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Cognitive factors in human interaction with computers
Auditory displays 15.1.25 (85064)
Edman, T.R. Human factors guidelines for the use of synthetic speech devices. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 26th Annual Meeting, Seattle, Washington, 2 5 - 2 9 October 1982, Edited by Richard E. Edwards, 1982, pp 2 1 2 - 2 1 6 . Synthetic speech devices have attracted considerable attention in the last several years, and are found in consumer, military, or industrial applications. A b o d y of literature on synthetic speech can be assembled from human factor research and from research in perceptual psychology and linguistics. This literature includes research on the intelligibility, comprehension and acceptability of synthetic speech, work on the use of synthetic speech in multi-task situations, and studies of the function and utility of synthetic speech for alarming and annunciation, and for training and education. A review of this literature is presented. In addition, standard human factors references and guides for speech communication are analysed for their applicability to modern synthetic speech technologies.
Controls 15.1.26 (85093)
Krohn, R., and Konz, S. Bent hammer handles. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 26th Annual Meeting, Seattle, Washington, 2 5 - 2 9 October 1982, Edited by Richard E. Edwards, 1982, pp 4 1 3 - 4 1 7 . Hammer handles were constructed with J_0, 15, 21, 26 and 32 degrees of bend; the heads were identical. The 82 subjects pounded in two nails with each experimental hammer as well as a standard hammer (0 ° bend) and then ranked the hammers 1 to 6. The top three hammers then were used with one more nail and the hammers were ranked again. The preferred hammer had a 10 bend. Personal descriptors such as gender, age, and hammer use experience were not significant predictors of experimental hammer preference.
Keyboards 15.1.27 (85104) Norman, D.A., and Fisher, D. Why alphabetic keyboards are not easy to use: Keyboard layout doesn't much matter. Human Factors, 1982, 24.5, 509-519. These studies demonstrate the inferiority of alphabetically organised keyboards as compared with a randomly organised keyboard and the standard
70
Applied Ergonomics March 1984
Sholes (qwerty) keyboard. Use of the alphabetic keyboard requires considerable mental processing; the novice is faced with a trade-off between mental processing and visual search, and this makes different keyboard layouts equivalent. Comparison of different keyboard layouts by computer simulation of expert typing shows surprisingly little effect of keyboard arrangement for a wide class of keyboards. Performance with some alphabetical layouts is quite slow, but with others, it is within 2% of the speed achieved when using the Sholes keyboard. Performance with the Dvorak keyboard is only improved by about 5% over performance on the Sholes keyboard. The conclusion is that it is not worthwhile to use alphabetic keyboards for novice typists, nor to change to the Dvorak l a y o u t for experts. Keyboards can probably be improved, but only through radical redesign of the present physical key configuration. 15.1.28 (85105)
Spencer, R.R., and Schlegel, R.E. Design modifications of the keyboard display of a speech communication aid. In: Proceedings of the Third National Symposmm on Human Factors and Industrial Design in Consumer Products, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA, 30 August 1 September 1982, pp 2 8 5 - 2 8 9 . F o r the physically handicapped, functioning in today's society can be quite a challenging task. In many cases, the handicapped are restricted from leading 'normal' lives due to inconsiderate or unknowledgeable architects and engineers. Their mobility in public buildings and parks may be severely limited. More importantly, they are often hampered in performing basic human actions. A significant portion of the handicapped population is afflicted with cerebral palsy (CP), a disorder usually affecting children at an early age. In most cases, CP disorders are characterised by spastic paralysis and defective m o t o r abilities with little or no reduction in mental capacity. Due to the impairment of m o t o r abilities, communication becomes extremely important for survival. In many cases, cerebral palsy affects vocal muscles to the extent that verbal communication is severely restricted. Due to the spastic paralysis of the limbs, sign language and written forms of communication are also very difficult. 15.1.29 (85107)
performance. Ergonomics. 1982, 25. I 1~
1109
1123.
Increasing requirements for aircraft keyboards have indicated inadequacies in ergonomic standards for airborne environments, in particular for tasks involving unskilled, discontinuous data entry, with emphasis on accuracy rather than speed. Four experiments are reported from a programme of research aimed at the development and application of methodologies for assessing factors relevant to keyboard design. Experiment 1 demonstrated that the effects o f various aircrew gloves on a representative aircraft data entry task are highly situation specific. Experiment 2 showed that gloves impaired performance on a high compatibility continuous keying task, with relatively high keying rates, and that this impairment was not reduced by additional auditory feedback. Experiment 3 demonstrated that the high compatibility keying task provided a successful methodology for investigating the effects of key displacement and resistance on speed and accuracy. Experiment 4 indicated the relative contributions of reduced tactility and mobility to the effects on keying and manipulative performance caused b y aircrew gloves. Together, these experiments suggest that kinaesthetic and tactile feedback associated with keying are relatively unaffected by aircrew gloves, and that restrictions on m o b i l i t y caused by gloves may be more important for continuous data entry involving relatively high keying rates.
Compute r i nterfaces 15.1.30 (85 109) Allen, R.B. Cognitive factors in human interaction with computers. Behaviour and Information Technology, 1982, 1.3, 257-278. Designing computer interfaces to match human cognitive processes is increasingly important as computer systems become m o r e sophisticated. This paper examines experimental results, models and research strategies relevant to cognitive processes in user interfaces for topics including quei-y languages, command languages, programming, problem solving, editing and displays.
Workplace layout and
equipment design
Taylor, R.M., and Berman, J.V.F.
15.1.31 (851361
Ergonomic aspects of aircraft keyboard design: The effects of gloves and sensory feedback on keying
Grandjean, E., et a/ A laboratory study on preferred and ~mposed settings of a VDT workstation.
Edman, T.R. Human factors guidelines for the use of synthetic speech devices. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 26th Annual Meeting, Seattle, Washington, 2 5 - 2 9 October 1982, Edited by Richard E. Edwards, 1982, pp 2 1 2 - 2 1 6 . Synthetic speech devices have attracted considerable attention in the last several years, and are found in consumer, military, or industrial applications. A b o d y of literature on synthetic speech can be assembled from human factor research and from research in perceptual psychology and linguistics. This literature includes research on the intelligibility, comprehension and acceptability of synthetic speech, work on the use of synthetic speech in multi-task situations, and studies of the function and utility of synthetic speech for alarming and annunciation, and for training and education. A review of this literature is presented. In addition, standard human factors references and guides for speech communication are analysed for their applicability to modern synthetic speech technologies.
Controls 15.1.26 (85093)
Krohn, R., and Konz, S. Bent hammer handles. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 26th Annual Meeting, Seattle, Washington, 2 5 - 2 9 October 1982, Edited by Richard E. Edwards, 1982, pp 4 1 3 - 4 1 7 . Hammer handles were constructed with J_0, 15, 21, 26 and 32 degrees of bend; the heads were identical. The 82 subjects pounded in two nails with each experimental hammer as well as a standard hammer (0 ° bend) and then ranked the hammers 1 to 6. The top three hammers then were used with one more nail and the hammers were ranked again. The preferred hammer had a 10 bend. Personal descriptors such as gender, age, and hammer use experience were not significant predictors of experimental hammer preference.
Keyboards 15.1.27 (85104) Norman, D.A., and Fisher, D. Why alphabetic keyboards are not easy to use: Keyboard layout doesn't much matter. Human Factors, 1982, 24.5, 509-519. These studies demonstrate the inferiority of alphabetically organised keyboards as compared with a randomly organised keyboard and the standard
70
Applied Ergonomics March 1984
Sholes (qwerty) keyboard. Use of the alphabetic keyboard requires considerable mental processing; the novice is faced with a trade-off between mental processing and visual search, and this makes different keyboard layouts equivalent. Comparison of different keyboard layouts by computer simulation of expert typing shows surprisingly little effect of keyboard arrangement for a wide class of keyboards. Performance with some alphabetical layouts is quite slow, but with others, it is within 2% of the speed achieved when using the Sholes keyboard. Performance with the Dvorak keyboard is only improved by about 5% over performance on the Sholes keyboard. The conclusion is that it is not worthwhile to use alphabetic keyboards for novice typists, nor to change to the Dvorak l a y o u t for experts. Keyboards can probably be improved, but only through radical redesign of the present physical key configuration. 15.1.28 (85105)
Spencer, R.R., and Schlegel, R.E. Design modifications of the keyboard display of a speech communication aid. In: Proceedings of the Third National Symposmm on Human Factors and Industrial Design in Consumer Products, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA, 30 August 1 September 1982, pp 2 8 5 - 2 8 9 . F o r the physically handicapped, functioning in today's society can be quite a challenging task. In many cases, the handicapped are restricted from leading 'normal' lives due to inconsiderate or unknowledgeable architects and engineers. Their mobility in public buildings and parks may be severely limited. More importantly, they are often hampered in performing basic human actions. A significant portion of the handicapped population is afflicted with cerebral palsy (CP), a disorder usually affecting children at an early age. In most cases, CP disorders are characterised by spastic paralysis and defective m o t o r abilities with little or no reduction in mental capacity. Due to the impairment of m o t o r abilities, communication becomes extremely important for survival. In many cases, cerebral palsy affects vocal muscles to the extent that verbal communication is severely restricted. Due to the spastic paralysis of the limbs, sign language and written forms of communication are also very difficult. 15.1.29 (85107)
performance. Ergonomics. 1982, 25. I 1~
1109
1123.
Increasing requirements for aircraft keyboards have indicated inadequacies in ergonomic standards for airborne environments, in particular for tasks involving unskilled, discontinuous data entry, with emphasis on accuracy rather than speed. Four experiments are reported from a programme of research aimed at the development and application of methodologies for assessing factors relevant to keyboard design. Experiment 1 demonstrated that the effects o f various aircrew gloves on a representative aircraft data entry task are highly situation specific. Experiment 2 showed that gloves impaired performance on a high compatibility continuous keying task, with relatively high keying rates, and that this impairment was not reduced by additional auditory feedback. Experiment 3 demonstrated that the high compatibility keying task provided a successful methodology for investigating the effects of key displacement and resistance on speed and accuracy. Experiment 4 indicated the relative contributions of reduced tactility and mobility to the effects on keying and manipulative performance caused b y aircrew gloves. Together, these experiments suggest that kinaesthetic and tactile feedback associated with keying are relatively unaffected by aircrew gloves, and that restrictions on m o b i l i t y caused by gloves may be more important for continuous data entry involving relatively high keying rates.
Compute r i nterfaces 15.1.30 (85 109) Allen, R.B. Cognitive factors in human interaction with computers. Behaviour and Information Technology, 1982, 1.3, 257-278. Designing computer interfaces to match human cognitive processes is increasingly important as computer systems become m o r e sophisticated. This paper examines experimental results, models and research strategies relevant to cognitive processes in user interfaces for topics including quei-y languages, command languages, programming, problem solving, editing and displays.
Workplace layout and
equipment design
Taylor, R.M., and Berman, J.V.F.
15.1.31 (851361
Ergonomic aspects of aircraft keyboard design: The effects of gloves and sensory feedback on keying
Grandjean, E., et a/ A laboratory study on preferred and ~mposed settings of a VDT workstation.