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Coffee Consumption and Neglected Risk-Benefits on Health and Disease
C H A P T E R
54
Coffee Consumption and Neglected Risk-Benefits on Health and Disease Elena Alonzo1, Francesca M. Trovato2, Daniela Catalano2, Guglielmo M. Trovato2 1Servizio
SIAN, ASP 3 Catania, Regione Sicilia, Catania, Italy; 2Department of Internal Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
54.1 INTRODUCTION There are several conditions and diseases that are not sufficiently addressed by clinical and epidemiological research dealing with coffee habits. These conditions and diseases, nonetheless, usually have beliefs and biases implied in the counseling of coffee use and limitations. In this chapter, we consider surgery and anesthesiarelated conditions, pregnancy, childbearing and infancy, fertility and sexual-related ailments, menopause, and thyroid and respiratory diseases (mainly asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)) and their relation to coffee habits. Moreover, infectious diseases, including malaria and AIDS; anemia and other hematological conditions; migraine and vertigo; and stroke and its neurological consequences are discussed. A special topic is sport and exercise medicine and occupational aspects of coffee use, regarding its relationship with age and sex. The two perspectives, epidemiological-preventive and clinical-therapeutical, are strictly articulated, and the consequent obvious difficulties are due to the shortage of available information for several of the above-mentioned diseases or conditions in their relationship with diet.
54.2 SURGICAL AND ANESTHESIARELATED CONDITIONS (FIGURE 54.1) In an elegant study, Müller et al.1 reported that postoperative espresso coffee consumption is a cheap and safe way to activate bowel motility after elective colonic surgery. They appropriately report that caffeinated coffee stimulates colonic motor activity, with a magnitude Coffee in Health and Disease Prevention http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-409517-5.00054-1
similar to a meal; the effect also was 60% stronger than water and 23% stronger than decaffeinated coffee2 in normal people.3 Coffee also stimulates gallbladder contraction, with likely effects on colonic motor activity,4 and is perceived to soften stools in populations of German individuals.5 In their study, Muller et al. allowed patients in the treatment (coffee) arm to drink three cups of coffee daily (100 ml at 08.00, 12.00, and 16.00 h), beginning on the morning after surgery, using standard quality and quantity espresso coffee. Even with the efforts of ensuring uniformity and good quality of the beverage provided, two limitations are present in this study. Despite that preoperative data, including coffee drinking and smoking habits, were obtained, it could be important to know whether preoperatively coffee drinkers versus noncoffee drinkers have different outcomes, i.e., different times of appearance of intestinal activity. It is also likely that withdrawing coffee in subjects that were previously coffee drinkers could have some negative effect, and possibly not actual advantages. A further comparison could be between the quantity of coffee used before the intervention and that actually given postoperatively, to consider whether this variable could be included in a regression model. The challenge of Muller et al. is very important; they worked with a randomized trial in a no-man’s land. Other studies are present in the fields of surgery and perioperative management. The wisdom of withholding clear liquids for more than 3 h before elective surgery was challenged in the United States6 and also in Europe.7 Moreover, it was shown that prophylactic administration of caffeine, to daily caffeine users, decreases the frequency of postoperative headache and shortens recovery time,8 without any special untoward effect. In medical practice, a beneficial effect
493
© 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
494
54. COFFEE CONSUMPTION AND NEGLECTED RISK-BENEFITS ON HEALTH AND DISEASE
FIGURE 54.1 Coffee consumption and neglected risk-benefits on health and disease. Surgery and possible benefits: activation of bowel motility after elective colonic surgery, decrease of the frequency of postoperative headache, shortening of recovery time, and decrease of postoperative urinary retention.
of caffeine on postoperative urinary retention after joint replacement surgery has been reported.9
Enhance alcohol’s negative effect on pregnancy
54.3 PREGNANCY, FERTILITY, AND SEXUAL-RELATED AILMENTS (FIGURE 54.2) Pregnancy is a period of concern for any food and beverage intake, including coffee. There is no evidence of unfavorable effects of coffee in pregnant women; caution is warranted when considering other coexisting conditions, but not pregnancy per se. Safety of dietary caffeine consumption during pregnancy, particularly at levels of 300 mg/day or greater, is debated. There is some evidence of an increased risk of spontaneous abortion with caffeine consumption; but, overall, this risk seems related to levels of 300 mg/day or more from all sources. Therefore, consumption of one to two cups of coffee per day is not expected to be a concern.10 The first report of decreased fertility, even in a light coffee consumer,11 is not fully confirmed.12,13 It was reported that caffeine consumption did not independently affect the probability of conception but may enhance alcohol’s negative effect.14 In men, frequent coffee drinking was shown to enhance sperm motility,15 and these different sex-associated effects were subsequently confirmed.16
54.4 MENOPAUSE An unfavorable effect of caffeine on bone density has been reported.17–19 Nonetheless, a very robust epidemiological study20 confirms that high coffee consumption was associated with a small reduction in bone density that did not translate into an increased risk of fracture.
Increased odds for gestational age newborns
Coffee consumption
Increased gestational length
Decreased body weight
FIGURE 54.2 Coffee consumption and neglected risk-benefits on health and disease. Obstetrics and cautions: coffee may enhance alcohol’s negative effect on pregnancy, marginally increase gestational length, decrease body weight, and increase odds of small-for-gestational age newborns.
Also, metabolic effects of coffee use in menopause are complex and variously articulated: the combination of coffee consumption and hormone replacement therapy lowers insulin resistance in postmenopausal women. In overweight women, greater insulin sensitivity is associated with intake of espresso coffee and not with hormone replacement therapy, whereas in normal-weight women, only hormone replacement therapy is associated with lower insulin resistance.21 This finding suggests that the use of coffee is particularly warranted in
II. EFFECTS OF COFFEE CONSUMPTION
495
54.11 Summary Points
obese-overweight menopause women to counteract one of the components of metabolic syndrome.
54.5 CHILDBEARING AND INFANCY (FIGURE 54.2) Despite some alarm, no evidence supports any teratogenic effect of coffee in humans. The epidemiologic evidence is not adequate to assess the possibility of a small change in risk of congenital anomalies resulting from maternal caffeine consumption,22 and there is insufficient evidence to confirm or refute the effectiveness of caffeine avoidance on birth weight or other pregnancy outcomes.23 Coffee, but not caffeine, consumption was associated with marginally increased gestational length, but not with spontaneous preterm delivery risk. Caffeine intake was consistently associated with decreased body weight and increased odds of small-for-gestational age newborns. The association was strengthened by concordant results for caffeine sources, time of survey, and different small-for-gestational age definitions. This might have clinical implications as even caffeine consumption below the recommended maximum (200 mg/day in the Nordic countries and the United States, 300 mg/day according to the World Health Organization) was associated with increased risk for small-for-gestational age newborns.24 In contrast, socioeconomic factors and smoking may be of importance to the risk of shorter breastfeeding exclusively for less than 4 months, whereas coffee consumption is not.25,26 Moreover, caffeine consumption during pregnancy and by nursing mothers seems not to have consequences on sleep of infants at the age of 3 months.27 Overall, the use of coffee in pregnancy should not be encouraged because no definite information is available in different population, and ongoing study should clarify risk-benefit.
54.6 INFECTIOUS DISEASE Limited information is available on the relationship of coffee use and infectious disease; nonetheless, one study claims that greater coffee consumption and daily chocolate intake is associated with normal liver enzymes in HIV– HCV-infected individuals.28 This finding is in agreement with studies that report beneficial effects of coffee on liver.
54.7 RESPIRATORY DISEASE (ASTHMA AND COPD) Because caffeine intake has a bronchodilator effect in asthma, the epidemiological evidence that long-term moderate coffee consumption may not only reduce symptoms
but also prevent the clinical manifestation of bronchial asthma seems to have some relevance.29 Moreover, coffee contains polyphenolic antioxidants and caffeine that may favorably affect pulmonary function, and the possible beneficial effects of coffee (or a coffee component) on pulmonary function, seemingly limited to nonsmokers, were reported in a very large epidemiological study.30 The findings were further supported by a randomized controlled trial that reported that honey plus coffee versus a systemic steroid is equally or more effective in the treatment of persistent postinfectious cough.31
54.8 DENTISTRY Few studies are available regarding coffee use and dentistry. Some concern is for the possibility that coffee use impairs repair processes and that this impairment might be accentuated by exposure to both cigarette smoke inhalation and coffee consumption.32
54.9 OCCUPATIONAL DISEASE Relationships between physical performance and coffee use are very complex.33 The most relevant information is associated with the seemingly beneficial effects. Marked sleepiness occurs during typical nightshift work hours, and this reduced alertness is associated with marked performance deficits.34 Locomotive train drivers on irregular work schedules report a general high coffee consumption that correlated with longer sleep latency, increased negative mood, and decreased positive mood on both work and nonwork days.35 Caffeine effects are more pronounced in fatigued than in the well-rested subjects, indicating that the effects of caffeine are dependent on the rest state of the subject,36 and effect that is considered potentially useful.37–40
54.10 CONCLUSIONS Ongoing research will provide more information on the effects of coffee and caffeine in the conditions and diseases discussed herein and in other neglected aspects of health and disease.
54.11 SUMMARY POINTS • S urgery and anesthesia-related conditions are not straightforward contraindications to the use of coffee, and in some situations, coffee can be beneficial.
II. EFFECTS OF COFFEE CONSUMPTION
496
54. COFFEE CONSUMPTION AND NEGLECTED RISK-BENEFITS ON HEALTH AND DISEASE
• P regnancy, childbearing, and infancy are conditions in which it is warranted to abstain from coffee habits for fertility reasons. • Sexually related ailments and thyroid and respiratory diseases have no direct coffee-related effects. • Coffee has possible beneficial effects in menopause. • As a limitation, coffee could have the role of a behavioral marker and probably as a promoter of healthy nutritional profile and lifestyle.
References 1. Müller SA, Rahbari NN, Schneider F, Warschkow R, Simon T, von Frankenberg M, et al. Randomized clinical trial on the effect of coffee on postoperative ileus following elective colectomy. Br J Surg 2012;99:1530–8. 2. Rao SS, Welcher K, Zimmerman B, Stumbo P. Is coffee a colonic stimulant? Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 1998;10:113–8. 3. Brown SR, Cann PA, Read NW. Effect of coffee on distal colon function. Gut 1990;31:450–3. 4. Boekema PJ, Samsom M, van Berge Henegouwen GP, Smout AJ. Coffee and gastrointestinal function: facts and fiction. A review. Scand J Gastroenterol Suppl 1999;230:35–9. 5. Müller-Lissner SA, Kaatz V, Brandt W, Keller J, Layer P. The perceived effect of various foods and beverages on stool consistency. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2005;17:109–12. 6. Green CR, Pandit SK, Schork MA. Preoperative fasting time: is the traditional policy changing? Results of a national survey. Anesth Analg 1996;83:123–8. 7. Hofer CK, Zollinger A, Tucci M, van Gessel E, Alon E, Klaghofer R. Is traditional fasting policy changing? Results of a Swiss survey on current practice. Eur J Anaesthesiol 2002;19:894–6. 8. Weber JG, Klindworth JT, Arnold JJ, Danielson DR, Ereth MH. Prophylactic intravenous administration of caffeine and recovery after ambulatory surgical procedures. Mayo Clin Proc 1997;72:621–6. 9. Leach D, Spaulding J, Thomas J, Conn C, Kutash M. The effect of caffeine on postoperative urinary retention after joint replacement surgery. Orthop Nurs 2013;32:282–5. 10. Morgan S, Koren G, Bozzo P. Is caffeine consumption safe during pregnancy? Can Fam Physician 2013;59:361–2. 11. Wilcox A, Weinberg C, Baird D. Caffeinated beverages and decreased fertility. Lancet 1988;2:1453–6. 12. Joesoef MR, Beral V, Rolfs RT, Aral SO, Cramer DW. Are caffeinated beverages risk factors for delayed conception? Lancet 1990;335:136–7. 13. Bolúmar F, Olsen J, Rebagliato M, Bisanti L. Caffeine intake and delayed conception: a European multicenter study on infertility and subfecundity. European Study Group on Infertility Subfecundity. Am J Epidemiol 1997;145:324–34. 14. Hakim RB, Gray RH, Zacur H. Alcohol and caffeine consumption and decreased fertility. Fertil Steril 1998;70:632–7. 15. Adelusi B, al-Twaijiri MH, al-Meshari A, Kangave D, al-Nuaim LA, Younnus B. Correlation of smoking and coffee drinking with sperm progressive motility in infertile males. Afr J Med Med Sci 1998;27:47–50. 16. Klonoff-Cohen H, Bleha J, Lam-Kruglick P. A prospective study of the effects of female and male caffeine consumption on the reproductive endpoints of IVF and gamete intra-Fallopian transfer. Hum Reprod 2002;17:1746–54.
17. Hernández-Avila M, Stampfer MJ, Ravnikar VA, Willett WC, Schiff I, Francis M, et al. Caffeine and other predictors of bone density among pre- and perimenopausal women. Epidemiology 1993;4:128–34. 18. Rapuri PB, Gallagher JC, Kinyamu HK, Ryschon KL. Caffeine intake increases the rate of bone loss in elderly women and interacts with vitamin D receptor genotypes. Am J Clin Nutr 2001;74:694–700. 19. Rico H, Canal ML, Mañas P, Lavado JM, Costa C, Pedrera JD. Effects of caffeine, vitamin D, and other nutrients on quantitative phalangeal bone ultrasound in postmenopausal women. Nutrition 2002;18:189–93. 20. Hallström H, Byberg L, Glynn A, Lemming EW, Wolk A, Michaëlsson K. Long-term coffee consumption in relation to fracture risk and bone mineral density in women. Am J Epidemiol 2013;178:898–909. 21. Catalano D, Trovato GM, Spadaro D, Martines GF, Garufi G, Tonzuso A, et al. Insulin resistance in postmenopausal women: concurrent effects of hormone replacement therapy and coffee. Climacteric 2008;11:373–82. 22. Browne ML. Maternal exposure to caffeine and risk of congenital anomalies: a systematic review. Epidemiology 2006;17:324–31. 23. Jahanfar S, Jaafar SH. Effects of restricted caffeine intake by mother on fetal, neonatal and pregnancy outcome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013;2:CD006965. 24. Sengpiel V, Elind E, Bacelis J, Nilsson S, Grove J, Myhre R, et al. Maternal caffeine intake during pregnancy is associated with birth weight but not with gestational length: results from a large prospective observational cohort study. BMC Med 2013;11:42. 25. Ludvigsson JF, Ludvigsson J. Socio-economic determinants, maternal smoking and coffee consumption, and exclusive breastfeeding in 10205 children. Acta Paediatr 2005;94:1310–9. 26. Warzak WJ, Evans S, Floress MT, Gross AC, Stoolman S. Caffeine consumption in young children. J Pediatr 2011;158:508–9. 27. Santos IS, Matijasevich A, Domingues MR. Maternal caffeine consumption and infant nighttime waking: prospective cohort study. Pediatrics 2012;129:860–8. 28. Patrizia Carrieri M, Lions C, Sogni P, Winnock M, Roux P, Mora M, ANRS CO13 HEPAVIH Study Group, et al. Association between elevated coffee consumption and daily chocolate intake with normal liver enzymes in HIV-HCV infected individuals: results from the ANRS CO13 HEPAVIH cohort study. J Hepatol 2014;60:46–53. 29. Pagano R, Negri E, Decarli A, La Vecchia C. Coffee drinking and prevalence of bronchial asthma. Chest 1988;94:386–9. 30. Nettleton JA, Follis JL, Schabath MB. Coffee intake, smoking, and pulmonary function in the atherosclerosis risk in communities study. Am J Epidemiol 2009;169:1445–53. 31. Raeessi MA, Aslani J, Raeessi N, Gharaie H, Karimi Zarchi AA, Raeessi F. Honey plus coffee versus systemic steroid in the treatment of persistent post-infectious cough: a randomised controlled trial. Prim Care Respir J 2013;22:325–30. 32. Andrade AR, Sant’Ana DC, Mendes Jr JA, Moreira M, Pires GC, Santos MP, et al. Effects of cigarette smoke inhalation and coffee consumption on bone formation and osseous integration of hydroxyapatite implant. Braz J Biol 2013;73:173–7. 33. Goldstein ER, Ziegenfuss T, Kalman D, Kreider R, Campbell B, Wilborn C, et al. International society of sports nutrition position stand: caffeine and performance. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2010;7:5. 34. Walsh JK, Muehlbach MJ, Humm TM, Dickins QS, Sugerman JL, Schweitzer PK. Effect of caffeine on physiological sleep tendency and ability to sustain wakefulness at night. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1990;101:271–3. 35. Dekker DK, Paley MJ, Popkin SM, Tepas DI. Locomotive engineers and their spouses: coffee consumption, mood, and sleep reports. Ergonomics 1993;36:233–8.
II. EFFECTS OF COFFEE CONSUMPTION
References
36. Lorist MM, Snel J, Kok A, Mulder G. Influence of caffeine on selective attention in well-rested and fatigued subjects. Psychophysiology 1994;31:525–34. 37. Sparaco P. Combating fatigue to enhance safety. Aviat Week Space Technol 1996;145(49):53–5. 38. Mets M, Baas D, van Boven I, Olivier B, Verster J. Effects of coffee on driving performance during prolonged simulated highway driving. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2012;222:337–42.
497
39. Sagaspe P, Taillard J, Chaumet G, Moore N, Bioulac B, Philip P. Aging and nocturnal driving: better with coffee or a nap? A randomized study. Sleep 2007;30:1808–13. 40. Sharwood LN, Elkington J, Meuleners L, Ivers R, Boufous S, Stevenson M. Use of caffeinated substances and risk of crashes in long distance drivers of commercial vehicles: case-control study. BMJ 2013;346:f1140.
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54
Coffee Consumption and Neglected Risk-Benefits on Health and Disease Elena Alonzo1, Francesca M. Trovato2, Daniela Catalano2, Guglielmo M. Trovato2 1Servizio
SIAN, ASP 3 Catania, Regione Sicilia, Catania, Italy; 2Department of Internal Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
54.1 INTRODUCTION There are several conditions and diseases that are not sufficiently addressed by clinical and epidemiological research dealing with coffee habits. These conditions and diseases, nonetheless, usually have beliefs and biases implied in the counseling of coffee use and limitations. In this chapter, we consider surgery and anesthesiarelated conditions, pregnancy, childbearing and infancy, fertility and sexual-related ailments, menopause, and thyroid and respiratory diseases (mainly asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)) and their relation to coffee habits. Moreover, infectious diseases, including malaria and AIDS; anemia and other hematological conditions; migraine and vertigo; and stroke and its neurological consequences are discussed. A special topic is sport and exercise medicine and occupational aspects of coffee use, regarding its relationship with age and sex. The two perspectives, epidemiological-preventive and clinical-therapeutical, are strictly articulated, and the consequent obvious difficulties are due to the shortage of available information for several of the above-mentioned diseases or conditions in their relationship with diet.
54.2 SURGICAL AND ANESTHESIARELATED CONDITIONS (FIGURE 54.1) In an elegant study, Müller et al.1 reported that postoperative espresso coffee consumption is a cheap and safe way to activate bowel motility after elective colonic surgery. They appropriately report that caffeinated coffee stimulates colonic motor activity, with a magnitude Coffee in Health and Disease Prevention http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-409517-5.00054-1
similar to a meal; the effect also was 60% stronger than water and 23% stronger than decaffeinated coffee2 in normal people.3 Coffee also stimulates gallbladder contraction, with likely effects on colonic motor activity,4 and is perceived to soften stools in populations of German individuals.5 In their study, Muller et al. allowed patients in the treatment (coffee) arm to drink three cups of coffee daily (100 ml at 08.00, 12.00, and 16.00 h), beginning on the morning after surgery, using standard quality and quantity espresso coffee. Even with the efforts of ensuring uniformity and good quality of the beverage provided, two limitations are present in this study. Despite that preoperative data, including coffee drinking and smoking habits, were obtained, it could be important to know whether preoperatively coffee drinkers versus noncoffee drinkers have different outcomes, i.e., different times of appearance of intestinal activity. It is also likely that withdrawing coffee in subjects that were previously coffee drinkers could have some negative effect, and possibly not actual advantages. A further comparison could be between the quantity of coffee used before the intervention and that actually given postoperatively, to consider whether this variable could be included in a regression model. The challenge of Muller et al. is very important; they worked with a randomized trial in a no-man’s land. Other studies are present in the fields of surgery and perioperative management. The wisdom of withholding clear liquids for more than 3 h before elective surgery was challenged in the United States6 and also in Europe.7 Moreover, it was shown that prophylactic administration of caffeine, to daily caffeine users, decreases the frequency of postoperative headache and shortens recovery time,8 without any special untoward effect. In medical practice, a beneficial effect
493
© 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
494
54. COFFEE CONSUMPTION AND NEGLECTED RISK-BENEFITS ON HEALTH AND DISEASE
FIGURE 54.1 Coffee consumption and neglected risk-benefits on health and disease. Surgery and possible benefits: activation of bowel motility after elective colonic surgery, decrease of the frequency of postoperative headache, shortening of recovery time, and decrease of postoperative urinary retention.
of caffeine on postoperative urinary retention after joint replacement surgery has been reported.9
Enhance alcohol’s negative effect on pregnancy
54.3 PREGNANCY, FERTILITY, AND SEXUAL-RELATED AILMENTS (FIGURE 54.2) Pregnancy is a period of concern for any food and beverage intake, including coffee. There is no evidence of unfavorable effects of coffee in pregnant women; caution is warranted when considering other coexisting conditions, but not pregnancy per se. Safety of dietary caffeine consumption during pregnancy, particularly at levels of 300 mg/day or greater, is debated. There is some evidence of an increased risk of spontaneous abortion with caffeine consumption; but, overall, this risk seems related to levels of 300 mg/day or more from all sources. Therefore, consumption of one to two cups of coffee per day is not expected to be a concern.10 The first report of decreased fertility, even in a light coffee consumer,11 is not fully confirmed.12,13 It was reported that caffeine consumption did not independently affect the probability of conception but may enhance alcohol’s negative effect.14 In men, frequent coffee drinking was shown to enhance sperm motility,15 and these different sex-associated effects were subsequently confirmed.16
54.4 MENOPAUSE An unfavorable effect of caffeine on bone density has been reported.17–19 Nonetheless, a very robust epidemiological study20 confirms that high coffee consumption was associated with a small reduction in bone density that did not translate into an increased risk of fracture.
Increased odds for gestational age newborns
Coffee consumption
Increased gestational length
Decreased body weight
FIGURE 54.2 Coffee consumption and neglected risk-benefits on health and disease. Obstetrics and cautions: coffee may enhance alcohol’s negative effect on pregnancy, marginally increase gestational length, decrease body weight, and increase odds of small-for-gestational age newborns.
Also, metabolic effects of coffee use in menopause are complex and variously articulated: the combination of coffee consumption and hormone replacement therapy lowers insulin resistance in postmenopausal women. In overweight women, greater insulin sensitivity is associated with intake of espresso coffee and not with hormone replacement therapy, whereas in normal-weight women, only hormone replacement therapy is associated with lower insulin resistance.21 This finding suggests that the use of coffee is particularly warranted in
II. EFFECTS OF COFFEE CONSUMPTION
495
54.11 Summary Points
obese-overweight menopause women to counteract one of the components of metabolic syndrome.
54.5 CHILDBEARING AND INFANCY (FIGURE 54.2) Despite some alarm, no evidence supports any teratogenic effect of coffee in humans. The epidemiologic evidence is not adequate to assess the possibility of a small change in risk of congenital anomalies resulting from maternal caffeine consumption,22 and there is insufficient evidence to confirm or refute the effectiveness of caffeine avoidance on birth weight or other pregnancy outcomes.23 Coffee, but not caffeine, consumption was associated with marginally increased gestational length, but not with spontaneous preterm delivery risk. Caffeine intake was consistently associated with decreased body weight and increased odds of small-for-gestational age newborns. The association was strengthened by concordant results for caffeine sources, time of survey, and different small-for-gestational age definitions. This might have clinical implications as even caffeine consumption below the recommended maximum (200 mg/day in the Nordic countries and the United States, 300 mg/day according to the World Health Organization) was associated with increased risk for small-for-gestational age newborns.24 In contrast, socioeconomic factors and smoking may be of importance to the risk of shorter breastfeeding exclusively for less than 4 months, whereas coffee consumption is not.25,26 Moreover, caffeine consumption during pregnancy and by nursing mothers seems not to have consequences on sleep of infants at the age of 3 months.27 Overall, the use of coffee in pregnancy should not be encouraged because no definite information is available in different population, and ongoing study should clarify risk-benefit.
54.6 INFECTIOUS DISEASE Limited information is available on the relationship of coffee use and infectious disease; nonetheless, one study claims that greater coffee consumption and daily chocolate intake is associated with normal liver enzymes in HIV– HCV-infected individuals.28 This finding is in agreement with studies that report beneficial effects of coffee on liver.
54.7 RESPIRATORY DISEASE (ASTHMA AND COPD) Because caffeine intake has a bronchodilator effect in asthma, the epidemiological evidence that long-term moderate coffee consumption may not only reduce symptoms
but also prevent the clinical manifestation of bronchial asthma seems to have some relevance.29 Moreover, coffee contains polyphenolic antioxidants and caffeine that may favorably affect pulmonary function, and the possible beneficial effects of coffee (or a coffee component) on pulmonary function, seemingly limited to nonsmokers, were reported in a very large epidemiological study.30 The findings were further supported by a randomized controlled trial that reported that honey plus coffee versus a systemic steroid is equally or more effective in the treatment of persistent postinfectious cough.31
54.8 DENTISTRY Few studies are available regarding coffee use and dentistry. Some concern is for the possibility that coffee use impairs repair processes and that this impairment might be accentuated by exposure to both cigarette smoke inhalation and coffee consumption.32
54.9 OCCUPATIONAL DISEASE Relationships between physical performance and coffee use are very complex.33 The most relevant information is associated with the seemingly beneficial effects. Marked sleepiness occurs during typical nightshift work hours, and this reduced alertness is associated with marked performance deficits.34 Locomotive train drivers on irregular work schedules report a general high coffee consumption that correlated with longer sleep latency, increased negative mood, and decreased positive mood on both work and nonwork days.35 Caffeine effects are more pronounced in fatigued than in the well-rested subjects, indicating that the effects of caffeine are dependent on the rest state of the subject,36 and effect that is considered potentially useful.37–40
54.10 CONCLUSIONS Ongoing research will provide more information on the effects of coffee and caffeine in the conditions and diseases discussed herein and in other neglected aspects of health and disease.
54.11 SUMMARY POINTS • S urgery and anesthesia-related conditions are not straightforward contraindications to the use of coffee, and in some situations, coffee can be beneficial.
II. EFFECTS OF COFFEE CONSUMPTION
496
54. COFFEE CONSUMPTION AND NEGLECTED RISK-BENEFITS ON HEALTH AND DISEASE
• P regnancy, childbearing, and infancy are conditions in which it is warranted to abstain from coffee habits for fertility reasons. • Sexually related ailments and thyroid and respiratory diseases have no direct coffee-related effects. • Coffee has possible beneficial effects in menopause. • As a limitation, coffee could have the role of a behavioral marker and probably as a promoter of healthy nutritional profile and lifestyle.
References 1. Müller SA, Rahbari NN, Schneider F, Warschkow R, Simon T, von Frankenberg M, et al. Randomized clinical trial on the effect of coffee on postoperative ileus following elective colectomy. Br J Surg 2012;99:1530–8. 2. Rao SS, Welcher K, Zimmerman B, Stumbo P. Is coffee a colonic stimulant? Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 1998;10:113–8. 3. Brown SR, Cann PA, Read NW. Effect of coffee on distal colon function. Gut 1990;31:450–3. 4. Boekema PJ, Samsom M, van Berge Henegouwen GP, Smout AJ. Coffee and gastrointestinal function: facts and fiction. A review. Scand J Gastroenterol Suppl 1999;230:35–9. 5. Müller-Lissner SA, Kaatz V, Brandt W, Keller J, Layer P. The perceived effect of various foods and beverages on stool consistency. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2005;17:109–12. 6. Green CR, Pandit SK, Schork MA. Preoperative fasting time: is the traditional policy changing? Results of a national survey. Anesth Analg 1996;83:123–8. 7. Hofer CK, Zollinger A, Tucci M, van Gessel E, Alon E, Klaghofer R. Is traditional fasting policy changing? Results of a Swiss survey on current practice. Eur J Anaesthesiol 2002;19:894–6. 8. Weber JG, Klindworth JT, Arnold JJ, Danielson DR, Ereth MH. Prophylactic intravenous administration of caffeine and recovery after ambulatory surgical procedures. Mayo Clin Proc 1997;72:621–6. 9. Leach D, Spaulding J, Thomas J, Conn C, Kutash M. The effect of caffeine on postoperative urinary retention after joint replacement surgery. Orthop Nurs 2013;32:282–5. 10. Morgan S, Koren G, Bozzo P. Is caffeine consumption safe during pregnancy? Can Fam Physician 2013;59:361–2. 11. Wilcox A, Weinberg C, Baird D. Caffeinated beverages and decreased fertility. Lancet 1988;2:1453–6. 12. Joesoef MR, Beral V, Rolfs RT, Aral SO, Cramer DW. Are caffeinated beverages risk factors for delayed conception? Lancet 1990;335:136–7. 13. Bolúmar F, Olsen J, Rebagliato M, Bisanti L. Caffeine intake and delayed conception: a European multicenter study on infertility and subfecundity. European Study Group on Infertility Subfecundity. Am J Epidemiol 1997;145:324–34. 14. Hakim RB, Gray RH, Zacur H. Alcohol and caffeine consumption and decreased fertility. Fertil Steril 1998;70:632–7. 15. Adelusi B, al-Twaijiri MH, al-Meshari A, Kangave D, al-Nuaim LA, Younnus B. Correlation of smoking and coffee drinking with sperm progressive motility in infertile males. Afr J Med Med Sci 1998;27:47–50. 16. Klonoff-Cohen H, Bleha J, Lam-Kruglick P. A prospective study of the effects of female and male caffeine consumption on the reproductive endpoints of IVF and gamete intra-Fallopian transfer. Hum Reprod 2002;17:1746–54.
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