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Communications technology and the public sector: Understanding the process of adoption
TELEMATICS and INFORMATICS
Vol. 5, No. 4, pp. 431-435, 1988 Copyright © 1988 Pergamon Press plc. Printed in the USA 0736-5853/88 $3.00 + .00
COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGY AND THE PUBLIC SECTOR: UNDERSTANDING THE PROCESS OF ADOPTION Louis A. Bransford Abstract--The introduction of technological innovation in the public service sector is typically greeted with enthusiasm. The implementation and subsequent adoption, however, has not come easily or quickly. Few people argue the potential and value of technology anymore; the issues that inhibit adoption of technology are essentially economic and political. The need to better understand the process of adoption and the factors that contribute to its implementation in the public service sector are the basis of this article. What motivates people to acquire and use technology is a topic that historically has intrigued and challenged researchers who are concerned with the adoption of new technology. The speed with which market forces have propelled the adoption of technology in business and industry is truly phenomenal. In the public service sector, however, where market forces are often irrelevant, the introduction of technological innovation has elicited mixed reviews. Major renovations in traditional service delivery that were envisioned when computers, teleconferencing, artificial intelligence, robotics, videodisc, and other technologies were introduced, have not yet materialized at the levels originally projected. This lag time is in sharp contrast to business and industry where advanced technology has dramatically changed the traditional role of the worker. Some examples come to mind. The cashier's savvy with numbers has been replaced by optical scanning equipment. The stock broker's intuitive stock-trading decision making has been displaced by an automated trading computer program. The average McDonald's checkout person requires less than 10 minutes of training to match a cash register key with a correlating food item. The benefits to be gained through use of advanced telecommunications and information systems accrue first to those who are most able to afford the higher costs of new products and services. Although there are several exceptions, such as hospitals and selected government agencies, it may be years before nonprofit enterprises fully adopt advanced technology. In contrast to research on change and innovation in general, the process of adoption of technological innovations in the public service has been virtually ignored. Currently, no detailed model of the adoption process in public service exists. At best, several case studies in business and industry provide some insight, but only generalizations are possible.
Dr. Louis A. Bransford is President of PSSC in Washington, DC. 431
432
Louis A. Bransford
Adoption, for the purpose o f this discussion, is defined as acceptance and effective utilization of innovative technology. Figure l depicts the process, which begins with an awareness or knowledge of the technology in question. However, awareness does not necessarily ensure understanding. Likewise, understanding does not always lead to acceptance and acceptance does not guarantee utilization. Only effective and ongoing utilization can ultimately lead to adoption. The process leading to adoption is dependent on many factors. Some have to do with technologies; others relate to the leadership within the institution and the community around it. Additionally, some factors are primarily economic. Major variables, both dependent and independent, are described below. For discussion purposes, some examples are selected from the field o f education. However, the inferences drawn can be applied to other public service areas. Dependent variables include: commitment, politics, presence o f a "champion," attitudes, resources, time, training, and integration. Independent variables include: cost, adaptability, competition, reliability, and obsolescence. DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Commitment Institutional commitment to the acquisition and implementation of technology is essential to the process of adoption. This commitment can result from purely pragmatic motivation, favorable political influences, or from the presence of a "champion" who is in a position to effect change. It has been demonstrated in several studies that the presence of a "champion" is a critical factor in any innovative program. Peters (1986) has noted: An IBM in-house study of 18 projects found the determined innovator is the "major distinguisher between success and failure." An Industrial Research Institute study of
ADOPT Adoption is achieved as a function of r penetration and effective u t i l i z a - ~ tion. Penetration increases / . , , , ACCEPT as innovation a d v o n c e s ~ I through the process ~ U of adoption, r" . NDERSTAND
d
h r-q 3> z t~ -o [-q z Fq 70 3>
KNOW Figure 1. The process of adoption.
O Z
The process of adoption
433
54 successful innovations (contrasted with a like set of unsuccessful ones) concluded, "Almost without exception, there was a project champion." (p. E7) Management commitment to technological innovation can often be measured by the amount of time and resources (financial and otherwise) made available for the project. Lack of commitment often translates into the withholding of resources, or in failure to ease the technology into established routines. Often, we find that administrative barriers to systematically rearranging work patterns and responsibilities required to utilize a technology will inhibit its adoption.
Attitude The attitude of technology users is a fundamental factor in its adoption. Antiscientism is a prevailing attitude among humanists, sometimes resulting in aversion to hardware of all kinds. Often, resistance can be traced to such a deep-seated aversion; but often, it is simple fear of the unknown, or of a device that will alter habitual modes of operation. In both cases resistance can usually be overcome by increasing familiarity with the technology and demonstrating how it can contribute to a work situation.
Resources Many administrators working in the public service sector have the preconceived notion that state-of-the-art technologies are so costly that only the wealthy can aftbrd them. This is true in some cases, but careful financial analysis based on projected cost savings reveals that most agencies can justify expenditures to streamline day-to-day operations. It's a matter o f arranging priorities in a systematic way to take advantage of the technology. Availability of resources pertains to more than equipment. In the case of education, hardware has been provided to school systems with little regard for the software (instructional television and computer programs, manuals, supporting text materials, etc.) necessary for effective integration in the classroom.
Time Time is an important ingredient necessary for successful adoption. Release time is needed for users to become familiar with hardware, software and effective applications: time for testing and experimentation; time for administrative planning; time for assessing activities associated with the t e c h n o l o g i e s - a l l are necessary.
Training A major contributing factor to the successful introduction of technology is training. Training not only prepares people; it changes attitudes. There is a direct correlation between training and positive attitudes toward technology.
Integration Those institutions where the adoption patterns for the various technologies are most advanced, usually have both a business plan and a committed, positive attitude toward supporting the integration of technology into ongoing programs. For these institutions,
434
Louis A. Bransford
the training staff is considered integral to the planning and implementation of technological innovation, and training is considered part of the j o b - n o t an add-on.
INDEPENDENT VARIABLES Independent variables that most inhibit or accelerate the adoption of innovation are those that relate directly to the technology: cost, adaptability, competition, reliability and obsolescence.
Cost Cost is a major factor influencing the acquisition o f technologies in the public sector. If a technology is perceived as unaffordable, it is likely to be discounted prematurely. Often, adoption of the more expensive technologies can be justified by amortizing costs over time, and by demonstrating that their potential for speeding up operations and freeing employees for other tasks makes them cost-effective. Cost is not limited to equipment alone. Unpublished research by the University of Michigan's Center on Post-secondary Teaching and Learning revealed that costs of providing computer work stations for students averaged $1,000 per student, per year. This $I,000 was above and beyond the price of the h a r d w a r e - it included costs for support staff, software procurement and development, electronic database access and communications. The most shocking aspect of this statistic is that the computer work areas usually house only 25I00 computers, intended to serve a student population of thousands.
Adaptability In general, most technologies we encounter daily were not developed expressly for use by the public service sector. The degree to which the technology lends itself to adaptability and the ability to adapt the technology to the desired uses will either inhibit or accelerate the adoption process. As the process of technology adoption is considered, adaptability should be kept firmly in mind. Before a technological innovation can be implemented successfully, its "fit" to specific practices and identified needs must be carefully tailored.
Competition Competition among technologies presents a major stumbling block when resources are limited. An example of such competition is the two primary video support technologies used in educational s e t t i n g s - t h e video cassette recorder and the videodisc. Although similar in application to the videodisc, the magnetic tape can be recorded, erased and reused at will. This is not feasible with the disc in its current state of development. The videodisc is also too expensive to produce locally. Given these drawbacks, the videodisc is experiencing difficulty in penetrating the schools despite its greater flexibility in actual use (it is possible to jump from place to place on a disc; tapes can only be used sequentially). Greater program availability on the disc could bridge the gap; however, most users remain reluctant to surrender low-cost, easily revised tapes. Sometimes competing media find their own niche in educational use, and complement each other, as in the case of filmstrip and slides. At other times one medium ultimately displaces the other as we have experienced with videotape players and 16 mm projectors. The final selection of one technology over another must take into consider-
The process of adoption
435
ation such factors as cost, flexibility, adaptability, software and program availability, reliability, maintenance, obsolescence, and ease of operation.
Reliability We take certain things for granted when it comes to telecommunications technology. We expect the phone to work 100% of the time. This expectation doesn't necessarily carry over to other household appliances and machinery--the car doesn't always start, and the television set breaks down once in awhile. We don't like it but we cope. One fact about telecommunications technology is that just like everything else, it doesn't always work. But perhaps the proponents of technology have oversold it and user expectations are too high. Time after time, attitudes are swayed by a temporary lapse or failure of a particular device. We should expect r e l i a b i l i t y - b u t also tolerate the occasional failure. A reputation for reliability will hasten adoption, and unreliability can stymie it.
Obsolescence Hardware obsolescence is a problem that is becoming increasingly costly to the public service sector as it adopts more sophisticated office equipment. We repeatedly hear the anguished plea to "stop the world" of microcomputer development until manufacturers can come up with compatible systems. The long-term view of telecommunications technology development is reassuring, however. Motion picture projection equipment has been stabilized in its development for the past 30 years. Compatibility in videotape players and facsimile systems has set a significant precedent. Currently, three major computer operations s y s t e m s - M S - D O S , OS/2, and U N I X / C - d o m i n a t e the market. The trend in micros is toward standardization, and it may not be too far off. One example of unplanned obsolescence is the Beta videotape player, which is being driven out of the marketplace by the dominant VHS technology. Almost 50% of all American households own a VCR and rent an average of six video tapes a month. This represents a significant investment by the consumer. Computers, however, have the shortest life expectancy of any telecommunications technology. It is estimated that the average life of a computer is only four years. Given the increasing acceleration of technological change, continuing obsolescence of both hardware and software is a significant factor in the adoption process.
CONCLUSION If planners, decision makers and development professionals in both the public and private sectors were better able to determine how and why technology is understood, acquired and used, organizations might operate more effectively. If we take this scenario one step further and are able to draw inferences regarding effective use of technology, perhaps it will be possible to generate much-needed increased productivity and efficiency.
REFERENCE Peters, T. (1986, February 16). Innovation goes hand-in-hand with "madness." The Baltimore Sun, p. E7.
Vol. 5, No. 4, pp. 431-435, 1988 Copyright © 1988 Pergamon Press plc. Printed in the USA 0736-5853/88 $3.00 + .00
COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGY AND THE PUBLIC SECTOR: UNDERSTANDING THE PROCESS OF ADOPTION Louis A. Bransford Abstract--The introduction of technological innovation in the public service sector is typically greeted with enthusiasm. The implementation and subsequent adoption, however, has not come easily or quickly. Few people argue the potential and value of technology anymore; the issues that inhibit adoption of technology are essentially economic and political. The need to better understand the process of adoption and the factors that contribute to its implementation in the public service sector are the basis of this article. What motivates people to acquire and use technology is a topic that historically has intrigued and challenged researchers who are concerned with the adoption of new technology. The speed with which market forces have propelled the adoption of technology in business and industry is truly phenomenal. In the public service sector, however, where market forces are often irrelevant, the introduction of technological innovation has elicited mixed reviews. Major renovations in traditional service delivery that were envisioned when computers, teleconferencing, artificial intelligence, robotics, videodisc, and other technologies were introduced, have not yet materialized at the levels originally projected. This lag time is in sharp contrast to business and industry where advanced technology has dramatically changed the traditional role of the worker. Some examples come to mind. The cashier's savvy with numbers has been replaced by optical scanning equipment. The stock broker's intuitive stock-trading decision making has been displaced by an automated trading computer program. The average McDonald's checkout person requires less than 10 minutes of training to match a cash register key with a correlating food item. The benefits to be gained through use of advanced telecommunications and information systems accrue first to those who are most able to afford the higher costs of new products and services. Although there are several exceptions, such as hospitals and selected government agencies, it may be years before nonprofit enterprises fully adopt advanced technology. In contrast to research on change and innovation in general, the process of adoption of technological innovations in the public service has been virtually ignored. Currently, no detailed model of the adoption process in public service exists. At best, several case studies in business and industry provide some insight, but only generalizations are possible.
Dr. Louis A. Bransford is President of PSSC in Washington, DC. 431
432
Louis A. Bransford
Adoption, for the purpose o f this discussion, is defined as acceptance and effective utilization of innovative technology. Figure l depicts the process, which begins with an awareness or knowledge of the technology in question. However, awareness does not necessarily ensure understanding. Likewise, understanding does not always lead to acceptance and acceptance does not guarantee utilization. Only effective and ongoing utilization can ultimately lead to adoption. The process leading to adoption is dependent on many factors. Some have to do with technologies; others relate to the leadership within the institution and the community around it. Additionally, some factors are primarily economic. Major variables, both dependent and independent, are described below. For discussion purposes, some examples are selected from the field o f education. However, the inferences drawn can be applied to other public service areas. Dependent variables include: commitment, politics, presence o f a "champion," attitudes, resources, time, training, and integration. Independent variables include: cost, adaptability, competition, reliability, and obsolescence. DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Commitment Institutional commitment to the acquisition and implementation of technology is essential to the process of adoption. This commitment can result from purely pragmatic motivation, favorable political influences, or from the presence of a "champion" who is in a position to effect change. It has been demonstrated in several studies that the presence of a "champion" is a critical factor in any innovative program. Peters (1986) has noted: An IBM in-house study of 18 projects found the determined innovator is the "major distinguisher between success and failure." An Industrial Research Institute study of
ADOPT Adoption is achieved as a function of r penetration and effective u t i l i z a - ~ tion. Penetration increases / . , , , ACCEPT as innovation a d v o n c e s ~ I through the process ~ U of adoption, r" . NDERSTAND
d
h r-q 3> z t~ -o [-q z Fq 70 3>
KNOW Figure 1. The process of adoption.
O Z
The process of adoption
433
54 successful innovations (contrasted with a like set of unsuccessful ones) concluded, "Almost without exception, there was a project champion." (p. E7) Management commitment to technological innovation can often be measured by the amount of time and resources (financial and otherwise) made available for the project. Lack of commitment often translates into the withholding of resources, or in failure to ease the technology into established routines. Often, we find that administrative barriers to systematically rearranging work patterns and responsibilities required to utilize a technology will inhibit its adoption.
Attitude The attitude of technology users is a fundamental factor in its adoption. Antiscientism is a prevailing attitude among humanists, sometimes resulting in aversion to hardware of all kinds. Often, resistance can be traced to such a deep-seated aversion; but often, it is simple fear of the unknown, or of a device that will alter habitual modes of operation. In both cases resistance can usually be overcome by increasing familiarity with the technology and demonstrating how it can contribute to a work situation.
Resources Many administrators working in the public service sector have the preconceived notion that state-of-the-art technologies are so costly that only the wealthy can aftbrd them. This is true in some cases, but careful financial analysis based on projected cost savings reveals that most agencies can justify expenditures to streamline day-to-day operations. It's a matter o f arranging priorities in a systematic way to take advantage of the technology. Availability of resources pertains to more than equipment. In the case of education, hardware has been provided to school systems with little regard for the software (instructional television and computer programs, manuals, supporting text materials, etc.) necessary for effective integration in the classroom.
Time Time is an important ingredient necessary for successful adoption. Release time is needed for users to become familiar with hardware, software and effective applications: time for testing and experimentation; time for administrative planning; time for assessing activities associated with the t e c h n o l o g i e s - a l l are necessary.
Training A major contributing factor to the successful introduction of technology is training. Training not only prepares people; it changes attitudes. There is a direct correlation between training and positive attitudes toward technology.
Integration Those institutions where the adoption patterns for the various technologies are most advanced, usually have both a business plan and a committed, positive attitude toward supporting the integration of technology into ongoing programs. For these institutions,
434
Louis A. Bransford
the training staff is considered integral to the planning and implementation of technological innovation, and training is considered part of the j o b - n o t an add-on.
INDEPENDENT VARIABLES Independent variables that most inhibit or accelerate the adoption of innovation are those that relate directly to the technology: cost, adaptability, competition, reliability and obsolescence.
Cost Cost is a major factor influencing the acquisition o f technologies in the public sector. If a technology is perceived as unaffordable, it is likely to be discounted prematurely. Often, adoption of the more expensive technologies can be justified by amortizing costs over time, and by demonstrating that their potential for speeding up operations and freeing employees for other tasks makes them cost-effective. Cost is not limited to equipment alone. Unpublished research by the University of Michigan's Center on Post-secondary Teaching and Learning revealed that costs of providing computer work stations for students averaged $1,000 per student, per year. This $I,000 was above and beyond the price of the h a r d w a r e - it included costs for support staff, software procurement and development, electronic database access and communications. The most shocking aspect of this statistic is that the computer work areas usually house only 25I00 computers, intended to serve a student population of thousands.
Adaptability In general, most technologies we encounter daily were not developed expressly for use by the public service sector. The degree to which the technology lends itself to adaptability and the ability to adapt the technology to the desired uses will either inhibit or accelerate the adoption process. As the process of technology adoption is considered, adaptability should be kept firmly in mind. Before a technological innovation can be implemented successfully, its "fit" to specific practices and identified needs must be carefully tailored.
Competition Competition among technologies presents a major stumbling block when resources are limited. An example of such competition is the two primary video support technologies used in educational s e t t i n g s - t h e video cassette recorder and the videodisc. Although similar in application to the videodisc, the magnetic tape can be recorded, erased and reused at will. This is not feasible with the disc in its current state of development. The videodisc is also too expensive to produce locally. Given these drawbacks, the videodisc is experiencing difficulty in penetrating the schools despite its greater flexibility in actual use (it is possible to jump from place to place on a disc; tapes can only be used sequentially). Greater program availability on the disc could bridge the gap; however, most users remain reluctant to surrender low-cost, easily revised tapes. Sometimes competing media find their own niche in educational use, and complement each other, as in the case of filmstrip and slides. At other times one medium ultimately displaces the other as we have experienced with videotape players and 16 mm projectors. The final selection of one technology over another must take into consider-
The process of adoption
435
ation such factors as cost, flexibility, adaptability, software and program availability, reliability, maintenance, obsolescence, and ease of operation.
Reliability We take certain things for granted when it comes to telecommunications technology. We expect the phone to work 100% of the time. This expectation doesn't necessarily carry over to other household appliances and machinery--the car doesn't always start, and the television set breaks down once in awhile. We don't like it but we cope. One fact about telecommunications technology is that just like everything else, it doesn't always work. But perhaps the proponents of technology have oversold it and user expectations are too high. Time after time, attitudes are swayed by a temporary lapse or failure of a particular device. We should expect r e l i a b i l i t y - b u t also tolerate the occasional failure. A reputation for reliability will hasten adoption, and unreliability can stymie it.
Obsolescence Hardware obsolescence is a problem that is becoming increasingly costly to the public service sector as it adopts more sophisticated office equipment. We repeatedly hear the anguished plea to "stop the world" of microcomputer development until manufacturers can come up with compatible systems. The long-term view of telecommunications technology development is reassuring, however. Motion picture projection equipment has been stabilized in its development for the past 30 years. Compatibility in videotape players and facsimile systems has set a significant precedent. Currently, three major computer operations s y s t e m s - M S - D O S , OS/2, and U N I X / C - d o m i n a t e the market. The trend in micros is toward standardization, and it may not be too far off. One example of unplanned obsolescence is the Beta videotape player, which is being driven out of the marketplace by the dominant VHS technology. Almost 50% of all American households own a VCR and rent an average of six video tapes a month. This represents a significant investment by the consumer. Computers, however, have the shortest life expectancy of any telecommunications technology. It is estimated that the average life of a computer is only four years. Given the increasing acceleration of technological change, continuing obsolescence of both hardware and software is a significant factor in the adoption process.
CONCLUSION If planners, decision makers and development professionals in both the public and private sectors were better able to determine how and why technology is understood, acquired and used, organizations might operate more effectively. If we take this scenario one step further and are able to draw inferences regarding effective use of technology, perhaps it will be possible to generate much-needed increased productivity and efficiency.
REFERENCE Peters, T. (1986, February 16). Innovation goes hand-in-hand with "madness." The Baltimore Sun, p. E7.