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CO2 emissions from Polish cement industry
International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control 4 (2010) 583–588
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijggc
CO2 emissions from Polish cement industry Jan Deja a , Alicja Uliasz-Bochenczyk b,∗ , Eugeniusz Mokrzycki b a b
AGH University of Science and Technology, Mickiewicza 30 av., 30-059 Krakow, Poland Mineral and Energy Economy Research Institute of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Wybickiego 7, 31-261 Krakow, Poland
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 1 December 2008 Received in revised form 1 February 2010 Accepted 11 February 2010 Available online 11 March 2010 Keywords: CO2 emissions Cement industry CO2 emissions reduction Poland Emissions trading
a b s t r a c t The cement industry is one of the most significant sources of anthropogenic emissions of CO2 . It is connected with the specific character of the production processes, during which great quantities of CO2 are produced. Basic actions to reduce CO2 emissions recommended by the European Union’s, Reference Document on Best Available Techniques in the Cement and Lime Manufacturing Industries, include: reduction of fuel consumption, selection of raw materials with low content of organic compounds and fuels with low coal contribution to heating value. All actions connected with the improvement of energy conversion efficiency of the cement production process cause CO2 emissions reduction. The use of at most acceptable by the valid standards amounts of waste as raw materials and additives for cement production, also brings about the reduction of significant part of CO2 emissions. These measures have been and continue to be pursued by the cement factories in Poland. This article describes the evolution of the cement industry in Poland over the period 1998–2008 and the resulting changes in CO2 emissions and explores the drivers for these changes. The sources of CO2 emissions in cement industry have been presented in this article as well as a discussion of potential ways to reduce Polish cement industry emissions even further. © 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction The cement industry is one of the most significant sources of anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2 ), amounting to around 7% of worldwide emissions (IPCC, 2005). The high emissions of CO2 are connected with cement production technology. The elementary sources of CO2 emissions from cement industry are: raw material calcination and fuel combustion. It has been estimated that, on average for cement plants around the world, CO2 emissions from the process of calcination amounts to about 50%, while from fuel combustion about 40% of total emissions (Humphreys and Mahasenan, 2002). Currently for the cement plants in Poland the emissions from calcination process amounts to 62%, and from fuel combustion 38%. Emissions of CO2 from these two processes are called direct emissions. The sources of indirect emissions (around 10% of emissions from cement plant) from cement industry result from transportation, electricity used within the cement plant as well as upstream extraction of fossil fuels and mineral raw materials (Vanderborght and Brodmann, 2001). Emissions of CO2 in the process of cement production depends mainly from: type of production process, type of the used fuel as well as the clinker/cement ratio that is the proportional content of additives (Hendriks et al., 1998).
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +48 126323300; fax: +48 124233624. E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Uliasz-Bochenczyk). 1750-5836/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.ijggc.2010.02.002
Poland has signed the Kyoto Protocol that commits all the countries that ratify this protocol, to reduce their greenhouse gases emissions in the period of 2008–2012 by 5% below their 1990 levels. The reductions have been specified for each country and vary from 8% for European Union and associated countries (except Poland and Hungary), 7% for the United States, 6% for Japan, Canada, Hungary and Poland, 0% for Russia and Ukraine. In this way, Poland has committed to reduce its CO2 emissions. The problem of reduction of CO2 emissions from cement industry is particularly important when considering recent rapid economic development in Poland and noticeable, and the resulting growing demand for growing need for cement, coupled with the limitation of allowances for CO2 emissions in the period of 2008–2012 introduced by the European Commission. The reduction of pollution emissions, especially of CO2 , is a great challenge for Poland. The CO2 emissions rate in 2005 per Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for Poland amounted to 1196.6 tonnes/mln Euro, and for the EU–27–360.5 tonnes/mln Euro, thus, it was more than 230% greater than in the European Union. Whereas, CO2 emissions rate per primary energy unit amounts to 3.09 tonnes/toe, and in EU–27–2.18 tonnes/toe, thus, it was 42% greater than in the European Union (EETT, 2008). Reduction of CO2 emission factor per tonne of cement by in the period of 1988–2008 amounted to 28%. Emission factor in 1988 amounted to 0.879 tonnes of CO2 /tonne of cement and 1.1 tonnes of CO2 /tonne of clinker. Emission factor in 2008 amounted to 0.631
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Table 1 Owners and characteristic of cement plants in Poland (PCA, 2001–2009). Plants
Characteristic
Cement company/owner
Share in Polish market for cement sales in 2008 [%]
˙ ze ˙ Cement S.A. Górazd ˙ ze ˙ Cementownia Górazd Ekocem Sp. z o.o. Lafarge Cement Cementownia Małogoszcz Cementownia Kujawy ˙ Grupa Ozarów S.A. ˙ Grupa Ozarów Cementownia Rejowiec Dyckerhoff Polska Sp. z o.o. Cementownia Nowiny Cemex Polska sp. z o.o. Cementownia Chełm Cementownia Rudniki Cementownia Odra SA Górka Cement Cementownia Warta Cementownia Nowa Huta
Cement plant Grinding plant
HeidelbergCement
25
Cement plants
Lafarge
22
Cement plants
CRH
18
Cement plant
Dyckerhoff
Cement plants
Cemex
Cement plant Cement plant (producer of aluminous cement) Cement plant Cement plant
Miebach Mapei Polen Cement
tonnes of CO2 /tonne of cement and 0.865 tonnes of CO2 /tonne of clinker (PCA, 2001–2009).
2. Cement industry in Poland The cement industry in Poland is one of the most significant cement producers in Europe. In 2005 in Poland 12.3 million tonnes of cement were produced, which amounted to 0.49% of worldwide production of cement amounting to 2293 milliard tonnes. In 2006 14.6 million tonnes were produced, and in 2008 the production increased to almost 17 million tonnes (PCA, 2001–2009).
8 16
3 7 1
In 2008, in Poland, 36 cement types were produced, with the most important being: CEM II 32.5 and CEM I 42.5. The cement industry in Poland dates back 150 years. At present, in Poland, there are 11 cement plants producing cement in a complete manufacturing cycle, 1 cement grinding plant and 1 factory of alumina cement, belonging to: HeidelbergCement, Lafarge, CRH, Cemex, Dyckerhoff, Miebach, Polen Cement, Mapei (Table 1). The location of these cement plants has been presented in Fig. 1. In Poland there are 17 modern ‘dry method’ kilns as well as 6 kilns of ‘wet method’. A number of investment has recently been initiated which in the period of 3–4 years will increase the production an additional
Fig. 1. Location of cement plants (PCA, 2001–2009).
J. Deja et al. / International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control 4 (2010) 583–588
possibilities to 2.5 mln tonnes of cement over current levels of approximately 18.5 mln tonnes (PCA, 2001–2009).
3. CO2 emissions from cement industry CO2 emissions from cement industry make up to about 7% (IPCC, 2005) of global emissions and are estimated to 0.9–1.0 tonnes of CO2 /tonne of clinker, with heat demand of 3500–5000 MJ per tonne of clinker and depends on the type of combusted fuel (IPPC, 2001). The average emissions of CO2 have been estimated at 0.79 tonnes of CO2 /per tonne of cement (IPCC, 2005). CO2 in the processes of cement production is emitted in two primary direct sources: calcination of calcium carbonate and fuel combustion as well as two indirect sources: electric energy production used in cement plant and for the means of transport.
3.1. CO2 emissions from calcination of a raw material The technological process in cement industry, where the most CO2 is produced is the process of conversion (calcination) of calcium carbonate CaCO3 into calcium oxide CaO (Worell et al., 2001). Taking into consideration the emissions of CO2 from calcination, CO2 emissions from clinker production and the cement kiln dust (CKD) is also included (Vanderborght and Brodmann, 2001).
3.2. CO2 emissions from fuel combustion Practically the whole fuel is combusted during the process of clinker burning. The amount of emitted CO2 during this process is dependent on the fuel type. Hard coal is the traditional fuel used in cement industry. Other types of fuels are also used such as: petroleum coke, natural gas, fuel oil, as well as some other types of alternative fuels obtained from waste as well as biomass. CO2 emissions from the combustion of the carbon content of the fuel are directly proportional to the specific heat demand as well as the ratio of carbon content to the calorific value of the fuel (IPPC, 2001).
4. CO2 emissions from Polish cement industry Growing demand for cement forces cement industry to take actions in order to reduce CO2 emissions (Table 2). Presently, the so-called ‘branch emissions index’ for cement industry in Poland amounts to 0.662 tonnes CO2 per tonne of produced cement. The value of this index is already close to the lowest practically achievable emissions level (PCA, 2001–2009).
Table 2 Emission from Polish cement industry in kt (PCA, 2001–2009). Years
Clinker production
Cement production
CO2 emission
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
11974.00 11679.00 11566.0 9335.10 8751.1 8518.0 9354.9 9237.8 11163.1 13109.4 12380.3
14970.0 15403.0 15116.0 12264.8 11345.3 11009 11413.4 12268.3 14630.9 16796.7 16973.5
11165.6 11889.6 11359.1 8696.0 7824.0 7640.4 8171.6 8114.0 9705.5 11472.3 10456.6
585
5. Possibilities of emissions reduction in cement industry in the light of the measures of Polish cement industry The elementary measures recommended by Best Available Techniques in the Cement and Lime Manufacturing Industries are: reduction of fuel consumption, the selection of raw materials with low organic compounds content as well as fuels with low carbon proportion to heating value (IPPC, 2001). All actions connected with the improvement of energy efficiency of the cement production process cause the reduction of CO2 emissions. The use of maximum, acceptable by the binding standards amounts of waste as raw materials and additions for cement production substituting natural raw materials and clinker, also brings about the reduction of significant part of CO2 emissions (Roskovic´ and ´ 2005; Hendriks et al., 1998; Worell et al., 2001; Gartner, Bjegovic, 2004; Humphreys and Mahasenan, 2002). In recent years, research has been carried out on the possibility of separation and capture of CO2 from exhaust gas from cement plants (Baker et al., 2009; Davison, 2006; Gartner, 2004; Hegerland et al., 2006; IEA, 2008). Another trend is the production of calcium carbonate from the captured CO2 (Romeo et al., 2006) or via mineral carbonation of metallurgical slag with the use of acetic acid, which, thanks to substitution of natural raw materials, decreases CO2 emissions (Teir et al., 2007). The possibilities of CO2 emissions reduction are estimated as follows (Price, 2006): reduction of emissions via improvement of energy efficiency—8–28%; the use of fuels from waste—6–16%; the use of waste as raw materials and additives—7–13%. Polish cement industry endeavours to reduce CO2 emissions, most of all, through modernization of cement plants and improvement of energy efficiency, maximum, acceptable increase of waste use as raw materials as well as alternative fuels. 5.1. Reduction of emissions through improvement of energy efficiency Cement industry is aiming at reduction of CO2 emissions thanks to the limitation of energy consumption, through replacement of the old equipment with new one, less energy-consuming, improvement of cement kiln efficiency as well as replacement of energy-consuming ‘wet method’ with ‘dry’ and ‘semi-dry’ methods. Also, the improvement of fuel combustion processes in the kiln may contribute to savings of about 2–10% of fuel, depending on the kiln type (Venkateswaran and Lowitt, 1988). An important aspect of CO2 emissions reduction thanks to lowering energy consumption is the production of blended cements with the use of waste substituting clinker portion, which decreases consumption of unit thermal energy. Cement industry in Poland takes actions to modernize its factories as well as to substitute the energy-consuming ‘wet method’ with the ‘dry’ one (Table 3), limiting the energy consumption
Table 3 Share of wet and dry process of clinker production in Poland in % (PCA, 2001–2009; Uliasz-Bochenczyk et al., 2007). Year
Wet method
Dry method
1989 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
61 44 33 17 11 2 2 2 2 5
39 56 67 83 89 98 98 98 98 95
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Table 4 Consumption of unit gross heat energy in Polish cement industry in kJ/tonne of clinker (PCA, 2001–2009). Year
Consumption of unit gross heat energy
1990 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
5.72 4.10 3.889 3.770 3.480 3.405 3.455 3.499 3.641 3.639
(Tables 4 and 5), and as a result of that achieves CO2 emissions reduction. One of the examples of actions limiting the energy consumption and, at the same time, reducing CO2 emissions is the building of a modern dry technological line, completed in 2003 in Kujawy Cement Plant, that replaced the 3 older lines of wet process of cement production. This line is characterized by 60% lower fuel consumption and 30% smaller energy consumption (Lafarge, 2003). Another example of actions allowing to reduce CO2 emissions is the modernization of kiln no. 1 (completed in 2003) and kiln ˙ ze ˙ Cement Plant no. 2 (planned completion in 2010) in Górazd (HeidelbergCement, 2008). Kiln modernization has significantly reduced the consumption of unit thermal energy (18%) and electricity (10%). At the same time, thanks to these improvements, production of cement with the use of ‘wet method’ has been stopped in Strzelce Opolskie Cement Plant, which combined with decrease of heat energy consumption has reduced CO2 emissions. Modernization of kiln no. 2 production line includes modernization of systems for clinker burning together with its grinder and the construction of new machines, among others—new cement grinder and new slag drying house. The increase of cement production with blast-furnace slag addition allows to decline the indicator of clinker content in cement, and in fact, reduces use of natural raw materials and CO2 emissions per tonne of cement. It is also worth to mention the fact of building the biggest and ˙ modern rotary kiln in Ozarów Cement Plant (PCA, 2001–2009). The average electric energy consumption has decreased significantly from more than 105 kW h/tonnes of cement to 94.5 kW h/tonnes of cement (Table 5). What has caused this change is the fact that the grinding takes place in the mills operating in the so-called closed circuit. At present, in cement industry in Poland, there are working two high tech installations for cement grinding equipped with roller press (PCA, 2001–2009). At present, the average electric energy demand in Europe for production of cements CEM I is estimated at 105 kW h/tonnes. 5.2. Use of waste as raw materials and additives in cement production The most energy-consuming process in cement production is the production of clinker. Energy consumption constitutes over 90% Table 5 Consumption of unit electric energy in Polish cement industry in kW h/tonne of cement (PCA, 2001–2009). Year
Consumption of electric energy
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
105.0 105.0 102.6 101.0 101.0 95.0 94.5
Table 6 Total of waste used as raw materials for cement production in Polish cement industry in kt (PCA, 2001–2009). Year
Waste type Fly ashes
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Slags
Total
Additives for clinker production
Additives for cement production
1194.4 1407.8 1204.3 1193.4 1193.4 1257.2 1292.0 1505.1 1949.9 1973.4
249.6 345.5 266.4 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
944.8 1062.3 937.9 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
1117.6 1249.7 1201.7 1145.9 1145.9 1083.2 1209.5 1767.8 2058.8 2038.2
of the total consumed energy when producing cement (Martin et al., 1999), at the same time causes the greatest CO2 emissions (Worell et al., 2001). One of the basic methods of CO2 emissions reduction is the production of blended cements. According to a definition by ACI 116, Cement and Concrete Terminology—“blended cements are hydraulic cements produced by intergrinding portland cement clinker with the other materials or by blending portland cement with the other materials or a combination of intergrinding and blending” (SCA, 2003). The limitation of clinker production via its replacement with waste raw materials, leads to reduction of direct CO2 emissions from calcination process of the raw material and fuel combustion. Additionally, CO2 emissions related to production of energy needed for extraction and processing of natural raw materials undergoes reduction as well. Mineral waste is successfully employed by Polish cement industry as the component of raw materials combination for cement clinker production and as additives to cement (Table 6). However, the total amount of waste that can be used is limited, and its permissible amount as additives in cement production is determined by the standard—PN–EN 197–1 Cement. Part 1: Composition, requirements and criteria of accordance on cements of general use. This norm (PN–EN 197–1) allows the use of mineral supplements that is in the case of Poland-mineral waste—even to 55%. Cement industry in Poland is advantaged as it has great possibilities to use fly ash for cement production, because national professional power industry is based on coal combustion, and the prevailing combustion technology in professional energetics is fuel combustion in pulverized-fuel boilers. In the cement plants, there is also used the valuable waste of the iron and steel industry—ground granulated blast-furnace slag. Cement industry in Poland for many years has been trying to increase the used waste, and, at the same time, limit the energy consumption and CO2 emissions (Table 6). The increased amounts of waste used for cement production in 2008 combined with reduction of clinker production by 5.3% compared to 2007, have resulted in the reduction of CO2 emissions and at the same time, increase of cement production (Table 2). 5.3. Emissions trading One of the economic mechanisms of CO2 emissions reduction is the Emission Trading Scheme introduced in Poland in 2005. In Poland the Emission Trading Scheme is regulated according to three elementary acts:
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• Transfer of allowances act for emissions of greenhouse gases and other substances on 22 December 2004 (JL, 2004). • Regulation of the Council of Ministers, 1st July 2008, on approval of the National Allocation Plan for CO2 emissions, in the period of 2008–2012, for the European Union Emission Trading Scheme (JL, 2008). • Regulation of Minister of the Environment on 12 January 2006 on the methods of monitoring the quantities of emissions of substances included in the Community Emission Trading Scheme (JL, 2006). Polish cement industry has participated in the Scheme since 2005 and received 4.76% of emission trading allowances in the years 2005–2007. In the first phase of ETS 2005–2007 the total allocation for the cement sector amounted to 33.639 million of allowances for emissions, that is an average of 11.231 million of allowances a year. In this period the emissions from industry (Table 2) constituted, respectively: in 2005—72.2% of allocated allowances, in 2006—86.0% of allocated allowances, in 2007—101.4% of allocated allowances. On 14 November 2008, in Journal of Laws No. 202, item 1248 the Regulation of Council of Ministers was published dated on 1 July 2008 on National Plan on Dividing Allowances for CO2 emissions for the period of 2008–2012 in the Community Scheme of Emissions Trading. The total amount of allowances for CO2 emissions for the period of 2008–2012 in the cement industry comes to 54.5 million (exactly 54,509,555) (annex to the Regulation of Council of Ministers dated on 1st July, item 1248). The number of allowances as credits for CO2 emissions in cement industry has been reduced compared to the plan dated on 12 February 2008 providing for the installations for cement clinker production in rotary kilns 57.8 million (exactly 57,831,210) allowances. 5.4. Reduction of emissions as a result of capture of the emitted CO2 One of the possibilities of CO2 emissions reduction is its removal from exhaust gases. CO2 may be captured in calcination and fuel combustion processes, and then stored or utilized. Due to high CO2 content in the exhaust gases from calcination, oxy-fuel combustion (combustion in CO2 /O2 atmosphere) or capture after combustion with the use of amine absorption (Baker et al., 2009; Bosoaga et al., 2009; Davison, 2006; Hegerland et al., 2006; IEA, 2008; Price, 2006; Zeman, 2009) may be used for CO2 removal from cement production processes. Research conducted by Hegerland et al. (2006) indicated that for the operating cement plants the best method is the capture after combustion with the employment of amine absorption. The issue of capture of CO2 from exhaust gases from cement plants is being studied, and so far an economically and energetically profitable method has not been developed. 5.5. Binding of CO2 in concrete Taking into consideration the emissions of CO2 in cement industry another aspect needs to be considered as well. From the produced cement by the cement plants concrete is manufactured, which in natural conditions binds CO2 from the atmosphere (Martin et al., 1999). In this way, to some extent, the product of cement plant indirectly causes emissions reduction. 6. Summary Polish cement industry is taking large-scale measures allowing the CO2 emissions reduction. These actions are concerned with eco-
587
nomic as well as ecological aspects. Economic aspects are mainly: limitation of energy and fuel costs thanks to the introduction on a large-scale (98%) of less energy-consuming ‘dry method’, modernization of installations, introduction of alternative fuels, which consumption in recent years has considerably increased and the use of waste as raw materials and additives to cement. Owing to these measures CO2 emissions are also reduced. Polish cement industry reduced significantly the emissions factor per tonne of cement in the period of 1988–2008 by 28%. In 1988 the factor amounted to 0.879 tonnes CO2 /tonnes of cement and 1.1 tonnes CO2 /tonnes of clinker, while in 2008, respectively 0.631 tonnes CO2 /tonnes of cement and 0.865 tonnes CO2 /tonnes of clinker. Additionally, the introduction of Emission Trading Scheme forces cement industry to take actions, so as to limit the emissions of CO2 . That is why, studies on different CO2 emissions reduction technologies are carried out. They include: research on the possibility of separation and capture of CO2 from exhaust gases from cement plants (Hegerland et al., 2006), studies on production of calcium carbonate captured from CO2 (Romeo et al., 2006) or via mineral carbonation of metallurgical slag with the use of acetic acid (Teir et al., 2007). However, the basic method of emissions reduction still remains the same, that is the decrease of energy consumption of the whole process as well as clinker replacement, as its calcination process constitutes the majority of CO2 emissions, in cement contents with mineral supplements.
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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijggc
CO2 emissions from Polish cement industry Jan Deja a , Alicja Uliasz-Bochenczyk b,∗ , Eugeniusz Mokrzycki b a b
AGH University of Science and Technology, Mickiewicza 30 av., 30-059 Krakow, Poland Mineral and Energy Economy Research Institute of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Wybickiego 7, 31-261 Krakow, Poland
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 1 December 2008 Received in revised form 1 February 2010 Accepted 11 February 2010 Available online 11 March 2010 Keywords: CO2 emissions Cement industry CO2 emissions reduction Poland Emissions trading
a b s t r a c t The cement industry is one of the most significant sources of anthropogenic emissions of CO2 . It is connected with the specific character of the production processes, during which great quantities of CO2 are produced. Basic actions to reduce CO2 emissions recommended by the European Union’s, Reference Document on Best Available Techniques in the Cement and Lime Manufacturing Industries, include: reduction of fuel consumption, selection of raw materials with low content of organic compounds and fuels with low coal contribution to heating value. All actions connected with the improvement of energy conversion efficiency of the cement production process cause CO2 emissions reduction. The use of at most acceptable by the valid standards amounts of waste as raw materials and additives for cement production, also brings about the reduction of significant part of CO2 emissions. These measures have been and continue to be pursued by the cement factories in Poland. This article describes the evolution of the cement industry in Poland over the period 1998–2008 and the resulting changes in CO2 emissions and explores the drivers for these changes. The sources of CO2 emissions in cement industry have been presented in this article as well as a discussion of potential ways to reduce Polish cement industry emissions even further. © 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction The cement industry is one of the most significant sources of anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2 ), amounting to around 7% of worldwide emissions (IPCC, 2005). The high emissions of CO2 are connected with cement production technology. The elementary sources of CO2 emissions from cement industry are: raw material calcination and fuel combustion. It has been estimated that, on average for cement plants around the world, CO2 emissions from the process of calcination amounts to about 50%, while from fuel combustion about 40% of total emissions (Humphreys and Mahasenan, 2002). Currently for the cement plants in Poland the emissions from calcination process amounts to 62%, and from fuel combustion 38%. Emissions of CO2 from these two processes are called direct emissions. The sources of indirect emissions (around 10% of emissions from cement plant) from cement industry result from transportation, electricity used within the cement plant as well as upstream extraction of fossil fuels and mineral raw materials (Vanderborght and Brodmann, 2001). Emissions of CO2 in the process of cement production depends mainly from: type of production process, type of the used fuel as well as the clinker/cement ratio that is the proportional content of additives (Hendriks et al., 1998).
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +48 126323300; fax: +48 124233624. E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Uliasz-Bochenczyk). 1750-5836/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.ijggc.2010.02.002
Poland has signed the Kyoto Protocol that commits all the countries that ratify this protocol, to reduce their greenhouse gases emissions in the period of 2008–2012 by 5% below their 1990 levels. The reductions have been specified for each country and vary from 8% for European Union and associated countries (except Poland and Hungary), 7% for the United States, 6% for Japan, Canada, Hungary and Poland, 0% for Russia and Ukraine. In this way, Poland has committed to reduce its CO2 emissions. The problem of reduction of CO2 emissions from cement industry is particularly important when considering recent rapid economic development in Poland and noticeable, and the resulting growing demand for growing need for cement, coupled with the limitation of allowances for CO2 emissions in the period of 2008–2012 introduced by the European Commission. The reduction of pollution emissions, especially of CO2 , is a great challenge for Poland. The CO2 emissions rate in 2005 per Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for Poland amounted to 1196.6 tonnes/mln Euro, and for the EU–27–360.5 tonnes/mln Euro, thus, it was more than 230% greater than in the European Union. Whereas, CO2 emissions rate per primary energy unit amounts to 3.09 tonnes/toe, and in EU–27–2.18 tonnes/toe, thus, it was 42% greater than in the European Union (EETT, 2008). Reduction of CO2 emission factor per tonne of cement by in the period of 1988–2008 amounted to 28%. Emission factor in 1988 amounted to 0.879 tonnes of CO2 /tonne of cement and 1.1 tonnes of CO2 /tonne of clinker. Emission factor in 2008 amounted to 0.631
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Table 1 Owners and characteristic of cement plants in Poland (PCA, 2001–2009). Plants
Characteristic
Cement company/owner
Share in Polish market for cement sales in 2008 [%]
˙ ze ˙ Cement S.A. Górazd ˙ ze ˙ Cementownia Górazd Ekocem Sp. z o.o. Lafarge Cement Cementownia Małogoszcz Cementownia Kujawy ˙ Grupa Ozarów S.A. ˙ Grupa Ozarów Cementownia Rejowiec Dyckerhoff Polska Sp. z o.o. Cementownia Nowiny Cemex Polska sp. z o.o. Cementownia Chełm Cementownia Rudniki Cementownia Odra SA Górka Cement Cementownia Warta Cementownia Nowa Huta
Cement plant Grinding plant
HeidelbergCement
25
Cement plants
Lafarge
22
Cement plants
CRH
18
Cement plant
Dyckerhoff
Cement plants
Cemex
Cement plant Cement plant (producer of aluminous cement) Cement plant Cement plant
Miebach Mapei Polen Cement
tonnes of CO2 /tonne of cement and 0.865 tonnes of CO2 /tonne of clinker (PCA, 2001–2009).
2. Cement industry in Poland The cement industry in Poland is one of the most significant cement producers in Europe. In 2005 in Poland 12.3 million tonnes of cement were produced, which amounted to 0.49% of worldwide production of cement amounting to 2293 milliard tonnes. In 2006 14.6 million tonnes were produced, and in 2008 the production increased to almost 17 million tonnes (PCA, 2001–2009).
8 16
3 7 1
In 2008, in Poland, 36 cement types were produced, with the most important being: CEM II 32.5 and CEM I 42.5. The cement industry in Poland dates back 150 years. At present, in Poland, there are 11 cement plants producing cement in a complete manufacturing cycle, 1 cement grinding plant and 1 factory of alumina cement, belonging to: HeidelbergCement, Lafarge, CRH, Cemex, Dyckerhoff, Miebach, Polen Cement, Mapei (Table 1). The location of these cement plants has been presented in Fig. 1. In Poland there are 17 modern ‘dry method’ kilns as well as 6 kilns of ‘wet method’. A number of investment has recently been initiated which in the period of 3–4 years will increase the production an additional
Fig. 1. Location of cement plants (PCA, 2001–2009).
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possibilities to 2.5 mln tonnes of cement over current levels of approximately 18.5 mln tonnes (PCA, 2001–2009).
3. CO2 emissions from cement industry CO2 emissions from cement industry make up to about 7% (IPCC, 2005) of global emissions and are estimated to 0.9–1.0 tonnes of CO2 /tonne of clinker, with heat demand of 3500–5000 MJ per tonne of clinker and depends on the type of combusted fuel (IPPC, 2001). The average emissions of CO2 have been estimated at 0.79 tonnes of CO2 /per tonne of cement (IPCC, 2005). CO2 in the processes of cement production is emitted in two primary direct sources: calcination of calcium carbonate and fuel combustion as well as two indirect sources: electric energy production used in cement plant and for the means of transport.
3.1. CO2 emissions from calcination of a raw material The technological process in cement industry, where the most CO2 is produced is the process of conversion (calcination) of calcium carbonate CaCO3 into calcium oxide CaO (Worell et al., 2001). Taking into consideration the emissions of CO2 from calcination, CO2 emissions from clinker production and the cement kiln dust (CKD) is also included (Vanderborght and Brodmann, 2001).
3.2. CO2 emissions from fuel combustion Practically the whole fuel is combusted during the process of clinker burning. The amount of emitted CO2 during this process is dependent on the fuel type. Hard coal is the traditional fuel used in cement industry. Other types of fuels are also used such as: petroleum coke, natural gas, fuel oil, as well as some other types of alternative fuels obtained from waste as well as biomass. CO2 emissions from the combustion of the carbon content of the fuel are directly proportional to the specific heat demand as well as the ratio of carbon content to the calorific value of the fuel (IPPC, 2001).
4. CO2 emissions from Polish cement industry Growing demand for cement forces cement industry to take actions in order to reduce CO2 emissions (Table 2). Presently, the so-called ‘branch emissions index’ for cement industry in Poland amounts to 0.662 tonnes CO2 per tonne of produced cement. The value of this index is already close to the lowest practically achievable emissions level (PCA, 2001–2009).
Table 2 Emission from Polish cement industry in kt (PCA, 2001–2009). Years
Clinker production
Cement production
CO2 emission
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
11974.00 11679.00 11566.0 9335.10 8751.1 8518.0 9354.9 9237.8 11163.1 13109.4 12380.3
14970.0 15403.0 15116.0 12264.8 11345.3 11009 11413.4 12268.3 14630.9 16796.7 16973.5
11165.6 11889.6 11359.1 8696.0 7824.0 7640.4 8171.6 8114.0 9705.5 11472.3 10456.6
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5. Possibilities of emissions reduction in cement industry in the light of the measures of Polish cement industry The elementary measures recommended by Best Available Techniques in the Cement and Lime Manufacturing Industries are: reduction of fuel consumption, the selection of raw materials with low organic compounds content as well as fuels with low carbon proportion to heating value (IPPC, 2001). All actions connected with the improvement of energy efficiency of the cement production process cause the reduction of CO2 emissions. The use of maximum, acceptable by the binding standards amounts of waste as raw materials and additions for cement production substituting natural raw materials and clinker, also brings about the reduction of significant part of CO2 emissions (Roskovic´ and ´ 2005; Hendriks et al., 1998; Worell et al., 2001; Gartner, Bjegovic, 2004; Humphreys and Mahasenan, 2002). In recent years, research has been carried out on the possibility of separation and capture of CO2 from exhaust gas from cement plants (Baker et al., 2009; Davison, 2006; Gartner, 2004; Hegerland et al., 2006; IEA, 2008). Another trend is the production of calcium carbonate from the captured CO2 (Romeo et al., 2006) or via mineral carbonation of metallurgical slag with the use of acetic acid, which, thanks to substitution of natural raw materials, decreases CO2 emissions (Teir et al., 2007). The possibilities of CO2 emissions reduction are estimated as follows (Price, 2006): reduction of emissions via improvement of energy efficiency—8–28%; the use of fuels from waste—6–16%; the use of waste as raw materials and additives—7–13%. Polish cement industry endeavours to reduce CO2 emissions, most of all, through modernization of cement plants and improvement of energy efficiency, maximum, acceptable increase of waste use as raw materials as well as alternative fuels. 5.1. Reduction of emissions through improvement of energy efficiency Cement industry is aiming at reduction of CO2 emissions thanks to the limitation of energy consumption, through replacement of the old equipment with new one, less energy-consuming, improvement of cement kiln efficiency as well as replacement of energy-consuming ‘wet method’ with ‘dry’ and ‘semi-dry’ methods. Also, the improvement of fuel combustion processes in the kiln may contribute to savings of about 2–10% of fuel, depending on the kiln type (Venkateswaran and Lowitt, 1988). An important aspect of CO2 emissions reduction thanks to lowering energy consumption is the production of blended cements with the use of waste substituting clinker portion, which decreases consumption of unit thermal energy. Cement industry in Poland takes actions to modernize its factories as well as to substitute the energy-consuming ‘wet method’ with the ‘dry’ one (Table 3), limiting the energy consumption
Table 3 Share of wet and dry process of clinker production in Poland in % (PCA, 2001–2009; Uliasz-Bochenczyk et al., 2007). Year
Wet method
Dry method
1989 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
61 44 33 17 11 2 2 2 2 5
39 56 67 83 89 98 98 98 98 95
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Table 4 Consumption of unit gross heat energy in Polish cement industry in kJ/tonne of clinker (PCA, 2001–2009). Year
Consumption of unit gross heat energy
1990 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
5.72 4.10 3.889 3.770 3.480 3.405 3.455 3.499 3.641 3.639
(Tables 4 and 5), and as a result of that achieves CO2 emissions reduction. One of the examples of actions limiting the energy consumption and, at the same time, reducing CO2 emissions is the building of a modern dry technological line, completed in 2003 in Kujawy Cement Plant, that replaced the 3 older lines of wet process of cement production. This line is characterized by 60% lower fuel consumption and 30% smaller energy consumption (Lafarge, 2003). Another example of actions allowing to reduce CO2 emissions is the modernization of kiln no. 1 (completed in 2003) and kiln ˙ ze ˙ Cement Plant no. 2 (planned completion in 2010) in Górazd (HeidelbergCement, 2008). Kiln modernization has significantly reduced the consumption of unit thermal energy (18%) and electricity (10%). At the same time, thanks to these improvements, production of cement with the use of ‘wet method’ has been stopped in Strzelce Opolskie Cement Plant, which combined with decrease of heat energy consumption has reduced CO2 emissions. Modernization of kiln no. 2 production line includes modernization of systems for clinker burning together with its grinder and the construction of new machines, among others—new cement grinder and new slag drying house. The increase of cement production with blast-furnace slag addition allows to decline the indicator of clinker content in cement, and in fact, reduces use of natural raw materials and CO2 emissions per tonne of cement. It is also worth to mention the fact of building the biggest and ˙ modern rotary kiln in Ozarów Cement Plant (PCA, 2001–2009). The average electric energy consumption has decreased significantly from more than 105 kW h/tonnes of cement to 94.5 kW h/tonnes of cement (Table 5). What has caused this change is the fact that the grinding takes place in the mills operating in the so-called closed circuit. At present, in cement industry in Poland, there are working two high tech installations for cement grinding equipped with roller press (PCA, 2001–2009). At present, the average electric energy demand in Europe for production of cements CEM I is estimated at 105 kW h/tonnes. 5.2. Use of waste as raw materials and additives in cement production The most energy-consuming process in cement production is the production of clinker. Energy consumption constitutes over 90% Table 5 Consumption of unit electric energy in Polish cement industry in kW h/tonne of cement (PCA, 2001–2009). Year
Consumption of electric energy
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
105.0 105.0 102.6 101.0 101.0 95.0 94.5
Table 6 Total of waste used as raw materials for cement production in Polish cement industry in kt (PCA, 2001–2009). Year
Waste type Fly ashes
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Slags
Total
Additives for clinker production
Additives for cement production
1194.4 1407.8 1204.3 1193.4 1193.4 1257.2 1292.0 1505.1 1949.9 1973.4
249.6 345.5 266.4 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
944.8 1062.3 937.9 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
1117.6 1249.7 1201.7 1145.9 1145.9 1083.2 1209.5 1767.8 2058.8 2038.2
of the total consumed energy when producing cement (Martin et al., 1999), at the same time causes the greatest CO2 emissions (Worell et al., 2001). One of the basic methods of CO2 emissions reduction is the production of blended cements. According to a definition by ACI 116, Cement and Concrete Terminology—“blended cements are hydraulic cements produced by intergrinding portland cement clinker with the other materials or by blending portland cement with the other materials or a combination of intergrinding and blending” (SCA, 2003). The limitation of clinker production via its replacement with waste raw materials, leads to reduction of direct CO2 emissions from calcination process of the raw material and fuel combustion. Additionally, CO2 emissions related to production of energy needed for extraction and processing of natural raw materials undergoes reduction as well. Mineral waste is successfully employed by Polish cement industry as the component of raw materials combination for cement clinker production and as additives to cement (Table 6). However, the total amount of waste that can be used is limited, and its permissible amount as additives in cement production is determined by the standard—PN–EN 197–1 Cement. Part 1: Composition, requirements and criteria of accordance on cements of general use. This norm (PN–EN 197–1) allows the use of mineral supplements that is in the case of Poland-mineral waste—even to 55%. Cement industry in Poland is advantaged as it has great possibilities to use fly ash for cement production, because national professional power industry is based on coal combustion, and the prevailing combustion technology in professional energetics is fuel combustion in pulverized-fuel boilers. In the cement plants, there is also used the valuable waste of the iron and steel industry—ground granulated blast-furnace slag. Cement industry in Poland for many years has been trying to increase the used waste, and, at the same time, limit the energy consumption and CO2 emissions (Table 6). The increased amounts of waste used for cement production in 2008 combined with reduction of clinker production by 5.3% compared to 2007, have resulted in the reduction of CO2 emissions and at the same time, increase of cement production (Table 2). 5.3. Emissions trading One of the economic mechanisms of CO2 emissions reduction is the Emission Trading Scheme introduced in Poland in 2005. In Poland the Emission Trading Scheme is regulated according to three elementary acts:
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• Transfer of allowances act for emissions of greenhouse gases and other substances on 22 December 2004 (JL, 2004). • Regulation of the Council of Ministers, 1st July 2008, on approval of the National Allocation Plan for CO2 emissions, in the period of 2008–2012, for the European Union Emission Trading Scheme (JL, 2008). • Regulation of Minister of the Environment on 12 January 2006 on the methods of monitoring the quantities of emissions of substances included in the Community Emission Trading Scheme (JL, 2006). Polish cement industry has participated in the Scheme since 2005 and received 4.76% of emission trading allowances in the years 2005–2007. In the first phase of ETS 2005–2007 the total allocation for the cement sector amounted to 33.639 million of allowances for emissions, that is an average of 11.231 million of allowances a year. In this period the emissions from industry (Table 2) constituted, respectively: in 2005—72.2% of allocated allowances, in 2006—86.0% of allocated allowances, in 2007—101.4% of allocated allowances. On 14 November 2008, in Journal of Laws No. 202, item 1248 the Regulation of Council of Ministers was published dated on 1 July 2008 on National Plan on Dividing Allowances for CO2 emissions for the period of 2008–2012 in the Community Scheme of Emissions Trading. The total amount of allowances for CO2 emissions for the period of 2008–2012 in the cement industry comes to 54.5 million (exactly 54,509,555) (annex to the Regulation of Council of Ministers dated on 1st July, item 1248). The number of allowances as credits for CO2 emissions in cement industry has been reduced compared to the plan dated on 12 February 2008 providing for the installations for cement clinker production in rotary kilns 57.8 million (exactly 57,831,210) allowances. 5.4. Reduction of emissions as a result of capture of the emitted CO2 One of the possibilities of CO2 emissions reduction is its removal from exhaust gases. CO2 may be captured in calcination and fuel combustion processes, and then stored or utilized. Due to high CO2 content in the exhaust gases from calcination, oxy-fuel combustion (combustion in CO2 /O2 atmosphere) or capture after combustion with the use of amine absorption (Baker et al., 2009; Bosoaga et al., 2009; Davison, 2006; Hegerland et al., 2006; IEA, 2008; Price, 2006; Zeman, 2009) may be used for CO2 removal from cement production processes. Research conducted by Hegerland et al. (2006) indicated that for the operating cement plants the best method is the capture after combustion with the employment of amine absorption. The issue of capture of CO2 from exhaust gases from cement plants is being studied, and so far an economically and energetically profitable method has not been developed. 5.5. Binding of CO2 in concrete Taking into consideration the emissions of CO2 in cement industry another aspect needs to be considered as well. From the produced cement by the cement plants concrete is manufactured, which in natural conditions binds CO2 from the atmosphere (Martin et al., 1999). In this way, to some extent, the product of cement plant indirectly causes emissions reduction. 6. Summary Polish cement industry is taking large-scale measures allowing the CO2 emissions reduction. These actions are concerned with eco-
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nomic as well as ecological aspects. Economic aspects are mainly: limitation of energy and fuel costs thanks to the introduction on a large-scale (98%) of less energy-consuming ‘dry method’, modernization of installations, introduction of alternative fuels, which consumption in recent years has considerably increased and the use of waste as raw materials and additives to cement. Owing to these measures CO2 emissions are also reduced. Polish cement industry reduced significantly the emissions factor per tonne of cement in the period of 1988–2008 by 28%. In 1988 the factor amounted to 0.879 tonnes CO2 /tonnes of cement and 1.1 tonnes CO2 /tonnes of clinker, while in 2008, respectively 0.631 tonnes CO2 /tonnes of cement and 0.865 tonnes CO2 /tonnes of clinker. Additionally, the introduction of Emission Trading Scheme forces cement industry to take actions, so as to limit the emissions of CO2 . That is why, studies on different CO2 emissions reduction technologies are carried out. They include: research on the possibility of separation and capture of CO2 from exhaust gases from cement plants (Hegerland et al., 2006), studies on production of calcium carbonate captured from CO2 (Romeo et al., 2006) or via mineral carbonation of metallurgical slag with the use of acetic acid (Teir et al., 2007). However, the basic method of emissions reduction still remains the same, that is the decrease of energy consumption of the whole process as well as clinker replacement, as its calcination process constitutes the majority of CO2 emissions, in cement contents with mineral supplements.
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