. Philadelphia: Camino Books, 1994. 17. Hahn AJ.The politics of caring: human services at the local level. Boul-
der, C O : Westvtew Press, 1994. 18. Kretzmann JP, McKnight JL. Building communities from the inside out: a path toward finding and mobilizing a community's assets. Chicago: ACTA Publications, 1993.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
19. Hahn AJ, Dale D, eds. Increasing competence in resolv~ngpublic issues.
The development of this article was made possible through the resources and encouragement provided by the following individuals at the Center for Democracy and Citizenship,
20. For training resources o n citizen politics, contact: Center for Demo-
Madison, WI: University ofWisconsin Extension, 1994. cracy and Citizenship-University of Minnesota, 301 19th Avenue South, Minneapolis, M N 55455.