Color and chemical composition of bottom sediments from the Kuril Basin (Sea of Okhotsk) and the Kuril–Kamchatka Trench area (Northwest Pacific)

Progress in Oceanography 178 (2019) 102197

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Color and chemical composition of bottom sediments from the Kuril Basin (Sea of Okhotsk) and the Kuril–Kamchatka Trench area (Northwest Pacific)

T

Alexander N. Kolesnika, , Olga N. Kolesnika, Valentina V. Sattarovaa, Alexander A. Karabtsovb, Elena I. Yaroshchuka ⁎

a

V.I. Il’ichev Pacific Oceanological Institute (POI), Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (FEB RAS), 43, Baltiyskaya St., 690041 Vladivostok, Russia Far East Geological Institute (FEGI), Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (FEB RAS), 159, Prospekt 100-letiya Vladivostoka, 690022 Vladivostok, Russia

b

ARTICLE INFO

ABSTRACT

Keywords: Bottom sediments RGB color space HSL color space Chemical composition Grain-size fractions Factors Correlations Kuril Basin of the Sea of Okhotsk Kuril–Kamchatka Trench of the Northwest Pacific KuramBio SokhoBio

The colorimetric method of analysis was first used to study the distribution of the color characteristics (spaces RGB and HSL) in sediment cores from the Kuril Basin of the Sea of Okhotsk and the nearby Kuril-Kamchatka Trench area of the Northwest Pacific. The statistic processing of these and in addition obtained geochemical and grain-size data made it possible to establish the controlling factors and significant relations. The most stable direct correlation is demonstrated by the characteristics of R–Mn–Mo (fine-grained oxidized sediments enriched in hydroxides of iron and manganese and related with them microelements) and H–L–SiO2 (coarse-fragmental part of sediments involving the grains of rock-forming minerals and sometimes a significant admixture of the diatom frustules). Usually, saturation S and phosphorus content gravitate to the first group of parameters, and the additive primary blue color B tends to the second group. Informative are some relations of the color characteristics, for example, the additive primary red color R and green color G (the boundary of the oxidized and reduced sediments). The admixture of the volcanogenic (pyroclastic) material can be reflected in the shift and disruption of the described relations. The results obtained show the regional conditions of sedimentation with the participation of the terrigenous, biogenic, and volcanogenic material and subsequent diagenetic redistribution of the matter. The revealed regularities together with other characteristics of the matter composition can be used for the detailed description of the sediment cores of the regions with the similar settings of sedimentation.

1. Introduction

2. Materials and methods

Marine geology considers the color of bottom sediments to be an important feature giving preliminary insights into their mineral and chemical composition, depositional environment in general and temporal dynamics in particular (paleoreconstruction), as well as the degree and character of post-sedimentary changes (Deaton and Balsam, 1991; Balsam and Deaton, 1991; Balsam et al., 1999; Giosan et al., 2002; Debret et al., 2006; Stein et al., 2010; Zhao et al., 2011; Levitan et al., 2014; Kobayashi et al., 2016). With some diagenetically induced constraints, the color has future for using in regional lithostratigraphic correlation. This study focuses on qualitative relationships and information value of color and geochemical attributes of the upper part of sediment sequences in the Kuril Basin (Sea of Okhotsk) and the nearby Kuril–Kamchatka Trench area (Northwest Pacific).

In this study, we used three sediment cores So223-4(B1), LV71-1 and LV71-7. The first core was taken from the Kuril-Kamchatka Trench pacific slope during Germany-Russian Project KuramBio (Brandt and Malyutina, 2012); last two cores were taken from the Kuril Basin (Sea of Okhotsk) during Russian-Germany Project SokhoBio (Malyutina et al., 2018). Locations of the cores are shown in Fig. 1.

⁎

Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (A.N. Kolesnik).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2019.102197

Available online 19 September 2019 0079-6611/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

– Field lithological description of So223-4 core (Fig. 2a): – 0–12 cm – brown and light brown silty-clay, in interval 0–7 cm soft, from 7 to 12 cm – homogeneous, dense silt; – 12–17 cm – olive silty-clay, dense, plastic. – Field lithological description of LV71-1 core (Fig. 2b): – 0–2 cm – greyish brown clay, semi-fluid consistency, homogeneous, smallish lens with a water-worn border;

Progress in Oceanography 178 (2019) 102197

A.N. Kolesnik, et al.

lightness (Gonzalez and Woods, 2008). Relationship between colorimetric and other sediment parameters was identified in the process of correlation and factor analyses (total 1880 values) using a proven method (Kolesnik et al., 2018a). 3. Results 3.1. Quantitative color characteristics In general, the color characteristics for So223-4 core are noted by intervals isolated with a preliminary lithological description (see para. 2 above), but they do not exactly coincide. The interval 0–9 cm is characterized by a minimum of the hue H (49°, the average in the core is 52°) indicating a shift in color to the red region of the color spectrum (Fig. 2a and Table 2). This is confirmed by the maximum of additive primary red color R (38.20%, the average is 37.66%) and maximum saturation S (19.39%, the average is 17.92%). The role of primary green and blue colors G and B increases (36.21% and 26.73%, respectively) toward the core bottom. The widespreading admixture of pyroclastic material in the upper part of the core is reflected in darker shades of sediment; the average lightness L is 46.05%. It is significantly lower than in the rest of the core. The maximum lightness L is observed for intervals 5–6 cm and 14–15 cm of silt sediments (51.18% and 50.39%, respectively, the average is 46.55%). Dense sediments in interval 7–17 cm are well distinguished by the additive primary green color G (36.20%, the average is 36.08%). In general, based on the trend lines a decrease in the additive primary red color R and saturation S against an increase in the blue B, green G colors, and hue H with a near neutral lightness trend L are noted toward the core bottom. The minimum values of almost all color indices are showed in interval 0–4 cm of LV71-1 sediment core (Fig. 2b and Table 2). The additive primary green color G is 36.23%, the average in core is 36.55%; the blue B is 24.86% and 25.28%, the hue H is 49° and 53°, and the lightness L is 43.99% and 51.24%, respectively. The interval 3–4 cm is a contrast border. According to colorimetric analysis, a relatively lightcolored sediment lies below this border (the average lightness L is 52.39%). Olive-greens in the color of this sediment are due to an increased (36.60%) additive primary green color G and a shift of hue H to the yellow region (average 53°). More light-colored intervals 5–7 cm, 11–12 cm, and 17–18 cm are distinguished. Here the saturation S is 25.03%, the average in the core is 22.26%. Trend lines are similar to those described for So223-4 core but with some changes in inclination angles. The interval 0–5 cm (brown layer) in LV71-7 sediment core is characterized by maximum saturation S (30.10%, the average is 21.34%) and additive primary red color R (40.53% and 38.37%, respectively) (Fig. 2c and Table 2). The distribution of hue H, lightness L, and the part of blue B are showed the opposite picture. These parameters are reach maximum values in sediments of olive color (L is 40.10%, the average is 38.79%; B is 25.60% the average is 24.90%). For half of the color parameters the trend lines have a general similarity with those described in So223-4 and LV71-1 cores (only the inclination angle is changed). The additive primary green color G, hue H, and lightness L (the positive trend is varied to negative varying severity) are changed quite differently.

Fig. 1. Map illustrating locations for sediment cores under study and schematic circulation systems (from Chernyavsky, 1981).

– 2–6 cm – olive silt, soft, not viscous, homogeneous, without fragments; – 6–31 cm – greenish olive silty-clay, soft, viscous, without fragments; a border between layers is absent. – Field lithological description of LV71-7 core (Fig. 2c): – 0–4 cm – brown silty-clay, soft; a border between layers is sharp; – 4–5 cm – greenish-yellow clayey-silt, soft, viscous; – 5–10 cm – greyish-olive clayey-silt, dense, viscous, plastic; – 10–13 cm – greyish-olive clayey-silt, dense, plastic, not viscous, brown lenses chaotically placed with greenish-yellow border; – 13–27 cm – alternation of brown and brownish-olive sediment layers at 1.0–1.5 cm width. Bottom contacts of streaks are sharp, upper border is water-worn; in interval 15–16 cm – greenish-yellow lens of softy silt; 19–24 cm – brownish-grey silt, dense, plastic; 24–27 cm – silt, very dense, plastic. Over the cores’ length, especially in the upper part of So223-4 core, pyroclastic material (black ash particles) was detected. A description of the study areas was given earlier (Sattarova and Artemova, 2015; Artemova et al., 2018; Sattarova and Aksentov, 2019 and references therein). Sampling procedure, transportation, storage of sediments, sample processing, and analyses of grain-size and bulk chemical composition have also been described. Analyses’ findings were partly published (Table 1). Applied for the first time for study area’s sediments, the techniques of color (colorimetric) and electron microprobe analyses were outlined in Kolesnik et al. (2018a, 2018b). (Some parameters of electron microprobe analysis can be seen in Figs. 3 and 4, in the lower part of each image and spectrum.) Information on color was recorded by means of digital SLR camera Canon EOS 50 D featuring CMOS sensor with 15.10 active APS-C pixels. This work was done inside a soft box designed specially for photography to provide uniform illumination with color temperature of a light source equal to 6500 K (standard daylight illuminant D65). The data obtained were presented in RGB (additive, device-dependent) and HSL (perceptual, device-independent) color spaces. R, G, and B are red, green, and blue additive primary colors, respectively; H is hue, S is saturation, and L is

3.2. Grain-size composition Based on grain composition, sediments of So223-4 core are represented by clayey-silt and silt (Table 3). Silt fraction (63–4 µm) sharply dominates and ranges from 56.92 to 77.68% in intervals 0–1 cm and 10–11 cm, respectively, and the average is 72.60% (Fig. 2a and Table 3). The clay (< 4 µm) is the second most common fraction in the core and its content is 25.80% in average. The absolute maximum of the clay fraction (43.05%) is fixed in the surface layer of sediment; the minimum (20.32%) is in interval 11–12 cm. The average content of the 2

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Fig. 2. Photographic images (left), color, grain-size, and bulk geochemical patterns (to the right) of sediment cores under study. Background layer displays the sediment color in an RGB color space. Hatching indicates the data lacking. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

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Table 1 General features of sediment cores under study. Background information

So223-4 core

LV71-1 core

LV71-7 core

latitude (N)

46° 58.001′

46° 08.80′

46° 57.020′

longitude (E)

154° 32.703′

146° 00.00′

151° 05.011′

2. Sampling device

Multicorer

Box corer

Box corer

3. Water depth (m)

5767

3481

3300

4. Core depth (cm)

17

31

27

5. Analyses of earlier studies

Grain-size analysis of surface sediments, n = 1 (Sattarova and Artemova, 2015; Sattarova and Aksentov, 2019)

Gain-size analysis of surface sediments, n = 1 (Sattarova and Artemova, 2015; Sattarova and Aksentov, 2019)

Grain-size analysis of surface sediments, n = 1 (Sattarova and Artemova, 2015; Sattarova and Aksentov, 2019)

Geochemical analysis of surface sediments, n = 1 (Sattarova and Artemova, 2015; Sattarova and Aksentov, 2019)

Geochemical analysis through the entire core depth, 1-cm resolution, n = 31 (Artemova et al., 2018; Sattarova and Aksentov, 2019)

Geochemical analysis through the entire core depth, 1-cm resolution, n = 27 (Artemova et al., 2018; Sattarova and Aksentov, 2019)

Diatom analysis of surface sediments, n = 1 (Sattarova and Artemova, 2015)

Diatom analysis through the entire core depth, 1-cm resolution, n = 31 (Artemova et al., 2018)

Diatom analysis through the entire core depth, 1cm resolution, n = 27 (Artemova et al., 2018)

Quantitative color analysis through the entire core depth, 1-cm resolution, n = 17

Quantitative color analysis within 1–23-cm interval, 1-cm resolution, n = 22

Quantitative color analysis through the entire core depth, 1-cm resolution, n = 27

Grain-size analysis through the entire core depth, 1-cm resolution, n = 17

Grain-size analysis through the entire core depth, 1-cm resolution, n = 31

Grain-size analysis through the entire core depth, 1-cm resolution, n = 27

Geochemical analysis through the entire core depth, 2-cm resolution, n = 9

See para. 5 above

See para. 5 above

Statistical analysis of the database, n = 774

Statistical analysis of the database, n = 783

1. Sampling station coordinates:

6. Analyses of the current study

Electron microprobe analysis of grain-size fractions within intervals 1–2-cm, 5–6-cm, 9–10-cm, and 16–17-cm, n = 12 Statistical analysis of the database, n = 323

sand fraction (˃63 µm) is 1.60%, in intervals 0–1 cm and 14–15 cm varies from 0.03 to 5.97%, respectively. Trend lines point at a general increase of the silt and sand particle contents with depth through the decrease of the part of clay fraction. The sediments of LV71-1 core are equally represented by silt and clayey-silt (Table 3). The average silt particle content is 72.87% with a maximum and minimum in intervals 5–6 cm (80.46%) and 24–25 cm (58.77%), respectively (Fig. 2b and Table 3). The silt fraction accounts 15.39–40.55% with 25.43% in average. The sand fraction in the core is present in a subordinate amount and average contents 1.70%. Down the sediment core there is a general decrease in the content of silt fraction with an increase in the sand and clay (trend lines). According to the grain-size, LV71-7 core sediments are clayey-silt and silt (Table 3). The silt fraction varies from 67.03% (10–11 cm) to 80.62% (17–18 cm), and the average is 73.36% (Fig. 2c and Table 3). The clay particles in the sediment are significantly less and consist 10.59% (17–18 cm), 29.58% (1–2 cm), and the average is 21.93%. The sand fraction content in most samples is low, but increased compared to the other studied cores and ranges from 1.57% (5–6 cm) to 11.39% (10–11 cm), the average is 4.72%. Judge by the trend lines, an increase of the part of silt and sand fractions (positive trend) and a decrease of clay fraction (negative trend) toward the core bottom are observed.

1.04%) in interval 12–13 cm (Fig. 2a and Table 4). According to the trend line, a slight increase of Corg content is observed toward the core bottom (positive trend). The main macroelement in the sediment composition is silicon. The SiO2 concentration in the core varies from 58.50 to 61.58% (intervals 0–1, 12–13 cm, respectively); the average content is 59.83%. The trend of the SiO2 content toward the base of the core is positive. Other chemical element having a similar distribution pattern is potassium. Such the distribution is characteristic for some of microelements (Ba, Pb, Li, Cu, Zn, and Rb). Aluminum is the second most abundant element in the core. Its content varies from 6.05 to 7.06% in intervals 6–7 cm and 16–17 cm, respectively, the average is 6.55%. The trend line indicates a slight decrease in the content down the core. The behavior of Al in the core largely repeats chemical elements such as Ti and Mg and some of microelements primarily V, Mo, and Sr. The third of elements in content in the sediments after Si and Al, is Fe, with a maximum in interval 14–15 cm (5.00%), minimum in interval 10–11 cm (3.74%), and an average 4.33%. A general decrease in the Fe content is observed toward the base of the core (negative trend). The elements closest to the Fe distribution, such as Mg, Ti, Mn, V and Co are noted. The Mn content in the core ranges from 0.05 to 0.20% in intervals 14–15 and 2–3 cm, respectively, and the average is 0.09%. The trend line shows a marked decrease of Mn contents to the core base. The distribution features similar to Mn are observed for Ca, Ti, Mg, as well as Sr, Co, and Mo. The part of P in sediments falls on average 0.06% with variations from 0.05 to 0.07% in intervals 4–5 cm and 0–1 cm, respectively. Chemical composition of LV71-1 and LV71-7 cores was given in Artemova et al. (2018). The distribution of major elements and biogenic components is shown in Fig. 2b and c.

3.3. Bulk chemical composition As the chemical analysis showed, the average organic carbon content in the sediments of So223-4 core is 0.85%. The upper layer and interval 8–13 cm of sediment core is enriched by Corg with maximum (up to 4

Progress in Oceanography 178 (2019) 102197

A.N. Kolesnik, et al.

Fig. 3. Back-scattered electron images of mineral grains and biogenic components in So223-4 sediment core. Image (a) shows general appearance of sediments containing terrigenous, pyroclastic, and biogenic material in 1–2-cm interval, the > 63-μm fraction (chemical compositions of ash grains, titanomagnetite grains, and diatom frustules correspond to the analyses from Table 5: lines 2, 18, and 27, respectively); (b) volcanic ash with rutile inclusions in 1–2-cm interval, the > 63-μm fraction (Table 5, lines 2 and 15, respectively); (d) titanomagnetite and monazite (Table 5, lines 18 and 26, respectively) among different rock-forming minerals and biogenic silica fragments in 9–10-cm interval, the 63–4-μm fraction; (d) diagenetic framboidal pyrite (Table 5, line 20) among different rock-forming minerals and biogenic silica fragments in 16–17-cm interval, the 63–4-μm fraction; (e) plagioclase and Cu-Zn intermetallic compound in 16–17-cm interval, the > 63-μm fraction (Table 5, line 3, and Fig. 4a, respectively); (f) barite and Fe-Cr-Mn-Ni intermetallic compound (Table 5, line 24, and Fig. 4b, respectively) surrounded by mainly clay minerals (for example as line 12 in Table 5) in 9–10-cm interval, the < 4-μm fraction.

3.4. Local chemical composition. Rock-forming and accessory minerals

magnesium, calcium, and sodium, quite often with manganese and titanium admixture (pyroxenes and amphiboles; Table 5, lines 6–11). All these minerals form mainly terrigenous and volcanogenic (pyroclastic) coarse-grained part of sediments. Volcanic ash particles are found in all intervals examined, but most numerous in the upper part of the core. Biogenic remains also make a significant contribution to sediment’s composition. They consist of silica with a stable admixture of aluminum and iron and in most cases are represented by diatom frustules (Table 5, lines 27 and 28: a diatom and a spicule, respectively). Sometimes

The electron microprobe analysis on So223-4 core sediments revealed that in the > 63-μm and 63–4-μm fractions the most common rock-forming minerals are plagioclases. Different members of the plagioclase mineral series are detected (Table 5, lines 2–5), but basic plagioclase occurs more frequently. Sometimes barium partially substitutes for potassium. Besides, the sand and silt fractions contain grains of quartz (Table 5, line 1), aluminosilicates and silicates of iron, 5

Progress in Oceanography 178 (2019) 102197

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Fig. 4. Energy dispersive X-ray spectra of the least frequent accessory minerals in So223-4 sediment core. Spectrum (a) demonstrates Cu-Zn intermetallic compound in 16–17-cm interval, the > 63-μm fraction; (b) slightly oxidized Fe-Cr-Mn-Ni intermetallic compound in 16–17-cm interval, the 63–4-μm fraction; (c) cassiterite in 9–10-cm interval, the 63–4-μm fraction; (d) supposedly tantalum oxide in 5–6-cm interval, the < 4-μm fraction; (e) supposedly tungstate in 5–6-cm interval, the < 4μm fraction; (f) cadmium sulfide in 9–10-cm interval, the 63–4-μm fraction; (g) silver oxide in 16–17-cm interval, the 63–4-μm fraction; and (h) supposedly platinum oxychloride in 5–6-cm interval, the < 4-μm fraction. In some analyses there is an insignificant impurity of elements from neighboring rock-forming minerals.

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Table 2 Color characteristics of So223-4, LV71-1, and LV71-7 sediment cores. Interval (cm)

0–1 1–2 2–3 3–4 4–5 5–6 6–7 7–8 8–9 9–10 10–11 11–12 12–13 13–14 14–15 15–16 16–17 17–18 18–19 19–20 20–21 21–22 22–23 23–24 24–25 25–26 26–27

So223-4 core

LV71-1 core

R (%)

G (%)

B (%)

H (°)

S (%)

L (%)

38.99 39.51 38.95 38.40 37.92 37.68 37.87 37.73 36.70 36.95 36.98 37.23 37.24 37.29 36.97 36.90 36.93

35.81 35.80 36.05 36.19 35.84 35.71 35.97 36.15 36.17 36.43 36.20 36.17 36.20 36.46 36.23 36.18 35.80

25.20 24.69 25.00 25.41 26.23 26.60 26.16 26.12 27.13 26.61 26.82 26.60 26.56 26.24 26.80 26.92 27.27

46 45 47 50 49 49 50 52 57 57 55 54 54 56 56 55 53

21.49 23.08 21.82 20.35 18.22 18.07 18.30 18.18 15.00 16.26 15.92 16.67 16.74 17.39 16.21 15.84 15.04

47.45 40.78 43.14 45.29 48.43 51.18 46.08 47.45 47.06 48.24 48.04 47.06 48.04 45.10 50.39 43.33 44.31

LV71-7 core

R (%)

G (%)

B (%)

H (°)

S (%)

L (%)

39.80 39.06 37.88 38.37 38.31 38.18 38.23 38.08 38.25 38.10 37.89 38.00 38.41 38.29 38.32 37.90 37.75 37.73 37.93 37.68 37.79 37.80

35.79 36.29 36.62 36.63 36.53 36.59 36.46 36.61 36.65 36.90 36.34 36.36 36.71 36.52 36.48 36.92 36.42 36.59 36.78 36.73 36.64 36.60

24.41 24.65 25.51 25.00 25.17 25.23 25.32 25.31 25.09 25.00 25.77 25.64 24.88 25.19 25.20 25.18 25.83 25.68 25.29 25.59 25.58 25.60

44 48 54 52 52 53 52 53 53 55 52 52 52 52 52 55 53 54 55 55 54 54

23.96 22.61 19.52 21.26 26.22 24.68 20.32 20.64 21.19 22.45 24.89 22.36 22.58 20.64 20.66 20.64 24.32 22.94 23.40 20.99 22.55 20.82

37.65 45.10 49.22 50.20 55.88 54.71 49.22 50.59 50.49 51.96 56.67 53.53 51.37 49.41 47.45 50.59 56.47 54.71 53.92 52.35 53.92 51.96

R (%)

G (%)

B (%)

H (°)

S (%)

L (%)

41.83 41.05 40.67 40.21 38.89 37.66 37.70 37.99 37.95 37.96 38.30 38.07 37.54 37.79 37.93 37.97 37.75 38.08 38.21 38.25 37.95 37.86 38.03 35.69 38.70 37.88 37.95

38.46 37.55 37.69 37.76 36.94 36.88 36.90 36.87 36.84 36.91 37.43 36.93 36.95 36.48 36.68 36.39 36.42 36.30 36.21 36.49 36.63 36.57 36.39 34.08 36.02 36.18 36.96

19.71 21.40 21.64 22.03 24.17 25.45 25.40 25.14 25.21 25.13 24.27 25.00 25.51 25.73 25.39 25.63 25.83 25.62 25.58 25.26 25.41 25.57 25.57 30.23 25.29 25.94 25.08

51 49 51 52 52 56 56 42 55 55 56 55 57 54 54 52 53 51 51 52 54 54 52 42 48 51 55

35.94 31.47 30.54 29.21 23.35 19.34 19.49 20.35 20.18 20.33 22.43 20.72 19.07 18.97 19.80 19.40 18.75 19.55 19.79 20.44 19.79 19.39 19.59 8.29 20.96 18.72 20.42

25.10 28.04 32.75 34.90 44.51 47.65 46.27 44.31 44.71 47.25 41.96 43.53 42.16 38.24 39.61 39.41 37.65 35.10 37.65 35.49 37.65 38.43 38.04 40.20 32.75 36.67 37.45

Table 3 Grain-size composition of So223-4, LV71-1, and LV71-7 sediment cores. Interval (cm)

So223-4 core

LV71-1 core

Grain-size fraction content (%)

0–1 1–2 2–3 3–4 4–5 5–6 6–7 7–8 8–9 9–10 10–11 11–12 12–13 13–14 14–15 15–16 16–17 17–18 18–19 19–20 20–21 21–22 22–23 23–24 24–25 25–26 26–27 27–28 28–29 29–30 30–31

> 63 (µm)

63–4 (µm)

< 4 (µm)

0.03 0.21 0.28 0.87 0.55 5.80 0.97 0.15 0.39 1.49 1.00 4.37 1.11 0.32 5.97 3.29 0.45

56.92 70.63 75.41 74.25 73.60 70.59 76.90 72.34 76.69 76.90 77.68 75.31 77.47 69.98 67.24 69.67 72.59

43.05 29.16 24.31 24.88 25.85 23.61 22.13 27.51 22.92 21.61 21.32 20.32 21.42 29.7 26.79 27.04 26.96

Lithology

Clayey Clayey Silt Clayey Clayey Clayey Silt Clayey Silt Silt Silt Silt Silt Clayey Clayey Clayey Clayey

silt silt silt silt silt silt

silt silt silt silt

LV71-7 core

Grain-size fraction content (%) > 63 (µm)

63–4 (µm)

< 4 (µm)

0.07 4.69 1.50 1.39 3.70 2.81 1.13 1.43 0.43 1.98 0.83 0.30 0.11 0.96 0.30 0.32 0.75 0.43 0.01 0.07 0.92 1.31 0.40 2.17 3.94 1.54 1.75 3.03 2.92 9.15 2.33

59.38 79.91 77.67 76.14 78.45 80.46 79.93 79.77 77.61 79.50 78.53 77.47 69.32 75.49 71.74 75.04 73.93 69.49 69.46 71.00 73.83 70.19 77.81 77.29 58.77 63.45 66.21 62.66 64.94 68.66 74.76

40.55 15.39 20.83 22.47 17.85 16.73 18.93 18.79 21.96 18.52 20.65 22.23 30.58 23.55 27.97 24.64 25.32 30.08 30.54 28.93 25.24 28.50 21.79 20.54 37.29 35.01 32.04 34.31 32.14 22.20 22.92

7

Lithology

Clayey Silt Silt Silt Silt Silt Silt Silt Silt Silt Silt Silt Clayey Silt Clayey Silt Clayey Clayey Clayey Clayey Clayey Clayey Silt Silt Clayey Clayey Clayey Clayey Clayey Clayey Clayey

silt

silt silt silt silt silt silt silt silt silt silt silt silt silt silt silt

Grain-size fraction content (%) > 63 (µm)

63–4 (µm)

< 4 (µm)

3.50 1.85 2.32 1.76 3.09 1.57 11.33 7.92 1.80 6.44 11.39 9.90 2.84 5.13 4.63 1.99 2.40 8.79 2.62 2.24 5.05 1.69 2.26 5.93 7.94 7.03 3.91

69.84 68.57 69.00 72.54 73.88 77.12 69.00 67.43 71.61 68.53 67.03 68.83 72.09 78.39 74.72 78.26 76.16 80.62 77.38 75.98 73.72 71.83 75.19 74.08 77.55 74.53 76.76

26.66 29.58 28.67 25.70 23.04 21.30 19.66 24.65 26.59 25.03 21.58 21.28 25.07 16.47 20.64 19.75 21.44 10.59 19.99 21.78 21.22 26.48 22.55 19.99 14.52 18.44 19.33

Lithology

Clayey Clayey Clayey Clayey Clayey Silt Clayey Clayey Clayey Clayey Clayey Clayey Clayey Silt Clayey Silt Silt Silt Silt Silt Clayey Clayey Silt Clayey Silt Clayey Silt

silt silt silt silt silt silt silt silt silt silt silt silt silt

silt silt silt silt

Progress in Oceanography 178 (2019) 102197 14.8 1020 1.470 84.5 66.3 32.80

185

57.00

12.30

31.10 0.05 1.64 1.64

147.00

120.6

243

11.8 917 0.709 76.6 59.8 28.30

189

50.50

12.60

32.10 0.05 1.70

92.60

116.5

233

20.9 912 0.719 71.4 41.0 24.10

138

37.30

11.40

24.70 0.05 1.54

96.70

95.5

233

12.6 874 0.749 74.1 38.9 23.50

140

36.80

11.40

24.30 0.06 1.57

103.30

94.0

242

12.9 800 0.725 70.4 36.8 22.50

154

39.40

12.70

29.70 0.06 1.67

90.60

89.5

264

11.3 860 0.670 68.9 37.1 20.70

135

43.40

12.30

18.90 0.07 1.60

89.80

87.8

230

12.5 899 1.060 77.7 38.0 21.50

156

38.20

18.60

20.00 0.11 1.64

18.40 38.50 163

37.10 186 18.90

0.38 0.06 2.99 3.85 7.06 60.27

1.94

0.35 0.05 3.04 1.56 5.00 6.55 60.12

1.95

0.32 0.05 3.22 1.21 3.86 6.06 61.58

2.04

0.34 0.05 3.47 1.18 3.74 6.25 60.53

2.24

0.36 0.05 3.11 1.13 4.22 6.56 59.18

2.60

0.34 0.06 3.20 1.12 4.44 6.05 59.72

2.22

0.36 0.05 3.23 1.11 4.38 6.55 59.93

2.54

0.05 3.13 1.06 4.54 6.89 58.60

2.90

0.42 0.07 3.30 1.08 4.97 6.99 58.50

3.07

The region of investigations is a peculiar area of the deep-sea sedimentation that shows some similarity with both the sedimentation of the marginal geosynclinal seas and the pelagic area of the ocean, but differs from them in some essential features (Bezrukov, 1955, 1960; Udintsev, 1955; Bezrukov et al., 1961; Murdmaa, 1961; Saidova, 1961; Zenkevitch, 1963; Petelin, 1965; Romankevich et al., 1966; Murdmaa et al., 1970; Initial Reports, 1973; Vasiliev et al., 1975, 1986; Gnibidenko and Svarichevsky, 1984; Cruise, 1997, 2000; Honjo, 1997; Gorbarenko et al., 2002; Vaschenkova et al., 2006; Sakhno et al., 2010). As compared with the oceanic pelagic zone the region under study is characterized by a higher intensity of the sedimentation as a whole and in particular of the processes – terrigenous (due to the proximity of large islands and continent; Fig. 1) and biogenic (due to a high biological productivity of waters). The active volcanoes of Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands governed in the past and continue to define now the

0–1 1–2 2–3 3–4 4–5 5–6 6–7 7–8 8–9 9–10 10–11 11–12 12–13 13–14 14–15 15–16 16–17

(wt %)

0.39

0.98 0.75 0.68 0.70 0.73 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.95 1.02 0.98 0.93 1.04 0.81 0.71 0.82 0.82

(mk kg−1)

18.60

17.90

Ni Co Cr V Li Corg Ti P Na K Fe Ca Al SiO2

23.40 0.20 1.72

87.00

86.0

260

12.9 804 1.900 72.5 35.7 82.4

291

34.5 88.2 0.19 1.89

4. Discussion

24.60

Mn

78.40

3.5. Relationships and groups of parameters studied According to correlation and factor analyses of colorimetric, grainsize, and geochemical data obtained on So223-4 core, the numerous links were identified and two groups of parameters were separated from them (Fig. 5a and Table 6). The first group includes such indicators as the additive primary red color R and saturation S, as well as Fe, Mn, P, Al, Ti, Ca, Mg, Sr, Mo, V, and the clay fraction content. The additive primary green color G, blue color B, hue H, lightness L, Corg, SiO2, K, Ba, Zn, Ni, silt and sand fractions form the second group. The chemical element Na does not belong to any of the groups and have not strong correlations with the studied core parameters. Statistical processing of data on LV71-1 core’s colorimetric, grainsize, and geochemical parameters helped to determine two groups among them (Fig. 5b and Table 7). The first group includes most of the color indicators such as the additive primary green color G, blue color B, hue H, lightness L, and also SiO2, K, and Ti. The basis of second group is indicators that have positive correlations with the additive primary red color R (Fig. 5b), Corg, Mn, P, and Ca as well as their accompanying trace elements. It is notable that the grain-size fractions, Fe, Mg, Al, and Na are not included in the factor groups. Saturation S has no significant correlation with any of the considered parameters. In LV71-7 core three groups of parameters were identified (Fig. 5c and Table 6). The first group includes the additive primary red color R, saturation S, additive primary green color G (color indicators), Corg, SiO2am, Mn, K, Na, Ba, Mo, Ni (geochemical indicators), clay fraction (particle size index). The hue H, lightness L, SiO2, and sand fraction form the second group. The basis of the third group is one color indicator (blue color B), Al, Fe, Mg, Ca, P, Ti, trace elements (Sr, V, Zn, and Sc), and silt fraction.

Interval (cm)

Table 4 Bulk chemical composition of So223-4 sediment core.

enriched in trace elements, clay minerals play an essential role in the < 4-μm fraction (Table 5, lines 12–14). The basis of accessory minerals is iron and titanium oxides with a predominance of titanomagnetite (Table 5, lines 15 and 17–19). These phases often include small amounts of manganese and vanadium. It appears from the samples studied that iron and titanium oxides are distributed throughout the core and tended towards the sand and silt fractions. Accessory minerals are also represented by titanite, zircon, barium and calcium silicates, barite, apatite and monazite (Table 5, lines 16 and 22–26, respectively). Pyrite framboids, among them zincbearing ones, exist in the 63–4-μm fraction of 5–6 cm and 16–17 cm intervals (Table 5, lines 20 and 21). This is a typical authigenic mineral, a product of reductive diagenesis. The general appearance and spectra of the least frequent phases represented in the core, as a rule, by sporadic grains are shown in Figs. 3 and 4. In general, the most diverse composition of accessory minerals is characteristic of the 63–4-μm fraction.

Mg

Cu

82.20

Rb Zn

Sr

295

Zr

73.6

Mo

1.530

Ba

767

Pb

14.1

A.N. Kolesnik, et al.

8

9

56.92 49.34 48.06 49.78 47.37 50.07 45.83 41.73 45.80 46.36 42.88 47.80 43.28 48.72 15.90 40.64 35.39 33.64 28.29 4.61 15.87 37.00 22.05 32.44 37.08 26.53 56.56 57.19

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

4.39

F

0.32

0.35

0.99 3.18 5.02 8.22 1.49 1.21 5.05 0.32

Na

0.29 0.52

0.60 0.57

0.97 1.37

2.16 1.46

8.05 7.46 14.21

1.40 6.25

Mg

1.48 2.18 0.28 1.30 1.90 2.74

1.77 0.32 0.48 0.49

17.94 16.11 14.93 11.76 6.86 5.56 8.52 1.17 12.98 1.15 9.25 9.99 15.52 3.67 0.69

Al 44.43 22.09 24.91 25.73 31.45 26.07 21.31 25.34 24.77 12.73 25.72 29.73 29.90 26.00 1.43 13.22 0.84 1.22 0.59 1.41 2.33 15.19 9.62 11.58 0.73 4.17 42.54 36.04

Si

17.05 14.51

P

10.59

48.94 34.47

S

0.19

Cl

0.20 0.62

0.19 0.27

12.99 11.04 7.37

0.27 0.67 1.07 0.91 0.86

K

5.29 0.26 37.19 0.45 0.49 0.22

0.19 0.29 0.33

0.41 20.76 0.30

1.25

12.31 9.11 6.43 0.62 4.04 8.02 0.35 11.00

Ca

0.24 77.60 24.38 29.73 4.96

1.01 0.60 1.90 0.42

Ti

0.54

1.36

V

1.04

0.60

0.40

0.72

Mn

0.58

0.92 34.50 58.78 67.82 44.28 44.28

0.50 0.89

1.18 0.83 0.46

0.08

Zn

1.44 1.63

0.69 0.64 0.40 0.53 9.81 14.20 17.50 10.37 23.60 13.48

Fe

47.86

Zr

61.53 38.70

1.16

Ba

13.37

La

27.10

Ce

2.82

Pr

11.27

Nd

1.74

Th

101.35 103.36 102.01 102.56 100.62 101.82 104.61 101.25 102.30 103.13 99.29 99.77 98.97 101.02 100.72 100.61 102.77 102.28 97.21 100.01 98.35 100.05 101.94 97.42 97.18 103.26 102.48 98.73

Total (wt %)

The blank cell means that the element is not detected. Some analyses include impurity from surrounding phases. Deviations in the total content of 100 wt% are due to electron microprobe analysis’ specifics (Kolesnik et al., 2018b).

O

Analysis No.

Table 5 Chemical composition of rock-forming and accessory mineral grains (Nos. 1–26) and biogenic components (Nos. 27 and 28) in So223-4 sediment core.

A.N. Kolesnik, et al.

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A.N. Kolesnik, et al.

Table 6 Paired correlation coefficients of color characteristics with grain-size and geochemical parameters in So223-4 sediment core. Parameter

R

G

B

H

S

L

> 63 µm 63–4 µm < 4 µm SiO2 Al Ca Fe K Mg Mn Na P Ti Corg Li V Cr Co Ni Cu Zn Rb Sr Zr Mo Ba Pb

–0.36 –0.36 0.49 –0.66 0.36 0.78 0.54 –0.57 0.63 0.93 0.19 0.48 0.59 –0.41 –0.72 0.15 –0.41 0.83 –0.56 –0.56 –0.60 –0.52 0.75 –0.23 0.70 –0.58 –0.12

0.01 0.33 –0.33 0.38 –0.57 –0.33 –0.15 0.01 –0.43 –0.41 0.12 –0.73 –0.61 0.26 0.03 –0.37 –0.22 –0.55 0.28 –0.25 0.04 –0.06 –0.39 –0.47 –0.59 –0.10 0.13

0.40 0.31 –0.45 0.63 –0.26 –0.77 –0.55 0.63 –0.59 –0.93 –0.24 –0.36 –0.51 0.38 0.78 –0.08 0.50 –0.78 0.55 0.67 0.64 0.58 –0.73 0.35 –0.63 0.65 0.10

0.25 0.36 –0.45 0.58 –0.38 –0.68 –0.42 0.49 –0.54 –0.85 –0.17 –0.55 –0.58 0.41 0.60 –0.15 0.29 –0.82 0.62 0.37 0.52 0.42 –0.66 0.05 –0.71 0.39 0.12

–0.32 –0.36 0.47 –0.65 0.31 0.77 0.57 –0.59 0.62 0.93 0.21 0.41 0.55 –0.41 –0.75 0.13 –0.45 0.80 –0.54 –0.63 –0.61 –0.55 0.73 –0.29 0.66 –0.62 –0.11

0.51 –0.03 –0.17 0.39 –0.43 –0.29 0.23 0.12 –0.08 –0.42 0.26 –0.30 –0.35 0.33 0.10 0.01 –0.14 –0.23 0.14 –0.24 0.18 0.05 –0.39 –0.08 –0.70 0.04 0.01

Marked in bold are significant correlations. The significance is determined by using Pearson’s chi-square test at error probability lower than the conventional 5% (P < 0.05). Table 7 Paired correlation coefficients of color characteristics with grain-size and geochemical parameters in LV71-1 sediment core.

Fig. 5. Factor loadings of color, grain-size, and bulk geochemical parameters for sediment cores under study. Each roman numeral represents the group of parameters with positive correlations among themselves and negative correlations with other group parameters. Strong positive correlation (r ≥ 0.7) is marked by solid line. Gray dot indicates chemical element that does not belong to any of the groups isolated and does not have strong direct correlations with any of the parameters considered. On the right there are downcore factor score patterns. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Parameter

R

G

B

H

S

L

> 63 µm 63–4 µm < 4 µm SiO2 Al Ca Fe K Mg Mn Na P Ti Corg Sc V Ni Zn Sr Mo Ba

0.71 0.49 –0.59 –0.76 0.39 0.26 –0.11 –0.78 –0.61 0.87 –0.06 0.79 –0.63 0.69 0.45 0.31 0.64 0.41 0.81 0.80 0.87

–0.45 –0.17 0.26 0.51 –0.19 –0.24 0.30 0.65 0.62 –0.78 0.16 –0.77 0.62 –0.47 –0.42 –0.18 –0.64 –0.37 –0.75 –0.77 –0.65

–0.65 –0.55 0.62 0.67 –0.40 –0.19 –0.05 0.62 0.40 –0.65 –0.02 –0.56 0.44 –0.65 –0.35 –0.31 –0.46 –0.33 –0.62 –0.60 –0.78

–0.64 –0.36 0.46 0.66 –0.33 –0.29 0.19 0.78 0.69 –0.87 0.15 –0.85 0.71 –0.63 –0.48 –0.28 –0.68 –0.43 –0.84 –0.82 –0.80

0.18 0.06 –0.09 –0.14 0.01 –0.03 0.15 –0.08 –0.15 0.22 –0.12 0.23 –0.15 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.19 0.00 0.15 0.21 0.21

–0.56 –0.36 0.44 0.66 –0.27 –0.15 0.26 0.67 0.41 –0.80 –0.03 –0.62 0.45 –0.63 –0.27 –0.13 –0.43 –0.29 –0.63 –0.77 –0.74

See note to Table 6 above.

indicates that the pyroclastic rocks of the island-arc volcanoes have a similar composition of the mineral associations, which poorly differ in the composition of the rock-forming minerals, as most of them belong to the derivations of the calc-alkaline series (mainly pyroxenes, hornblende, and magnetite). The exceptions are the volcano eruptions of the alkaline type with alkaline mineral associations (alkaline pyroxenes and hornblendes, soda-potash feldspars). Individual is the microelement composition. Each volcanic centre as a source of explosions has a distinctive spectrum of microelements, which remains the same over many

supply of the pyroclastic material to the bottom sediments. The ashes cover the entire area of the Sea of Okhotsk including the adjacent areas of the ocean (Bezrukov et al., 1961; Murdmaa et al., 1970; Gorbarenko et al., 2002; Sakhno et al., 2010). In the bottom sediments the ashes are found in the form of interlayers of different thickness. Their mineralogy 10

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thousands years of the centre activity and is conserved in the rocks of different facial settings. The eruption sources, contours of scattering, and chemical composition of ashes of the Sea of Okhotsk were considered in Sakhno et al. (2010). The pattern of currents and bottom morphology in the region of investigations (Fig. 1) favour the scattering of the terrigenous, volcanogenic, and biogenic material, sometimes for rather significant distances, as well as the origination of turbid flows and landslides and formation of the layered turbidites. The depth of the Kuril straits defines essentially the conditions of the water exchange between the Sea of Okhotsk and the open ocean (Rogachev and Verkhunov, 1995). The specific character of the sedimentation is embodied in the grain-size and matter composition, as well as color characteristics of the sediments.

(Bezrukov, 1955; Bezrukov et al., 1961; Sattarova, 2015). It should be noted that the hydroxides are not a single significant mineral form of the Fe occurrence in sediments. The increase of its concentration in the subsurface horizons may be related with the presence of magnetite, titanomagnetite, and ferrous silicates characteristic of the volcanogenic material (Bezrukov et al., 1961; Murdmaa et al., 1970; Klein and Hurlbut, 1993; Betekhtin, 2007; Grigoriev, 2009). The latter explains, obviously, the presence in group I of such elements as Ti, V, and in part Mg (Klein and Hurlbut, 1993; Betekhtin, 2007; Grigoriev, 2009 and references therein). The conclusion is confirmed by the data of electron microprobe analysis (Table 5). Dark color of the listed minerals influences the colorimetric characteristics of the interlayers, in which the admixture of the volcanogenic material is present (increasing additive primary red color R, decreasing lightness L; Fig. 2a and Table 2). The admixture influences also the grain-size composition of sediments (increase of the sand fraction content; Fig. 2a and Table 3). The isolated position of Na on the factor diagram is, probably, governed by the approximately equal contribution of the clastic (feldspar) and authigenic-clay members of the sediment to its bulk content.

4.1. Kuril–Kamchatka Trench area The So223-4 core stripped the upper part of the sedimentary bed within the Kuril-Kamchatka Trench (pacific slope). The grain-size and chemical composition of the studied material answers the common ideas of the sedimentation in this region. The Corg content in the sediment surface layer (0.98%; Table 4) falls into the interval of values typical of the peripheral areas of the Pacific Ocean (0.5–1% and more) (Bezrukov et al., 1961). The average Corg content in So223-4 core is 0.85%. The main source of the organic matter is the phytoplankton with a sharp predominance of diatoms (Bezrukov et al., 1961; Murdmaa et al., 1970; Artemova et al., 2018 and references therein). The bulk of the diatom frustules falls into the 10–50-μm fraction, and their fragments are in the 10-μm fraction (Bezrukov et al., 1961). In our case the Corg inclination to the 63–4-μm fraction is explained by the fact that the frustules are predominantly safe or slightly fragmented (Figs. 3 and 5a, group II). Close position of the Corg and SiO2 on the factor diagram is a result of a significant contribution of the amorphous silica to the total content of SiO2 (Artemova et al., 2018), of which the diatom frustules consist. The main sources of SiO2 are quartz and feldspars. The latter is also seen on the factor diagram: K (one of the main elements in soda-potash feldspars and an admixture in plagioclases) and Ba (a frequent isomorphic substituent of potassium) enter into one group with SiO2 (Klein and Hurlbut, 1993; Betekhtin, 2007; Grigoriev, 2009 and references therein). As for the microelements, the main bearers of Ni are considered the feldspars, and Zn is nearly evenly distributed in the rockforming minerals. These common theoretical information and a series of examples obtained during the electron microprobe analysis (Table 5) support the legitimacy of the existence of the Ni–K–Zn–Ba–SiO2 chain (Fig. 5a, group II). Logical also is the fact that such colorimetric indicator as lightness L entered into group II, the base of which are the light-colored terrigenous minerals and biogenic components. It was shown that the lightness L is statistically in a positive relation with the content of a sand fraction, quartz, and feldspars and in a negative relation with illite, chlorite, and kaolinite (Kobayashi et al., 2016). The G–H–B chain supports at a quantitative level that the sediments of group II are grey-green, greenish-grey, and grey in color and are under conditions of the reduction environment. Group I on the factor diagram includes mainly the fine-grained sediments with a high content of the clay fraction and clay minerals (grain-size indicator is < 4-μm fraction, geochemical indicators are Al, and in part Mg, Ca, and Fe) and/or brown sediments of the surface oxidized layer (colorimetric indicators are R and S, geochemical indicators are first of all Mn, Fe, and P, the layer thickness is 9 cm). The brown color is due to the Mn4+ and Fe3+ hydroxides (Table 6). These and some other redox-sensitive elements migrate in the bottom surface during the diagenesis process. This can result not only in the enrichment of the sediment surface layer with iron and manganese (Fig. 2a and Table 4), but also in the formation of ferromanganese concretions, mainly nodules. The So223-4 core was sampled aside the zone of their mass occurrence, however, small manganese nodules are still met in the Kuril-Kamchatka Trench area

4.2. Kuril Basin of the Sea of Okhotsk The sediments of LV71-1 and LV71-7 cores were formed under conditions of the deep-sea Kuril basin of the Sea of Okhotsk. The upper part of the sedimentary column is composed here of the alternating turbidites and volcanogenic sediments (ashes) and covers the MioceneQuaternary stratigraphic interval (Rodnikov et al., 2005). The thickness of the surface oxidized layer is 4–5 cm that is less than that in the KurilKamchatka Trench area. This answers the common regularity of the increase of the layer thickness with distance from the continent to the open ocean (red ooze) (Bezrukov et al., 1961). It is known with certainty that the depth of the boundary occurrence of the oxidized and reduced sediments depends on the sedimentation velocity and the labile organic matter quantity. The results of the diatomic and chemical analysis of LV71-1 and LV71-7 cores were used to do the paleoreconstruction of the sedimentation environment (Artemova et al., 2018). On the factor diagram, constructed for LV71-1 core (the results of the correlation analysis have been taken into account; Table 7), as in the case with So223-4 core two groups of parameters are distinguished – conditionally terrigenous and authigenic (Fig. 5b). The kernel includes the same components as in So223-4 core, only the group arrangement is specular. The latter influences the interpretation of the factors insignificantly. Attention is drawn to the positive correlation with coarse fractions, unusual for the additive primary red color R (Table 7), as well as the isolated position on the diagram of some colorimetric (S), geochemical (Fe, Mg, Al, and Na), and all grain-size parameters (Fig. 5b). As distinct from So223-4 core, in LV71-1 core Ti enters into the composition of the terrigenous group, and the Corg, Ba, Ni, and Zn into the authigenic one. All these specific features can be explained by the presence in the sediments of the ash particles and disbalance of the relations typical of the terrigenous-biogenic sedimentation and further diagenetic transformation of the sediment. In other words, in So223-4 and LV71-1 cores different ratio of the mineral bearers of the listed elements takes place. The results of correlation and factor analyses, done for LV71-7 core, allowed us to distinguish three groups in the space of two factors (Table 8 and Fig. 5c). The base of the first group are the elementsindicators of the conditions of the oxidized setting (Mn, Mo) and biogenic components (Corg, SiO2am). Judging from appearances, a part of barium comes with the biogenic material, and a part with feldspars (coefficients of correlation with Corg, SiO2am and K exceed 0.7). The brown color, characteristic of oxidized sediment layers, is fixed by two colorimetric parameters – the additive primary red color R and saturation S. The entering of the grain-size fraction < 4 μm into group I is regular: maximum concentrations of the Corg, Mn, and Mo always 11

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A.N. Kolesnik, et al.

parameters, the following conclusions have been done. 1. Additive primary red color R, almost always synchronously with saturation S demonstrates the stable direct correlation with the content of Mn and Mo and to a lesser degree with P. The simultaneous increase of the values of all five parameters characterizes, first of all, sedimentation in the surface oxidized layer of sediments. The main mineral forms of the elements are oxides and hydroxides. As a rule, these are the sediments with a higher amount of < 4-μm fraction. The ratio of the additive primary red color R and blue color B makes it possible to determine rather accurately the boundary between the oxidized and reduced sediments (higher value of the first parameter with a lower value of the second one, and conversely). 2. Hue H and lightness L as well as very often the additive primary blue color B have the stable direct correlation with the SiO2 content. The main concentrators of Si are quartz and feldspars – the most important minerals of the terrigenous part of sediments. Such sediments, as a rule, demonstrate a higher content of fraction > 63 μm. The increasing role of the biogenic sedimentation and higher contribution of amorphous silica to the total content of SiO2 (source of the latter are diatom frustules) can be reflected in strengthening of the relations of listed parameters with Corg. 3. A small shift towards strengthening or weakening of the correlation relations inside the R–Mn–Mo and H–L–SiO2 groups against the background of the more significant disbalance between other studied characteristics can indicate the presence of volcanogenic material in the sediment.

Table 8 Paired correlation coefficients of color characteristics with grain-size and geochemical parameters in LV71-7 sediment core. Parameter

R

G

B

H

S

L

> 63 µm 63–4 µm < 4 µm SiO2 Al Ca Fe K Mg Mn Na P Ti Corg SiO2am Sc V Ni Zn Sr Mo Ba

–0.26 –0.33 0.49 –0.33 –0.56 –0.53 –0.55 0.46 0.09 0.87 0.77 0.08 –0.53 0.50 0.44 –0.52 –0.47 0.75 –0.26 –0.16 0.81 0.55

–0.13 –0.49 0.54 0.06 –0.71 –0.70 –0.71 0.69 –0.06 0.60 0.74 –0.14 –0.70 0.68 0.67 –0.69 –0.56 0.76 –0.33 –0.44 0.54 0.71

0.22 0.41 –0.54 0.19 0.65 0.62 0.64 –0.58 –0.04 –0.81 –0.80 0.00 0.63 –0.60 –0.55 0.61 0.53 –0.79 0.30 0.28 –0.74 –0.64

0.10 –0.24 0.15 0.52 –0.29 –0.32 –0.30 0.40 –0.16 –0.28 0.06 –0.21 –0.31 0.32 0.38 –0.31 –0.18 0.12 –0.11 –0.42 –0.28 0.30

–0.24 –0.39 0.53 –0.25 –0.62 –0.60 –0.62 0.55 0.06 0.84 0.80 0.02 –0.60 0.57 0.52 –0.59 –0.51 0.79 –0.29 –0.24 0.78 0.62

0.27 –0.13 –0.08 0.81 –0.13 –0.17 –0.14 0.23 –0.42 –0.69 –0.28 –0.47 –0.16 0.19 0.29 –0.17 –0.16 –0.26 –0.14 –0.52 –0.70 0.13

See note to Table 6 above.

gravitate to clayey muds (Bezrukov et al., 1961; Murdmaa et al., 1970). The coefficients of correlation with the content of fraction < 4 μm for the listed elements in LV71-7 core are 0.64, 0.57, and 0.51, correspondingly. Group II includes the coarse-grained (> 63-μm fraction) relatively light (increased lightness L) sediments enriched in SiO2, the main source of which are quartz and feldspars. Group III, judging from the combination of the parameters entering into it and the position on the diagram, can be characterized as medium-grained with an essential content of clay minerals and, probably, volcanoclastic material coming from the Kuril Islands. The latter has been supposed, in particular, from the entering of P into the group, whose close relation with the living organisms of the ocean and the processes executed by them is usually clearly observed at both the stage of the sedimentation and the stage of the early diagenesis of sediments (Savenko and Savenko, 2007). Most probably, the main phosphorus source in LV71-7 core sediments are not organic and dissolved forms (interstitial water characteristic), but isomorphous admixture in silicates and aluminosilicates (terrigenous and volcanoterrigenous part of the sediment) (Savenko and Savenko, 2007; Grigoriev, 2009). The same can be said about Ca and Sr. It should be noted that in the Sea of Okhotsk, as in the KurilKamchatka Trench area, there have been found ferromanganese formations but of quite another type (Astakhova et al., 2008; Baturin et al., 2012). These are hydrothermal-sedimentary crusts on submarine rises of the volcanic origin containing approximately equal amount of iron and manganese.

Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declared that there is no conflict of interest. Acknowledgements The FIO–POI Joint Research Center of Ocean and Climate was instrumental in done this study funded by the Russian Science Foundation (Grant no. 17-77-10043, the bulk of the work; Grant no. 19-77-10030, the additional electron microprobe analysis and interpretation of the results obtained). The authors are also extremely grateful to Dr. M. Malyutina and Prof. Dr. A. Brandt for an invitation to join the expedition supported by BMBF Grant no. 03G0250A. This is a KuramBio publication # 58. Appendix A. Supplementary material Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2019.102197. References Artemova, A.V., Sattarova, V.V., Vasilenko, Y.P., 2018. Distribution of diatoms and geochemical features of holocene sediments from the Kuril Basin (Sea of Okhotsk). Deep-Sea Res. II 154, 10–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr2.2017.12.019. Astakhova, N.V., Vvdenskaya, I.A., Karabtsov, A.A., Molchanova, G.B., 2008. Modes of occurrence of noble and nonferrous metals in ferromanganese formations in the central part of the Sea of Okhotsk. Dokl. Earth Sci. 421 (1), 764–768. https://doi.org/ 10.1134/S1028334X08050115. Balsam, W.L., Deaton, B.C., 1991. Sediment dispersal in the Atlantic Ocean: evaluation by visible light spectra. J. Aquatic Res. 4, 411–447. Balsam, W.L., Deaton, B.C., Damuth, J.E., 1999. Evaluating optical lightness as a proxy for carbonate content in marine sediment cores. Mar. Geol. 161, 141–153. https:// doi.org/10.1016/S0025-3227(99)00037-7. Baturin, G.N., Dubinchuk, V.T., Rashidov, V.A., 2012. Ferromanganese crusts from the Sea of Okhotsk. Oceanology 52 (1), 88–100. https://doi.org/10.1134/ S0001437012010031. Betekhtin, A.G., 2007. Course of Mineralogy: a Training Manual. Izdalel’stvo KDU, Moscow, 721 p. (in Russian). Bezrukov, P.L., 1955. The bottom sediments of the Kuril–Kamchatka Trench. In: Trudy Instituta Okeanologii Akademiya Nauk SSSR, Moscow, vol. 12, pp. 97–129 (in Russian). Bezrukov, P.L., 1960. The bottom sediments of the Sea of Okhotsk. In: Trudy Instituta Okeanologii Akademiya Nauk SSSR, Moscow, vol. 32, pp. 15–95 (in Russian).

5. Conclusions According to the results of the lithological description, bottom sediments of the Kuril Basin of the Sea of Okhotsk and the KurilKamchatka Trench pacific slope (upper part of the sedimentary column) are represented by brown, light-brown, red-brown, olive-brown, olive, grey-olive, and olive-grey varieties. The sediment color, perceived with the naked eye, in this case is practically in full defined by the content of the labile organic matter and by the Fe3+/Fe2+ ratio, which mark the oxidizing or reduction environment of sedimentation and subsequent diagenesis (shades of brown and green, correspondingly). The results of colorimetric analysis (RGB and HSL color spaces) gave much more information. With regard to the relations, established in color characteristics, with geochemical and in part grain-size 12

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