Community conservation in Nepal – opportunities and challenges for pangolin conservation

C H A P T E R

25 Community conservation in Nepal opportunities and challenges for pangolin conservation Ambika P. Khatiwada1, Tulshi Laxmi Suwal2,3, Wendy Wright4, Dilys Roe5, Prativa Kaspal6, Sanjan Thapa2 and Kumar Paudel7 1

National Trust for Nature Conservation, Lalitpur, Nepal 2Small Mammals Conservation and Research Foundation (SMCRF), Kathmandu, Nepal 3Department of Tropical Agriculture and International Cooperation, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung, Taiwan 4School of Health and Life Sciences, Federation University Australia, Gippsland, VIC, Australia 5International Institute for Environment and Development, London, United Kingdom 6Women for Conservation/ Bhaktapur Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal 7Greenhood Nepal, New Baneshwor, Kathmandu, Nepal O U T L I N E Introduction The history of conservation and forest management in Nepal Challenges to pangolin conservation in Nepal Absence of ecological data Poaching and trafficking of pangolins in Nepal Human pangolin conflict Limited resources

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Community-based pangolin conservation initiatives in Nepal Taplejung, Makwanpur, Chitwan and Gorkha Bhaktapur, Lalitpur, Kathmandu, Kavrepalanchowk and Sindhupalchowk

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The future of pangolin conservation in Nepal opportunities and challenges

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References

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Opportunities for pangolin conservation in Nepal the promise of community conservation 404 Pangolins DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815507-3.00025-3

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© 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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opportunities and challenges for pangolin conservation

Introduction Two species of pangolin occur in Nepal, the Chinese (Manis pentadactyla) and the Indian pangolin (M. crassicaudata). Hodgson (1836) was the first to publish reports of the Chinese pangolin and its habitat in the lower and central regions of the country. Corbet and Hill (1992) reported that the distribution of Chinese pangolins includes eastern Nepal. It was not until the 1990s that Suwal and Verheugt (1995) reported the presence of the Indian pangolin in Chitwan National Park, Parsa National Park and the districts of Bara, Parsa and Chitwan. However, both species are protected in Nepal under the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act (1973) signifying that the protection of pangolins in the country has long been recognized as a priority. Nepal is 885 km long and 193 km wide, stretching from east to west in a roughly

trapezoidal shape and covering an area of 147,181 km2. It is landlocked by China to the north and otherwise by India. The range in elevation within the country is vast: from 60 to 8848 m above sea level (asl). Nepal is one of 47 countries classified as “least developed” by the United Nations (United Nations, 2018). However, it is rich in natural resources. Water availability and forest cover is higher than twice the South Asian per capita average (World Bank, 2018). It is the 31st most biodiverse country in the world and the 10th most biodiverse country in Asia (Joshi et al., 2017). Nepal is commonly divided into five physiographic (Fig. 25.1) and six bioclimatic zones. The Terai (lowland) comprises about 14% of the country’s land and the rest is mountainous. The mountainous area is typically described as comprising the Siwalik, hill, middle mountain and the high mountain areas. 33% of the mountainous area is perennially covered by

FIGURE 25.1 Physiographic regions of Nepal. Source: Department of Survey, Government of Nepal.

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Introduction

snow; meaning only 67% of Nepal’s land area is suitable for human settlement (Baral and Bhatta, 2005). Pangolins are mainly recorded in the Terai, Siwalik, hill and middle mountains (Gurung, 1996; Jnawali et al., 2011), which include tropical, sub-tropical and temperate climates. Presence data from camera trap surveys conducted by Nepal’s National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC), sightings from experts and citizen scientists, and records of confiscated and rescued animals indicate that the Chinese pangolin occurs in multiple conservation areas and national parks (NPs) (Fig. 25.2). These include the lower elevation

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belt of the Kangchenjunga Conservation Area, and Makalubarun, Sagarmatha, Chitwan and Parsa NPs, Gaurishankar Conservation Area, Shivapuri-Nagarjun NP, Annapurna Conservation Area and the Salyan district in western Nepal. Similar sources show records of the Indian pangolin in Suklaphanta, Bardia, Banke and Parsa NPs and Kailali and Surkhet districts. These data suggest that Chinese pangolins are distributed across eastern, central and midwestern Nepal, and Indian pangolins are found in Nepal’s western regions, at lower elevations (Fig. 25.2). However, it also suggests that the two species are sympatric (e.g., in Parsa NP). This may be the case in other parts of the Terai,

FIGURE 25.2 Presence records of Chinese and Indian pangolins in Nepal. Source: Department of Survey, Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, National Trust for Nature Conservation, Government of Nepal.

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Siwaliks and middle mountains, but research is needed to verify whether this is the case.

The history of conservation and forest management in Nepal Conservation in Nepal began in the 18th century. King Surendra Shah (1847 1881) promulgated a law that forbade the killing of wild animals by the public (Upreti, 2017). However, from the mid-1800s until the late 1950s, it was relatively common for members of the elite ruling classes to visit the Terai regions to hunt tiger (Panthera tigris) and greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) (Gurung, 1980; Smythies, 1942). In 1964, a sanctuary was declared to protect rhinoceroses and their habitat due to their declining numbers (Bhatt, 2003; Mishra, 1982). Contemporary history and scientific management of Protected Areas (PAs) in Nepal began in 1973 when King Birendra approved the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Bill, establishing Chitwan National Park (Bhattarai et al., 2017; Upreti, 2017). The Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC), which is responsible for overall management of PAs, was subsequently founded in 1980. The King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation (now the National Trust for Nature Conservation [NTNC]) was established by the National Trust for Nature Conservation Act 1982 as an autonomous, not-for-profit organization to meet the growing requirements of field based wildlife conservation in Nepal. There are now 12 NPs, six conservation areas (CAs), one wildlife reserve (WR), one hunting reserve (HR) and 13 buffer zones (BZs) in the country, covering approximately 34,000 km2 (23%) of the total land area (Table 25.1; DNPWC, 2018). Buffer zones are multiple-use zones, which surround protected areas, and may include villages, community forests, and croplands.

Nepal has experienced several major phases in the management of its protected areas. Initially, “command and control approaches” (1970s 80s; Baral, 2005); also known as “fine and fence” (Bhattarai et al., 2017) served to protect wildlife for the elite hunting parties, and excluded local people and prevented their access to forest resources. In 1973, speciesoriented conservation approaches (species-level conservation) became a focus; this progressed to ecosystem-level conservation in the early 1980s. It was not until the introduction of an Integrated Conservation and Development (ICD) approach, initiated in the 1990s, that local people were included as key participants in protected area management. ICD has taken many different forms in different countries, but in Nepal it has entailed the introduction of the BZ concept and the establishment of CAs. CAs and BZs are category VI protected areas using IUCN criteria, and support local communities within their boundaries. In these areas, local people are granted access to forest products (e.g., firewood, timber, grasses and non-timber forest products [NTFPs]) based on operational plans authorized and approved by community forest managers. Pangolins in Nepal are not restricted to the country’s PA network. Substantial additional habitat exists in forested areas that are managed for purposes other than conservation. Forests and other wooded land occupy 66,100 km2 (6.61 million ha); 44.7% of the total area of the country. Of the total forested area, 49,300 km2 (4.93 million ha) or 82.7% lies outside of PAs (DFRS, 2016). Pangolin conservation in Nepal must take account of these areas. Nepal is well known for its very successful system of community forest management, which is characterized by the decentralization of authority to local people to conserve, manage and use forest resources on a sustainable basis (Gilmour and Fisher, 1991; Government of Nepal, 1988, 2015; Hobley and Malla, 1996). The country is arguably more progressive in

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The history of conservation and forest management in Nepal

TABLE 25.1

Summary of PAs in Nepal. CP=Chinese pangolin, IP=Indian pangolin.

PA name

PA declaration Core area date (km2)

BZ declaration BZ area date (km2)a

Physiographic zones(s)

Pangolin presence

Chitwan NP

1973

952.63

1996

729.37

Inner terai (low land)

CP, IP

Bardiya NP

1976

968

1996

507

Terai to inner terai

IP

Banke NP

2010

550

2010

343

Terai to inner terai

IP

Khaptad NP

1984

225

2006

216

High mountain

Langtang NP

1976

1710

1998

420

Middle mountain to high mountain

CP

Makalu Barun NP

1991

1500

1999

830

Middle mountain to high mountain

CP

Parsa NP

1984

627.39

2005

285.3

Terai to inner terai

CP, IP

Rara NP

1976

106

2006

198

High mountain

Sagarmatha NP

1976

1148

2002

275

High mountain

Shey-Phoksundo NP

1984

3555

1998

1349

High mountain

ShivapuriNagarjun NP

2002

159

2015

118.61

Middle mountain

CP

Suklaphanta NP

1976

305

2004

243.5

Terai (low land)

IP

Koshitappu WR

1976

175

2004

173

Terai (low land)

Dhorpatan HR

1987

1325

Proposed

750

High mountain

Annapurna CA

1992

7629

Middle mountain to high mountain

Api Nampa CA

2010

1903

Middle mountain to high mountain

Krishnasaar CA

2009

16.95

Terai (low land)

Gaurishankar CA 2010

2179

Middle mountain to high mountain

CP

Kangchenjunga CA

1997

2035

Middle mountain to high mountain

CP

Manaslu CA

1998

1663

Middle mountain to high mountain

Total Core Area

28,731.97

Total BZ Area

5687.78

a

The proposed Dhorpatan HR is not included in the total BZ area.

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CP

CP

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terms of its management of production forests than it is for its PAs. Community-Based Organizations (CBOs), such as buffer zone committees and conservation area management committees, have been established to ensure participatory decision making for conservation and development interventions. About 30 50% of the revenue generated from PAs is invested in community development via BZ management councils (DNPWC, 2017). This approach has encouraged communities to participate in conservation activities and to view wildlife and their habitats as valuable community assets (Bajracharya and Dahal, 2008; Bhattarai et al., 2017). However, human-wildlife conflict threatens the success of communitybased conservation in Nepal (Acharya et al., 2016; Lamichhane et al., 2018) and education, mitigation, and compensation measures are recognized as important responses to this issue. As of January 2019, 19,361 Community Forest User Groups (CFUG), involving 2.46 million households (about 45% of Nepal’s population) manage forested areas totaling 18,135 km2 across the country (Central Bureau of Statistics, 2012; Department of Forestry, 2018). Similarly, 875,021 households (16.1% of the population [Central Bureau of Statistics, 2017]) are engaged in the management of 428.35 km2 of leasehold forest and 576.63 km2 of collaborative forest. Originally introduced in the 1970s, with the objective of addressing unsustainable forest utilization, and to protect timber resources, the remit of many CFUGs has extended to include the protection of wildlife. This presents an opportunity to build on the existing participatory approach to conservation in Nepal’s production forests to conserve pangolins.

Challenges to pangolin conservation in Nepal Few studies have been conducted on pangolins and their distribution within Nepal’s

protected area network (including NP, WR, CA and BZs). However, information on pangolins in human-dominated landscapes outside of the PA network is more readily available. Recent surveys have confirmed the presence of pangolins in 44 of Nepal’s 77 districts (Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, 2016). Their known distribution extends from lowland tropical regions (the Terai) to temperate regions, which occur at higher elevations, up to 3000 m asl in eastern Nepal (Fig. 25.1; Khatiwada, 2016). The wide distribution of pangolins outside protected areas raises concerns about the vulnerability of the animals to threats including interactions with humans (hunting, poaching and illegal trade, persecution); deforestation; and infrastructure development, including road construction and hydropower projects that destroy and fragment habitat. Additional challenges include limited levels of awareness among local communities concerning the importance and conservation needs of the species; weak and under-resourced law enforcement; and excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in agricultural practices. The latter may adversely affect pangolins through loss of prey availability and, potentially, bioaccumulation. Research in Taiwan suggests that longterm exposure to toxins in the environment may be linked with a high prevalence of hepatic and respiratory lesions in Chinese pangolins (KhatriChhetri et al., 2016; Sun et al., 2019). As a result of these threats, there is concern in Nepal that pangolins are now locally extinct in several areas where they were previously known to occur (e.g., the districts of Bhaktapur, Kavrepalanchowk and Sindhupalchowk; Kaspal et al., 2016). The biggest challenges to conserving pangolins in the country are a lack of population and ecological data with which to target conservation actions, and a poor understanding of the extent and impact of hunting and poaching pangolins for local use and the illegal wildlife trade. Limited funding for conservation is also a problem in Nepal.

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Challenges to pangolin conservation in Nepal

Absence of ecological data A national pangolin survey was conducted in 2016 and several small-scale pangolin conservation projects were implemented between 2012 and 2018. The national survey was a first step in determining the distribution of pangolins in Nepal. It was carried out in several districts and depended in large part on reports of pangolin presence from local community members rather than systematic ecological surveys (see Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, 2016). Smallscale projects aiming to collect basic ecological information on the Chinese pangolin and raise awareness of the species among local communities have also been implemented in several

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locations (see Fig. 25.3). However, key ecological data regarding pangolins in Nepal, and a strategic research approach to address the knowledge gaps, are lacking. These are needed to develop effective and appropriate conservation programs. Data on species distribution, habitat requirements, occupancy and population densities, potential strongholds, the extent to which the two species are sympatric, feeding ecology, burrow use and genetic information are all required. Baseline information and ongoing monitoring for all of these parameters is important in order to inform conservation and management. Social and cultural information about local traditions relating to pangolins, attitudes to

FIGURE 25.3

Districts in which community-based pangolin conservation projects have been implemented. Source: Department of Survey, Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, National Trust for Nature Conservation, Government of Nepal.

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pangolin conservation and the extent and type of local ecological knowledge regarding the species would also improve understanding of the conservation context for pangolins in Nepal. In addition, a better understanding of the key threats is required. Climate induced threats (forest fires, droughts, flooding, landslides, climate change) and anthropogenic threats (poaching, illegal trade, impact of chemical fertilizers on agricultural crops and prey species, impact of infrastructure development e.g., hydropower, roads) are likely both important influences on pangolin abundance. There is also a need to collect detailed rescue and release information in order to better understand pangolin presence and the threats the species face. The strategic and effective design and implementation of pangolin conservation projects in Nepal depends on the acquisition of such data and on the successful engagement with various stakeholders, but in particular, local communities.

Poaching and trafficking of pangolins in Nepal Hunting and trade in pangolins and their body parts (e.g., scales) is illegal in Nepal. The

National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act (1973 specifically Section 26.2) stipulates that any person who kills or injures a pangolin shall be punished with a fine ranging from NPR 40,000 (ca. USD 400) to NPR 75,000 (ca. USD 750) and/or face a prison sentence ranging from one to 10 years. In addition, the Government of Nepal recently ratified the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) Act 2018. This act has provisions for punishments associated with breaches of the Act. Fines ranging from NPR 500,000 (ca. USD 5000) to NPR 1000,000 (ca. USD 10,000) and/or a prison sentence of five to 15 years may be imposed on any person who keeps, uses, grows, breeds, sells, purchases, transfers or obtains pangolins or their parts without permission. Despite these strong legal provisions, poaching and trafficking of pangolins is frequently observed (Katuwal et al., 2013; Paudel, 2015). At least 46 seizures of pangolins or their scales were made in Nepal between May 2010 and July 2018, involving 785 kg of scales (Fig. 25.4). Nepal’s community approach to pangolin conservation offers opportunities to safeguard the species (see subsequent discussion), and there is a growing level of interest in pangolin conservation projects among local communities. However, local people remain involved in

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FIGURE 25.4 Pangolin scales confiscated in Nepal between 2010 and July 2018. Data compiled by A. Khatiwada from online news reports in Nepal.

Pangolin scales (Kg)

350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

Year

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Challenges to pangolin conservation in Nepal

poaching and trafficking activities. Poaching is likely perceived as a low risk/high reward endeavor in rural areas in Nepal. The drivers of poaching are largely related to the financial rewards available, although there is anecdotal evidence that pangolin meat is still eaten in some communities. A lack of awareness of the laws and regulations protecting pangolins and of the importance of conservation are also common. Two important approaches, of the many possible, could help to prevent poaching at the local level. First, the development of a reward and sanction mechanism through locally agreed rules and regulations; and second, the introduction of income generating activities or skills training to facilitate alternative livelihood options. The former could help to reward people who contribute to pangolin conservation and punish those who are involved in poaching; and the latter could reduce local peoples’ reliance on forest resources and may motivate and empower local communities for long-term pangolin conservation. There are limitations to these approaches including that the latter may merely provide additive income as opposed to an actual alternative livelihood. Such programs need to be carefully planned with local communities (see Chapters 23 and 24).

Human pangolin conflict Human pangolin conflict occurs in the hilly and middle mountain areas of Nepal (see Fig. 25.1), particularly in terraced agricultural land. There is anecdotal evidence of a high density of pangolin burrows in such areas. Local people claim that the burrows interfere with crop production and degrade the aesthetic value of the terraces. There are also unsubstantiated claims that clusters of burrows lead to landslides during the rainy season. Local people sometimes act on these perceptions, capturing and killing pangolins found on farmland.

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Such incidents have been reported in various districts, including Solukhumbu, Taplejung and Ramechhap in northeastern Nepal. Here, local people consume the meat of the animals they kill and sell the scales to middlemen who trade them illegally. Even where pangolin burrows do not cause such problems, a commonly held understanding is that pangolins bring bad luck to those who encounter them, which is sufficient motivation for members of rural communities to persecute the animals. Nepal’s wildlife conservation authorities and agencies have considerable experience in mitigating human-wildlife conflict (involving other species such as the tiger and rhinoceroses). The importance of changing community attitudes through awareness raising and education programs has been key to the success of such programs; and is likely to be important to reduce human-pangolin conflict.

Limited resources There are limited global resources for the conservation of wildlife. Nepal obtains much of its funding for conservation from international donors and aid agencies. A substantial proportion of these resources are directed to the conservation of iconic megafauna including elephants (Elephantidae) and rhinoceroses. Although more than two dozen studies (e.g., Bhandari, 2013; Dhakal, 2016; Kaspal, 2016; Khatiwada, 2014; Khadgi, 2016; Paudel, 2015; Sapkota, 2016; Suwal, 2011; Tripathi, 2015) have been conducted on pangolins in Nepal, scarce resources prevent these efforts translating into concerted and strategic conservation actions. Much of the existing effort is reliant on a small number of researchers, conservationists, university scholars and CFUGs who are championing pangolin conservation, often relying on their own financial support or using short term funding grants to build a

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better understanding of these species. This lack of a strategic approach means that potential synergies between projects are not recognized or acted upon and reduces the effectiveness and efficiency of each individual project. This piecemeal approach is not sustainable. Community support for pangolin conservation is present in some regions. For example, the Taudolchhap CFUG in Bhaktapur has been conserving rescued and resident Chinese pangolins in their community forest as part of a pangolin conservation program established in 2012. This has been recognized by the Government of Nepal’s Department of Forests and Soil Conservation in the form of a cash prize from the local District Forest Office (DFO). Many other local communities are willing to safeguard pangolins and want to be involved in pangolin research and conservation activities, including establishing pangolin sanctuaries and rescue and research centers. However, they wish to be paid fairly for their contribution. The Taudolchhap CFUG has established some innovative approaches to ensure that they are remunerated for their conservation activities. For instance, they request a fee from researchers who wish to study pangolins in their community forest and from visitors who want to access the forest for a chance to see a pangolin.

Opportunities for pangolin conservation in Nepal the promise of community conservation Nepal has an enviable reputation for curbing poaching within its protected areas (Acharya, 2016; WWF, 2018). The organizations involved in Nepal’s anti-poaching activities range from government to grass-roots organizations and include the Nepalese Government’s Ministry of Forests and Environment (MoFE), the Nepalese Army, provincial and local level government authorities,

non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and CBOs. Community-Based Anti-Poaching Units (CBAPUs) are the key CBOs in this context. They have played a crucial role in the achievement of six zero poaching years (i.e., no poaching incidents relating to three key megafauna species: greater one-horned rhinoceros, tiger and Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in a 12month period) since 2012. Recent institutional and legislative changes allowing strict enforcement of laws and effective involvement of local communities have been integral to these achievements (Aryal et al., 2017). Local communities have adopted and supported the concept of CBAPUs, the main role of which is to provide timely and accurate intelligence regarding poaching activities to enforcement agencies. The successful contributions of local communities towards Nepal’s achievements in wildlife conservation are an important starting point for further developing and refining community-led pangolin conservation in forested areas (in human dominated landscapes) and around PAs. Outside protected areas (including in forest estates) there are no organized or dedicated law enforcement mechanisms for wildlife protection. Furthermore, the emphasis in community forests has traditionally been on the protection and production of key forest resources including the collection of NTFPs. Conservation in general, and pangolin conservation in particular, has not been a priority (and indeed often runs counter to the forestry production/direct benefit focus of CFUGs). In some areas, however, community conservation initiatives are beginning to emerge (Fig. 25.3). Several local communities have successfully developed and introduced strategies to enforce laws relating to the protection of key wildlife species, including pangolins, in community forests, for example, in Makwanpur district (Raniban CF). Importantly, most pangolin conservation projects in Nepal have focused on the Chinese

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Community-based pangolin conservation initiatives in Nepal

pangolin. They have comprised various outreach programs intended to raise public awareness of pangolin conservation, and included the holding of workshops, radio shows, school presentations and the production of products portraying pangolin conservation messages (e.g., posters, booklets, t-shirts, cups and badges). A book entitled ’Saalak’ (the Nepali word for pangolin) was published and widely distributed in 2016 (Kaspal et al., 2016). The book links effective and successful conservation of pangolins with opportunities for economic well-being via nature-based tourism and is intended to alter peoples’ perceptions about the value of the animals in their natural habitats. It is hoped that successful community-based pangolin conservation efforts that have been initiated can be scaled up and replicated across the country. On a broader scale, a range of stakeholders are discussing the interlinking of existing protected areas in Nepal via biological corridors, building on existing and successful landscape-scale conservation programs such as the Terai Arc Landscape and ChitwanAnnapurna Landscape. The inclusion of existing forests outside of the protected area network should provide significant opportunities for pangolin conservation at the landscape level, including possibilities for on-the-ground conservation projects and local community engagement through improving and diversifying livelihoods.

Community-based pangolin conservation initiatives in Nepal Despite the challenges described above, there are several examples of successful communitybased pangolin conservation initiatives in Nepal, where local communities are engaged and active in protecting pangolins. These initiatives have been implemented in various districts

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in Nepal (see Fig. 25.3; Kaspal, 2016; Khatiwada, 2014; NTNC, 2018; SMCRF, 2018; ZSL, 2018).

Taplejung, Makwanpur, Chitwan and Gorkha In 2012, NTNC, in collaboration with the Zoological Society of London (ZSL), initiated a project in Nangkholyang and Dokhu villages in the Taplejung District in eastern Nepal (Fig. 25.3). The aim was to support conservation activities to raise awareness and control illegal trade at the local level. A pangolin conservation committee was established. Prior to the project, villagers who came across a pangolin would most likely have killed it. The meat is considered a delicacy and may have been eaten or sold. The scales would have been sold into illegal trade. There is evidence of a change in attitudes following the implementation of the project. It is now more common for local people who come across a live pangolin in the fields or on a road, to bring it back to the village and to the attention of the conservation committee members. Committee members use the opportunity to gather a wider group of people to talk about the pangolin and explain the law protecting it before releasing it back into the wild. Between 2013 and 2016, six pangolins were found by local community members and brought to committee members for safe release into appropriate habitat. Many members (approximately 45 people) of local communities were actively involved in organizing patrolling events, community meetings and raising awareness among villagers between 2012 and 2014, but this has since dropped to 2 3 individuals. This is because financial and logistical support and technical backup waned following the end of the project period. With so few people now involved, project activities have all but ceased. The situation is unlikely to

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improve until continued support (financial, logistical, and technical) is available. This could occur if local government takes ownership or if communities begin to benefit directly from their involvement in pangolin conservation (e.g., via nature-based tourism). On World Pangolin Day 2018, two community managed pangolin conservation areas (CMPCAs), the Chuchchekhola CFUG and Situ BZCFUG, covering an area of approximately 7 km2, were established in Makwanpur district close to Chitwan and Parsa NPs. These new CMPCAs are the result of a collaboration between ZSL, DNPWC, NTNC, Himalayan Nature (HN), Mithila Wildlife Trust (MWT) and CFUGs. Associated community engagement programs, including camera trapping surveys, were conducted in 2016 and 2018 in seven CFUGs within these CMPCAs. One of the CFUGs, Raniban CFUG, initiated a pangolin conservation program that resulted in a community-led declaration of a pangolin core area within the community forest. This was an example of increased ownership and participation in pangolin conservation by a CMPCA within a community forest. The NTNC has been working with four CFUGs in the Chitwan district and four in the Gorkha district within a single program between 2016 and 2019. The acquisition of ecological data from camera traps is a key feature of this project. Camera trap surveys were conducted in 2016 and 2018 and confirmed the presence of Chinese pangolins in three of the eight community forests surveyed (one in Chitwan and two in Gorkha). All eight community forests surveyed are considered potential pangolin habitat. The NTNC also supports CFUGs to implement outreach programs and trains them to monitor pangolins and to protect them from poaching and illegal trade. These projects are developing towards the project goals of community-based and community-led pangolin conservation.

Bhaktapur, Lalitpur, Kathmandu, Kavrepalanchowk and Sindhupalchowk The Small Mammals Conservation and Research Foundation (SMCRF), Women for Conservation (WC), Greenhood Nepal (GHN), Natural Heritage Nepal (NHN) and Nepal Rural Development and Environment Protection Council (NRDEPC) are collaboratively implementing community-based pangolin conservation projects in Bhaktapur, Lalitpur, Kathmandu, Kavrepalanchowk and Sindhupalchowk. The goal of these projects is to educate local community members about pangolins and to engage them in community-based pangolin conservation efforts. Project activities have included: outreach, such as conservation education programs in local schools, essay or artwork competitions among school students, educational public speaking events, round table discussions, radio broadcasts, workshops, and the production and distribution of posters, books, t-shirts and caps (SMCRF, 2018); community capacity building programs, including training in ecological survey and monitoring of pangolins and collection of local ecological knowledge, use of GPS and camera traps and the formation and mobilization of local CBAPUs; and alternative livelihoods and income generating activities (e.g., cooperatives, micro-loans, and homestay promotion). Traditional ecological knowledge held by community members, and their constant presence “on the ground”, provide valuable sources of information to improve knowledge and understanding of pangolin populations and distribution. In addition, the involvement of local people in patrolling forest areas an activity that is otherwise lacking outside the protected area network reduces the willingness of other community members to participate in pangolin poaching. Community members who are engaged in pangolin conservation educate their peers about the laws

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References

relating to the killing of pangolins, and inform their neighbors, relatives and friends who may have been knowingly engaged in illegal activities (Roe, 2015). Importantly, community members engaged in conservation also discourage outsiders from coming into the villages in search of pangolins or scales because of a higher risk of being reported to the relevant authorities.

The future of pangolin conservation in Nepal opportunities and challenges There are several characteristics of conservation in Nepal that bode well for pangolins. The majority of the Nepalese population is either Hindu or Buddhist. Both religions have strong teachings relating to respect for wildlife. People living in Nepal’s rural communities typically accept the premise underpinning species conservation that the protection and conservation of wildlife and forest habitats is beneficial. This is partly because of their religious values and partly because they understand that, they are dependent on natural resources (e.g., NTFPs) for their livelihoods. These resources are therefore highly valued. Although some rural people believe that seeing a pangolin is bad luck and that killing the animal can prevent associated problems for themselves and their families, others consider pangolins helpful because they feed on termites and ants, thereby regulating populations of these insects. Typically, community members have shown keen interest during the early stages of community-projects focused on pangolins because they receive new information and can take part in capacity building training and workshops. The authors of this chapter have observed social rewards in the form of recognition from peers and, the media, and project organizers, and some participants have reported that this has increased their sense of self-worth and self-efficacy.

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Despite being protected species in Nepal since the 1970s, the active conservation of pangolins has not been a priority in the country. Charismatic, flagship megafauna such as rhinoceroses, tigers and even snow leopards (Panthera uncia) have received much of the spotlight, and much of the available funding. This is unsurprising as the protected area network in Nepal was established to protect such species. However, the threat of extinction of Nepal’s two pangolin species, and the alarmingly high levels of illegal trade (see also Chapter 16), has resulted in a higher priority for pangolin conservation by the Nepalese government. The national pangolin survey, completed in 2016, was preceded by development of a protocol for monitoring pangolins, and a Pangolin Conservation Action Plan for Nepal (2018 22; see DNPWC, 2018 and Department of Forestry, 2018). One DFO (Kavrepalanchowk) has also prepared a pangolin management plan for community forests within its jurisdiction (Kaspal, 2017). Several pangolin conservation projects are being implemented in Nepal and there are impressive conservation success stories, where communities have taken ownership and developed capacity to conserve pangolins within their jurisdiction, whether that be a community forest or on privately owned land. Yet, there are challenges to overcome to secure the conservation of pangolins in Nepal, including limited funds, lack of ecological data and the growing threat of poaching and illegal trade within Nepal. Nevertheless, with the necessary resources and collaboration, Nepal is well placed to play a leading role in pangolin conservation.

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