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Combinations of Restricted Feeding, Lighting and Energy Levels on Performance of Growing Pullets and Subsequent Layer Performance
Combinations of Restricted Feeding, Lighting and Energy Levels on Performance of Growing Pullets and Subsequent Layer Performance P . C. M I L L E R 1 AND M. L . SUNDE
Department of Poultry Science, University of Wisconsin, Madison,
WI53706
(Received for publication January 20, 1975)
POULTRY SCIENCE 54: 1631-1636, 1975
INTRODUCTION
T
HE necessity of minimizing the consumption of energy by all types of animals has become a prominent topic. A method of restricting the caloric intake of growing pullets without adversely affecting their lay performance would be advantageous in reducing costs to the poultry producers and partially diminishing the demand for high energy feedstuffs. In the past, several methods used in delaying sexual maturity actually have decreased the energy consumption by decreasing the total amount of feed consumed. The earlier work was reviewed by Ringrose (1958). Strain et al. (1965), and Proudfoot and Gowe (1967) restricted eight-week-old pullets to 75 and 70% of full feed to 22 weeks of age respectively while Fuller et al. (1969, 1973) restricted pullets to 67% of the full feed
Research supported by the College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706. 1. Present address: Shaver Poultry Breeding Farms, Ltd., Cambridge, Ontario, Canada.
energy intake. These are considerable savings when thousands of birds are involved. Performance was not reduced. Other methods of decreasing energy use are the skip-a-day program (Yates and Schaible, 1953; Fisher, 1968; and Lagervall, 1974) and the use of low energy feedstuffs (Waldroup et al., 1966; and Wright et al., 1968). The study presented here was designed to determine if a combination of restricted feeding time (six hours per day) and the use of a relatively low energy feedstuff (corn and cob meal) would result in a reduction of feed intake without detrimentally affecting future lay performance. MATERIALS AND METHODS In each of three experiments 200 commercial strain cross (Leghorn type) pullets were divided into four pens and fed diets containing 1820, 2040 or 2200 P.E. kcal. per kg. (Table 1). Three pens of birds were allowed six hours of light (LR) (42 lux) and feed per day and a fourth pen of birds had approximately 15-16 hours of natural light (NR) per day and ad libitum feeding of the 2040 kcal./kg. diet.
1631
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ABSTRACT Commercial strain cross (Leghorn type) pullets were fed diets containing 1820, 2040 or 2200 P.E. kcal./kg. from eight to 19 or 20 weeks of age. One-fourth of the birds were maintained on the middle energy diet with natural light while the others were restricted to six hours of light per day from 13 weeks of age to 19 or 20 weeks of age. During the growing phase the light and feed restriction (LR) program did not increase mortality above the non-restricted (NR) control birds, but the LR treatment did produce birds of lighter body weight (1272 g.) on less feed as compared to the NR (1412 g.). As the energy level of the LR birds increased the feed consumption and g. feed per g. of gain decreased. During the egg production phase it was found that LR program delayed sexual maturity by 11 days, but egg weight, shell rigidity, body weight at 68 weeks and feed consumption were not affected. Proper use of time clocks will permit a combination of light and feed restriction in commercial units.
1632
P. C. MILLER AND M. L. SUNDE
TABLE 1.—Percentage composition of the grower and lay diets Grower 26.0 40.0
56.0 15.0
76.0
14.0
14.0
14.0
67.2
73.3
5.0 12.5 12.0 10.0
5.0 3.0 5.0
—
0.5
0.5
0.5
2.0 3.0 3.0 1.0
0.5'
0.5'
0.5'
5.81
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.53 100.0
0.53 100.0
0.53 100.0
0.54 100.0
0.55 100.0
3.0 5.0
3.0 5.0
2.0 3.0 3.0 0.5 4.72
Chemical composition (calculated): Protein 15.9 16.1 16.1 15.6 16.1 Calcium 2.53 0.96 2.98 0.96 0.95 Phosphorus 0.69 0.65 0.61 0.66 0.66 P.E. (kcal./kg.) 053 2200 2170 820 2040 1 Ground limestone. 2 The pullet diets were stratified across lay diets having ground limestone, ground oyster shell, coarse limestone or hen oyster shell. 3 The premix supplied per kg. of diet: 6000 I.U. vitamin A; 500 I.C.U. vitamin D 3 ; 2 mg. riboflavin; 5 mg. calcium pantothenate; 10 mg. niacin; 251 mg. choline; 3 I.U. vitamin E; 123 mg. manganese oxide; 0.5 g. DL-methionine; 0.005 mg. vitamin B 1 2 ; and 250 mg. Zoamix. 4 The premix supplied per kg. of diet: 0.3 g. DL-methionine; 1000 I.U. vitamin A; 1060 I.C.U. vitamin D 3 ; 0.11 g. manganese oxide; 44 mg. choline; and 3.5 mg. riboflavin. 'The premix supplied per kg. of the diet: 22 mg. erythromycin; 0.5 g. DL-methionine; 4400 I.U. vitamin A; 1170 I.C.U. vitamin D 3 ; 0.1 g. manganese oxide; and 2.4 mg. riboflavin.
The light restriction began at 13 weeks of age. The feeders were removed during the dark hours in the LR groups. Mortality, body weight, feed consumption (FC) and feed efficiency (FE) data were compiled from the start of the experiment (eight weeks of age) to termination (19, 19 and 20 weeks for Experiments 1, 2 and 3 respectively). At the termination of the grower phase the birds were transferred to either cage or floor facilities. All caged birds were placed in individual cages allowing 1100 sq. cm. of floor space; given water and feed ad libitum; and illuminated with 14 hours of fluorescent light per day. From the first egg the caged NR birds were fed lay diet number one. In Exper-
iments 1 and 2 the LR birds were put on lay diet one at 50% production and in Experiment 3 lay diet one was given at 20 weeks of age. All birds placed in floor lay facilities were stratified across eight pens and allowed 2100 sq. cm. of floor space each; 14 hours of illumination from a combination of natural and incandescent light; water and feed ad libitum; deep litter shavings and trapnests. The hens of Experiment 2 on the floor were given layer diet number two. From 24 to 68 weeks of age the following data were summarized: feed consumption (cages only), daily egg production, egg weight, egg shell deformation, mortality,
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at University of Georgia on May 29, 2015
Corn, ground Corn and cob, ground Oat mill by-product Soybean meal (44% protein) Soybean meal (49% protein) Wheat middlings Alfalfa meal (17% protein) Meat scrap (50% protein) Fish meal (60% protein) Dicalcium phosphate Calcium source Iodized salt Premix
Lay
1633
FEEDING, LIGHTING, ENERGY AND PERFORMANCE
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Grower Performance. The grow data (Table 2) show no difference in mortality between
TABLE 2.—Summary of the effects of the grower diets from eight weeks of age to time of housing' Treatment P.E. (kcal./kg.) 1830-LR3 2050-LR' 2200-LR' 2050-NR4
Final body weight experiment 1 1295 1273 1287 1445
2
32
(g.) 1301 1281 1286 1239 1241 1260 1390 1402
All 1292 1266 1263 1412
Feed consumption experiment 1 4.8 4.4 4.3 5.2
2
3
All
(kg./survivor) 5.0 4.6 4.3 4.3 4.1 4.2 5.1 5.3
4.8 4.3 4.2 5.2
Feed efficiency experiment 1 (g. 6.3 5.9 5.7 5.8
2
3
All
feed/g. gain) 7.0 6.5 6.6 6.2 6.3 6.1 6.0 6.1 5.9 6.2 6.4 6.1
1
Mortality experiment 2 3
All
(No. died/no. start) 0/50 2/50 0/50 2/150 0/50 0/50 0/50 0/150 2/50 0/50 4/50 6/150 0/50 2/50 2/50 4/150
1
19, 19, and 20 weeks of age for Experiments 1, 2 and 3 respectively. Second strain of commercial Leghorn. 'Natural lighting to 13 weeks then six hours per day. 4 Natural lighting throughout the growing experiment. 2
treatments, but the final body weights were reduced (P < 0.01) by the LR (1272 g.) compared to the NR (1412 g.). The decrease in FC of the LR (4.4 kg. per bird) versus the NR (5.2 kg.) accompanied the weight reduction. Among the three LR energy levels the low energy birds had only a slightly heavier body weight than the other two levels. The differences in body weight and FC between the LR and NR at the medium energy level indicate that restricting feeding time is 2. Marius, N. V. Fabriek en Magazijn Van Wetenschappelijke Instrumenten, Utrecht, Hollantl.
calculation. The energy consumption found here is lower than that of Wolf et al. (1969) who reported consumptions of 202, 201 and 205 M.E. kcal. per bird per day for the three levels studied from nine to 18 weeks of age. Both studies show that the birds tend to eat to satisfy an energy need. Using the percentage composition data (Table 1) and the cost of each ingredient as of September, 1972 the cost per kg. of diet would be 6.49, 6.64 and 6.69 cents for the low, medium, and high energy levels respectively. The multiplication of the cost per kg. by the consumption per bird gives 31.2, 28.3,
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very effective in decreasing feed consumption. Note that the FE between these two treatments is very similar in all experiments and identical (6.1 g. feed/g. gain) overall, but there is a distinct difference in FE between the two lower LR energy levels. As the dietary energy level increased FC decreased and FE "improved." These findings are in agreement with those of Wolf et al. (1969). The multiplication of the overall feed consumption per bird by the energy content of the feed gives 114, 112, 116 and 134 kcal. of P.E. consumed per bird per day for each treatment respectively which would decrease energy consumption 18, 15, and 13% for the low, medium and high energy diets respectively using the NR as the base for the
body weight, and poorly shelled eggs (cages only). Checked, cracked, broken, leakers and soft-shelled eggs detected at point-of-lay in the cages were classified as poorly shelled eggs (PSE). Egg weights to the nearest g. were taken once every 28-day period for the floor birds and from the caged birds originally under the LR treatment. The eggs of the caged NR birds were weighed one day per week. Egg shell deformation using the Marius apparatus 2 on the vertical axis under a 500 g. load was made on all eggs one day a week from all birds.
59c 61a 55d 60b
154 157 154 144
(days) 155 158 154 162 152 157 144 151
150 154 152 138
1 Cage
Age at first egg experiment 2 3 1 All Cage Cage Cage 58a 60a 58a 59a
Cage
2
(g.) 59a 59a 57c 58b
Floor
Egg weight experiment
59a 59a 60a 57b
3 Cage 59 60 58 59
All
Grower
2072 2073 1824 1930
All
2071 1961 1996 2001
3 Cage
(g.) 2073 2068 1761 2050 2051 2113 1982 2093
2 Cage
Final body weight experiment
1 Cage
2
15.5 16.6 17.0 15.2
1 Cage
2
Floor
3 Cage
(0.001 mm.) 16.7 17.8 15.7 16.6 17.4 16.9 16.4 18.8 15.5 17.2 17.9 16.4
Cage
Shell deformation experiment
16.4 16.9 16.9 16.7
All 2.2 8.0 12.9 5.9
2.8 2.9 3.6 7.7
0/6 0/6 1/6 1/6
1 Cage
2 Floor
3 Cage
(No. died/no. start) 0/12 4/24 3/32 0/12 2/24 3/32 5/24 6/12 6/32 0/6 2/32 0/6
Cage
Mortality
(;xperiment
7/74 5/74 18/74 3/50
All
112 115 103 109
1 Cage
3 Cage
All (g./hen/day) 116 108 112 113 110 109 113 109 108 113 108 110
2 Cage
Feed consumption experiment
80ab 82a 72c 76bc
1 Cage
84a 72b 73b 74b
Cage
(%)
2
83a 82ab 75c 79b
78b 83a 79b 79b
3 Cage
(%)
Floor
Egg production experiment
3.4 3.1 7.7 6.4
81 80 75 77
All
2.8 4.7 8.1 6.7
Poorly shelled eggs experiment 2 3 1 Cage Cage Cage All
TABLE 4.—Summary of several lay performance cirteria from 24 to 68 weeks of age on a lot per period basis
Natural lighting to 13 weeks of age, then six hours per day. Natural lighting throughout the growing experiment. Means with the same small letter are not significantly different (P > 0.05).
1
1830-LR1 2050-LR1 2200-LR1 2050-NR2
P.E. (kcal./kg.)
2
' Natural lighting to 13 weeks of age, theni six hours per day. Natural lighting throughout the growing experiment. Means with the same small letters are not significantly different (P > 0.05).
1830-LR1 2050-LR1 2200-LR1 2050-NR2
P.E. (kcal./kg.)
Grower treatment
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TABLE 3.—Summary of several lay performance criteria from 24 to 68 weeks of age on a lot per period basis
T) C. MILLER AND M. L. S
FEEDING, LIGHTING, ENERGY AND PERFORMANCE
28.1 and 34.5 cents per bird for the 1830-LR, 2050-LR, 2200-LR and 2050 NR treatments respectively thus indicating the economic worth of using a feed restriction program that limits the quantity of food consumed. The increased level of dietary energy did not appreciably decrease the cost per bird using these diets.
Even with the delay in sexual maturity there was no apparent difference between treatments on the basis of final body weight, feed consumption (Table 4) or shell deformation (Table 3). On the other hand, the birds that had been fed the highest energy level had the highest mortality (24%) and the highest % PSE (8.1%) (Table 3). These same birds also tended to have a lower rate of production than the NR group and the other energy levels, but the significant differences (P <
0.05) were not consistent between experiments. It appears evident that the chickens do have an adaptation mechanism to consume to fulfill the energy need during the growing phase. Under the conditions in this study the use of restricted lighting and feeding did not have a detrimental effect on subsequent performance. The combination of light restriction and feed restriction has not been used very often. It appears that this combination may permit dietary energy variations that are not possible without light restriction. High energy growing diets increase problems with feather eating and cannibalism. With the light restriction this was not a problem even though the caloric level was reasonably high (76% corn). Other reports Turk et al. (1961) have shown this to be a problem. A combination between feed and light restriction is quite easy to maintain with time clocks on both the mechanical feeder and the light systems. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors wish to acknowledge the gifts of some of the vitamins used in this study through the generosity of Dr. Robert Miller, Merck and Co., Rahway, N J . and the coccidiostat through Mr. Don Grey, Dow Chemical Co., Midland, Michigan. REFERENCES Fisher, R., 1968. Low protein, skip-a-day diets tested. Feedstuffs, 40(15): 24. Fuller, H. L., W. M. Kirkland and L. W. Chaney, 1973. Methods of delaying sexual maturity in pullets. Poultry Sci. 52: 228-236. Fuller, H. L., D. K. Potter and W. Kirkland, 1969. Effect of delayed maturity and carcass fat on reproductive performance of breeder pullets. Poultry Sci. 48: 801-809. Lagervall, P. M., 1974. Effect of skip-a-day feeding of laying-hen chickens on growth, feed consumption and succeeding egg production. Proc. XV World's Poultry Congress, pp. 188-189. Proudfoot, F. G., and R. S. Gowe, 1967. The effect
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Layer Performance. The light restriction program delayed sexual maturity approximately 11 days as compared to the non-restricted birds (Table 3). The age at first egg between the several energy levels was not different although they consumed different levels of protein (9.6, 8.5, 8.4 and 10.6 g./bird/day for the four treatments respectively). Wolf et al. (1969) indicated that sexual maturity and protein consumption were inversely related. It should also be pointed out again that the LR pullets were placed on the lay diets at 50% production in the first two experiments and at 20 weeks of age in the third experiment. Note that the average age to first egg was higher in the third experiment than in the other two. The delayed sexual maturity significantly (P < 0.05) increased egg size of the medium energy-LR group in three of the four cases (Table 3) as compared to the NR group. This increased egg size was also found by Fuller et al. (1969) after delaying sexual maturity with the use of a diet containing 67% of full feed energy and by Sunde et al. (1954) after feeding an incomplete diet during the growing stage.
1635
1636
P. C. MILLER AND M. L. SUNDE
Poultry Sci. 40: 708-716. Waldroup, P. W., B. L. Damron and R. H. Harms, 1966. The effect of low protein and high fiber grower diets on the performance of broiler pullets. Poultry Sci. 45: 393-402. Wolf, J. D., E. W. Gleaves, L. V. Tonkinson, R. H. Thayer and R. D. Morrison, 1969. Dietary protein, energy and volume in pullet grower diets as related to growing and laying performance. Poultry Sci. 48: 559-574. Wright, C. F., B. L. Damron, P. W. Waldroup and R. H. Harms, 1968. The performance of laying hens fed normal and low protein diets between 8-18 weeks of age. Poultry Sci. 47: 635-638. Yates, J. D., and P. J. Schaible, 1963. Skip-feeding and energy level of the ration for developing Leghorn type pullets. Feedstuffs, 35(46): 18.
Toxicity of Dietary Lead in Japanese Quail12 G. W. MORGAN, F. W. EDENS, P. THAXTON AND C. R. PARKHURST
Department of Poultry Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27607 (Received for publication January 21, 1975)
ABSTRACT The toxicity of dietary lead in Japanese quail was investigated. The data indicated that dietary lead, in the form of lead acetate, was toxic to young quail at the level of 500 p.p.m. and this toxicity was evidenced by an inhibition of normal growth and by anemia. The anemic state in the lead toxic quail was more readily detected by reduced blood hemoglobin concentrations than by packed cell volumes. In addition, the data suggested that lead interfered with normal sexual development in the males. Lead at levels as high as 1000 p.p.m. did not prevent normal primary antibody responses to sheep erythrocytes. POULTRY SCIENCE 54: 1636-1642, 1975
INTRODUCTION
T eral
injection of rats with inorganic lead caused
HE effects of toxic levels of lead in mammals are diverse and represent sevfunctional
systemic
alterations.
However, the toxic effects of lead containing compounds in avian species have not been fully explored and are poorly understood at best. Yamamoto et al. (1974) reported that
mobilization of bone calcium and a concomitant increase in calcium content of the liver. Lead is known to potentiate the toxic effects of endotoxin in chicks (Truscott, 1970) and in mammals (Selye et al., 1966; Cook et
al,
1974). However, the mechanism of this effect remains obscure. Koller and Kovacic (1974) reported that mice exposed to lead had a reduced number of splenic antibody plaque
1. Paper number 4561 of the Journal Series of the North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, Raleigh, NC 27607. 2. A preliminary report of this paper was presented to the 72nd Annual Meeting of the SAAS, New Orleans, LA.
forming cells. Hilderbrand et al. (1973) discussed the possibility of hazardous effects of lead on sexuality and reproductive function in the rat. In addition, Goldberg (1972) reviewed the role of lead poisoning in heme
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at University of Georgia on May 29, 2015
of photoperiodism and rearing period feed restriction on the performance of five Leghorn strains. Poultry Sci. 46: 1056-1072. Ringrose, R. C , 1958. Restricted feeding of growing pullets. Ag. Exp. Sta. Bull. 456, Univ. of New Hampshire, Durham, N.H. Strain, J. H., R. S. Gowe, R. D. Crawford, A. T. Hill, S. B. Slenand W. F. Mountain, 1965. Restricted feeding of growing pullets: 1. The effect on the performance traits of egg production stock. Poultry Sci. 44: 701-726. Sunde, M. L., W. W. Cravens, H. R. Bird and J. G. Halpin, 1954. The effect of complete and incomplete growing diets on subsequent performance of the laying hen. Poultry Sci. 33: 779-784. Turk, D. E., W. G. Hoekstra, H. R. Bird and M. L. Sunde, 1961. The effect of dietary protein and energy levels on the growth of replacement pullets.
Department of Poultry Science, University of Wisconsin, Madison,
WI53706
(Received for publication January 20, 1975)
POULTRY SCIENCE 54: 1631-1636, 1975
INTRODUCTION
T
HE necessity of minimizing the consumption of energy by all types of animals has become a prominent topic. A method of restricting the caloric intake of growing pullets without adversely affecting their lay performance would be advantageous in reducing costs to the poultry producers and partially diminishing the demand for high energy feedstuffs. In the past, several methods used in delaying sexual maturity actually have decreased the energy consumption by decreasing the total amount of feed consumed. The earlier work was reviewed by Ringrose (1958). Strain et al. (1965), and Proudfoot and Gowe (1967) restricted eight-week-old pullets to 75 and 70% of full feed to 22 weeks of age respectively while Fuller et al. (1969, 1973) restricted pullets to 67% of the full feed
Research supported by the College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706. 1. Present address: Shaver Poultry Breeding Farms, Ltd., Cambridge, Ontario, Canada.
energy intake. These are considerable savings when thousands of birds are involved. Performance was not reduced. Other methods of decreasing energy use are the skip-a-day program (Yates and Schaible, 1953; Fisher, 1968; and Lagervall, 1974) and the use of low energy feedstuffs (Waldroup et al., 1966; and Wright et al., 1968). The study presented here was designed to determine if a combination of restricted feeding time (six hours per day) and the use of a relatively low energy feedstuff (corn and cob meal) would result in a reduction of feed intake without detrimentally affecting future lay performance. MATERIALS AND METHODS In each of three experiments 200 commercial strain cross (Leghorn type) pullets were divided into four pens and fed diets containing 1820, 2040 or 2200 P.E. kcal. per kg. (Table 1). Three pens of birds were allowed six hours of light (LR) (42 lux) and feed per day and a fourth pen of birds had approximately 15-16 hours of natural light (NR) per day and ad libitum feeding of the 2040 kcal./kg. diet.
1631
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at University of Georgia on May 29, 2015
ABSTRACT Commercial strain cross (Leghorn type) pullets were fed diets containing 1820, 2040 or 2200 P.E. kcal./kg. from eight to 19 or 20 weeks of age. One-fourth of the birds were maintained on the middle energy diet with natural light while the others were restricted to six hours of light per day from 13 weeks of age to 19 or 20 weeks of age. During the growing phase the light and feed restriction (LR) program did not increase mortality above the non-restricted (NR) control birds, but the LR treatment did produce birds of lighter body weight (1272 g.) on less feed as compared to the NR (1412 g.). As the energy level of the LR birds increased the feed consumption and g. feed per g. of gain decreased. During the egg production phase it was found that LR program delayed sexual maturity by 11 days, but egg weight, shell rigidity, body weight at 68 weeks and feed consumption were not affected. Proper use of time clocks will permit a combination of light and feed restriction in commercial units.
1632
P. C. MILLER AND M. L. SUNDE
TABLE 1.—Percentage composition of the grower and lay diets Grower 26.0 40.0
56.0 15.0
76.0
14.0
14.0
14.0
67.2
73.3
5.0 12.5 12.0 10.0
5.0 3.0 5.0
—
0.5
0.5
0.5
2.0 3.0 3.0 1.0
0.5'
0.5'
0.5'
5.81
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.53 100.0
0.53 100.0
0.53 100.0
0.54 100.0
0.55 100.0
3.0 5.0
3.0 5.0
2.0 3.0 3.0 0.5 4.72
Chemical composition (calculated): Protein 15.9 16.1 16.1 15.6 16.1 Calcium 2.53 0.96 2.98 0.96 0.95 Phosphorus 0.69 0.65 0.61 0.66 0.66 P.E. (kcal./kg.) 053 2200 2170 820 2040 1 Ground limestone. 2 The pullet diets were stratified across lay diets having ground limestone, ground oyster shell, coarse limestone or hen oyster shell. 3 The premix supplied per kg. of diet: 6000 I.U. vitamin A; 500 I.C.U. vitamin D 3 ; 2 mg. riboflavin; 5 mg. calcium pantothenate; 10 mg. niacin; 251 mg. choline; 3 I.U. vitamin E; 123 mg. manganese oxide; 0.5 g. DL-methionine; 0.005 mg. vitamin B 1 2 ; and 250 mg. Zoamix. 4 The premix supplied per kg. of diet: 0.3 g. DL-methionine; 1000 I.U. vitamin A; 1060 I.C.U. vitamin D 3 ; 0.11 g. manganese oxide; 44 mg. choline; and 3.5 mg. riboflavin. 'The premix supplied per kg. of the diet: 22 mg. erythromycin; 0.5 g. DL-methionine; 4400 I.U. vitamin A; 1170 I.C.U. vitamin D 3 ; 0.1 g. manganese oxide; and 2.4 mg. riboflavin.
The light restriction began at 13 weeks of age. The feeders were removed during the dark hours in the LR groups. Mortality, body weight, feed consumption (FC) and feed efficiency (FE) data were compiled from the start of the experiment (eight weeks of age) to termination (19, 19 and 20 weeks for Experiments 1, 2 and 3 respectively). At the termination of the grower phase the birds were transferred to either cage or floor facilities. All caged birds were placed in individual cages allowing 1100 sq. cm. of floor space; given water and feed ad libitum; and illuminated with 14 hours of fluorescent light per day. From the first egg the caged NR birds were fed lay diet number one. In Exper-
iments 1 and 2 the LR birds were put on lay diet one at 50% production and in Experiment 3 lay diet one was given at 20 weeks of age. All birds placed in floor lay facilities were stratified across eight pens and allowed 2100 sq. cm. of floor space each; 14 hours of illumination from a combination of natural and incandescent light; water and feed ad libitum; deep litter shavings and trapnests. The hens of Experiment 2 on the floor were given layer diet number two. From 24 to 68 weeks of age the following data were summarized: feed consumption (cages only), daily egg production, egg weight, egg shell deformation, mortality,
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at University of Georgia on May 29, 2015
Corn, ground Corn and cob, ground Oat mill by-product Soybean meal (44% protein) Soybean meal (49% protein) Wheat middlings Alfalfa meal (17% protein) Meat scrap (50% protein) Fish meal (60% protein) Dicalcium phosphate Calcium source Iodized salt Premix
Lay
1633
FEEDING, LIGHTING, ENERGY AND PERFORMANCE
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Grower Performance. The grow data (Table 2) show no difference in mortality between
TABLE 2.—Summary of the effects of the grower diets from eight weeks of age to time of housing' Treatment P.E. (kcal./kg.) 1830-LR3 2050-LR' 2200-LR' 2050-NR4
Final body weight experiment 1 1295 1273 1287 1445
2
32
(g.) 1301 1281 1286 1239 1241 1260 1390 1402
All 1292 1266 1263 1412
Feed consumption experiment 1 4.8 4.4 4.3 5.2
2
3
All
(kg./survivor) 5.0 4.6 4.3 4.3 4.1 4.2 5.1 5.3
4.8 4.3 4.2 5.2
Feed efficiency experiment 1 (g. 6.3 5.9 5.7 5.8
2
3
All
feed/g. gain) 7.0 6.5 6.6 6.2 6.3 6.1 6.0 6.1 5.9 6.2 6.4 6.1
1
Mortality experiment 2 3
All
(No. died/no. start) 0/50 2/50 0/50 2/150 0/50 0/50 0/50 0/150 2/50 0/50 4/50 6/150 0/50 2/50 2/50 4/150
1
19, 19, and 20 weeks of age for Experiments 1, 2 and 3 respectively. Second strain of commercial Leghorn. 'Natural lighting to 13 weeks then six hours per day. 4 Natural lighting throughout the growing experiment. 2
treatments, but the final body weights were reduced (P < 0.01) by the LR (1272 g.) compared to the NR (1412 g.). The decrease in FC of the LR (4.4 kg. per bird) versus the NR (5.2 kg.) accompanied the weight reduction. Among the three LR energy levels the low energy birds had only a slightly heavier body weight than the other two levels. The differences in body weight and FC between the LR and NR at the medium energy level indicate that restricting feeding time is 2. Marius, N. V. Fabriek en Magazijn Van Wetenschappelijke Instrumenten, Utrecht, Hollantl.
calculation. The energy consumption found here is lower than that of Wolf et al. (1969) who reported consumptions of 202, 201 and 205 M.E. kcal. per bird per day for the three levels studied from nine to 18 weeks of age. Both studies show that the birds tend to eat to satisfy an energy need. Using the percentage composition data (Table 1) and the cost of each ingredient as of September, 1972 the cost per kg. of diet would be 6.49, 6.64 and 6.69 cents for the low, medium, and high energy levels respectively. The multiplication of the cost per kg. by the consumption per bird gives 31.2, 28.3,
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at University of Georgia on May 29, 2015
very effective in decreasing feed consumption. Note that the FE between these two treatments is very similar in all experiments and identical (6.1 g. feed/g. gain) overall, but there is a distinct difference in FE between the two lower LR energy levels. As the dietary energy level increased FC decreased and FE "improved." These findings are in agreement with those of Wolf et al. (1969). The multiplication of the overall feed consumption per bird by the energy content of the feed gives 114, 112, 116 and 134 kcal. of P.E. consumed per bird per day for each treatment respectively which would decrease energy consumption 18, 15, and 13% for the low, medium and high energy diets respectively using the NR as the base for the
body weight, and poorly shelled eggs (cages only). Checked, cracked, broken, leakers and soft-shelled eggs detected at point-of-lay in the cages were classified as poorly shelled eggs (PSE). Egg weights to the nearest g. were taken once every 28-day period for the floor birds and from the caged birds originally under the LR treatment. The eggs of the caged NR birds were weighed one day per week. Egg shell deformation using the Marius apparatus 2 on the vertical axis under a 500 g. load was made on all eggs one day a week from all birds.
59c 61a 55d 60b
154 157 154 144
(days) 155 158 154 162 152 157 144 151
150 154 152 138
1 Cage
Age at first egg experiment 2 3 1 All Cage Cage Cage 58a 60a 58a 59a
Cage
2
(g.) 59a 59a 57c 58b
Floor
Egg weight experiment
59a 59a 60a 57b
3 Cage 59 60 58 59
All
Grower
2072 2073 1824 1930
All
2071 1961 1996 2001
3 Cage
(g.) 2073 2068 1761 2050 2051 2113 1982 2093
2 Cage
Final body weight experiment
1 Cage
2
15.5 16.6 17.0 15.2
1 Cage
2
Floor
3 Cage
(0.001 mm.) 16.7 17.8 15.7 16.6 17.4 16.9 16.4 18.8 15.5 17.2 17.9 16.4
Cage
Shell deformation experiment
16.4 16.9 16.9 16.7
All 2.2 8.0 12.9 5.9
2.8 2.9 3.6 7.7
0/6 0/6 1/6 1/6
1 Cage
2 Floor
3 Cage
(No. died/no. start) 0/12 4/24 3/32 0/12 2/24 3/32 5/24 6/12 6/32 0/6 2/32 0/6
Cage
Mortality
(;xperiment
7/74 5/74 18/74 3/50
All
112 115 103 109
1 Cage
3 Cage
All (g./hen/day) 116 108 112 113 110 109 113 109 108 113 108 110
2 Cage
Feed consumption experiment
80ab 82a 72c 76bc
1 Cage
84a 72b 73b 74b
Cage
(%)
2
83a 82ab 75c 79b
78b 83a 79b 79b
3 Cage
(%)
Floor
Egg production experiment
3.4 3.1 7.7 6.4
81 80 75 77
All
2.8 4.7 8.1 6.7
Poorly shelled eggs experiment 2 3 1 Cage Cage Cage All
TABLE 4.—Summary of several lay performance cirteria from 24 to 68 weeks of age on a lot per period basis
Natural lighting to 13 weeks of age, then six hours per day. Natural lighting throughout the growing experiment. Means with the same small letter are not significantly different (P > 0.05).
1
1830-LR1 2050-LR1 2200-LR1 2050-NR2
P.E. (kcal./kg.)
2
' Natural lighting to 13 weeks of age, theni six hours per day. Natural lighting throughout the growing experiment. Means with the same small letters are not significantly different (P > 0.05).
1830-LR1 2050-LR1 2200-LR1 2050-NR2
P.E. (kcal./kg.)
Grower treatment
aded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at University of Georgia on May 29, 2015
TABLE 3.—Summary of several lay performance criteria from 24 to 68 weeks of age on a lot per period basis
T) C. MILLER AND M. L. S
FEEDING, LIGHTING, ENERGY AND PERFORMANCE
28.1 and 34.5 cents per bird for the 1830-LR, 2050-LR, 2200-LR and 2050 NR treatments respectively thus indicating the economic worth of using a feed restriction program that limits the quantity of food consumed. The increased level of dietary energy did not appreciably decrease the cost per bird using these diets.
Even with the delay in sexual maturity there was no apparent difference between treatments on the basis of final body weight, feed consumption (Table 4) or shell deformation (Table 3). On the other hand, the birds that had been fed the highest energy level had the highest mortality (24%) and the highest % PSE (8.1%) (Table 3). These same birds also tended to have a lower rate of production than the NR group and the other energy levels, but the significant differences (P <
0.05) were not consistent between experiments. It appears evident that the chickens do have an adaptation mechanism to consume to fulfill the energy need during the growing phase. Under the conditions in this study the use of restricted lighting and feeding did not have a detrimental effect on subsequent performance. The combination of light restriction and feed restriction has not been used very often. It appears that this combination may permit dietary energy variations that are not possible without light restriction. High energy growing diets increase problems with feather eating and cannibalism. With the light restriction this was not a problem even though the caloric level was reasonably high (76% corn). Other reports Turk et al. (1961) have shown this to be a problem. A combination between feed and light restriction is quite easy to maintain with time clocks on both the mechanical feeder and the light systems. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors wish to acknowledge the gifts of some of the vitamins used in this study through the generosity of Dr. Robert Miller, Merck and Co., Rahway, N J . and the coccidiostat through Mr. Don Grey, Dow Chemical Co., Midland, Michigan. REFERENCES Fisher, R., 1968. Low protein, skip-a-day diets tested. Feedstuffs, 40(15): 24. Fuller, H. L., W. M. Kirkland and L. W. Chaney, 1973. Methods of delaying sexual maturity in pullets. Poultry Sci. 52: 228-236. Fuller, H. L., D. K. Potter and W. Kirkland, 1969. Effect of delayed maturity and carcass fat on reproductive performance of breeder pullets. Poultry Sci. 48: 801-809. Lagervall, P. M., 1974. Effect of skip-a-day feeding of laying-hen chickens on growth, feed consumption and succeeding egg production. Proc. XV World's Poultry Congress, pp. 188-189. Proudfoot, F. G., and R. S. Gowe, 1967. The effect
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Layer Performance. The light restriction program delayed sexual maturity approximately 11 days as compared to the non-restricted birds (Table 3). The age at first egg between the several energy levels was not different although they consumed different levels of protein (9.6, 8.5, 8.4 and 10.6 g./bird/day for the four treatments respectively). Wolf et al. (1969) indicated that sexual maturity and protein consumption were inversely related. It should also be pointed out again that the LR pullets were placed on the lay diets at 50% production in the first two experiments and at 20 weeks of age in the third experiment. Note that the average age to first egg was higher in the third experiment than in the other two. The delayed sexual maturity significantly (P < 0.05) increased egg size of the medium energy-LR group in three of the four cases (Table 3) as compared to the NR group. This increased egg size was also found by Fuller et al. (1969) after delaying sexual maturity with the use of a diet containing 67% of full feed energy and by Sunde et al. (1954) after feeding an incomplete diet during the growing stage.
1635
1636
P. C. MILLER AND M. L. SUNDE
Poultry Sci. 40: 708-716. Waldroup, P. W., B. L. Damron and R. H. Harms, 1966. The effect of low protein and high fiber grower diets on the performance of broiler pullets. Poultry Sci. 45: 393-402. Wolf, J. D., E. W. Gleaves, L. V. Tonkinson, R. H. Thayer and R. D. Morrison, 1969. Dietary protein, energy and volume in pullet grower diets as related to growing and laying performance. Poultry Sci. 48: 559-574. Wright, C. F., B. L. Damron, P. W. Waldroup and R. H. Harms, 1968. The performance of laying hens fed normal and low protein diets between 8-18 weeks of age. Poultry Sci. 47: 635-638. Yates, J. D., and P. J. Schaible, 1963. Skip-feeding and energy level of the ration for developing Leghorn type pullets. Feedstuffs, 35(46): 18.
Toxicity of Dietary Lead in Japanese Quail12 G. W. MORGAN, F. W. EDENS, P. THAXTON AND C. R. PARKHURST
Department of Poultry Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27607 (Received for publication January 21, 1975)
ABSTRACT The toxicity of dietary lead in Japanese quail was investigated. The data indicated that dietary lead, in the form of lead acetate, was toxic to young quail at the level of 500 p.p.m. and this toxicity was evidenced by an inhibition of normal growth and by anemia. The anemic state in the lead toxic quail was more readily detected by reduced blood hemoglobin concentrations than by packed cell volumes. In addition, the data suggested that lead interfered with normal sexual development in the males. Lead at levels as high as 1000 p.p.m. did not prevent normal primary antibody responses to sheep erythrocytes. POULTRY SCIENCE 54: 1636-1642, 1975
INTRODUCTION
T eral
injection of rats with inorganic lead caused
HE effects of toxic levels of lead in mammals are diverse and represent sevfunctional
systemic
alterations.
However, the toxic effects of lead containing compounds in avian species have not been fully explored and are poorly understood at best. Yamamoto et al. (1974) reported that
mobilization of bone calcium and a concomitant increase in calcium content of the liver. Lead is known to potentiate the toxic effects of endotoxin in chicks (Truscott, 1970) and in mammals (Selye et al., 1966; Cook et
al,
1974). However, the mechanism of this effect remains obscure. Koller and Kovacic (1974) reported that mice exposed to lead had a reduced number of splenic antibody plaque
1. Paper number 4561 of the Journal Series of the North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, Raleigh, NC 27607. 2. A preliminary report of this paper was presented to the 72nd Annual Meeting of the SAAS, New Orleans, LA.
forming cells. Hilderbrand et al. (1973) discussed the possibility of hazardous effects of lead on sexuality and reproductive function in the rat. In addition, Goldberg (1972) reviewed the role of lead poisoning in heme
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of photoperiodism and rearing period feed restriction on the performance of five Leghorn strains. Poultry Sci. 46: 1056-1072. Ringrose, R. C , 1958. Restricted feeding of growing pullets. Ag. Exp. Sta. Bull. 456, Univ. of New Hampshire, Durham, N.H. Strain, J. H., R. S. Gowe, R. D. Crawford, A. T. Hill, S. B. Slenand W. F. Mountain, 1965. Restricted feeding of growing pullets: 1. The effect on the performance traits of egg production stock. Poultry Sci. 44: 701-726. Sunde, M. L., W. W. Cravens, H. R. Bird and J. G. Halpin, 1954. The effect of complete and incomplete growing diets on subsequent performance of the laying hen. Poultry Sci. 33: 779-784. Turk, D. E., W. G. Hoekstra, H. R. Bird and M. L. Sunde, 1961. The effect of dietary protein and energy levels on the growth of replacement pullets.