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Comparative assessment of application of low melting metals with capillary pore systems in a tokamak
Fusion Engineering and Design 89 (2014) 2953–2955
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Fusion Engineering and Design journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fusengdes
Comparative assessment of application of low melting metals with capillary pore systems in a tokamak I.E. Lyublinski, A.V. Vertkov ∗ JSC “Red Star”, Moscow, Russia
h i g h l i g h t s • Capillary-pore systems (CPS) with liquid metals (Li, Ga, Sn) are considered as alternative to solid materials meeting the challenges under creation of plasma facing components (PFC) for DEMO-type fusion reactor.
• Resistance to high power flux, liquid surface stability and self-renewal are the main features of this advised material. • As it follows from analysis of experimental data, the CPS with Li is the most preferable for PFC application.
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 8 October 2013 Received in revised form 29 August 2014 Accepted 16 September 2014 Available online 23 October 2014 Keywords: Liquid metals Plasma facing material Plasma facing component
a b s t r a c t Capillary-pore systems (CPS) with liquid metals are considered as advanced plasma facing material for application in DEMO-type fusion reactor. The estimation of opportunity of liquid Li, Ga and Sn application is carried out on the basis of its physical, chemical and technological properties, and with respect to prospective design of the tokamak in-vessel elements and technology. It has been shown that Li now is the most attractive and most investigated liquid metal for fusion devices application with CPS. The temperature limit for normal operation is about 550 ◦ C and determined by appropriate Li flux to plasma due to evaporation. Wide range of structural materials is appropriate for Li based in-vessel elements. Ga and Sn are very corrosive and embrittlement inducing metals. As a result the temperature limit of these application is determined by compatibility with structural materials of CPS and in-vessel element. Only W can be used with Ga and Sn up to 500 ◦ C. Moreover these metals have lower thermal properties comparing to Li. Surface temperature analysis for possible in-vessel element design (1 mm thick of porous W based CPS) has shown the similar power flux limit ∼21 MW/m2 for Li, Ga and Sn application at normal operation. Taking into account the latent heat of vaporization and screening effect with re-radiation the CPS with Li has a priority at ELM and disruption conditions. © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Capillary-pore systems (CPS) with liquid metals are proposed as alternative providing the possibility to overcome the problems related to solid materials for plasma facing components (PFC) in DEMO-type fusion reactor [1–3]. The main feature of CPS is the ensuring on the base of capillary forces of PFC surface self-renewal and resistance to degradation under steady-state reactor conditions, restriction splashing of liquid under J × B forces at ELMs and disruptions. Lithium, gallium and tin are considered as perspective low melting metals for application with CPS in tokamak [4–6].
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +7 499 6138311; fax: +7 499 6138311. E-mail address: [email protected] (A.V. Vertkov). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fusengdes.2014.09.015 0920-3796/© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Well-grounded choice of liquids should be based on the analysis of the following aspects. Capillary effect meeting the requirement in self-renewal and liquid stability under magneto hydrodynamic (MHD) forces is determined by the reliable wetting of CPS material and the value of surface tension force. Lifetime of PFC strongly depends on corrosive compatibility of CPS and structural materials with liquid metals in the temperature intervals of its operation and preparation. The admissible level of impurity atom influx to plasma is determined by the liquid metal boiling point and ion sputtering coefficient, charging number and behavior in plasma. Liquid metal interaction with plasma and residual gases in the tokamak chamber, possible accumulation on the chamber wall and presence of the technology for its extraction are the important aspects for choice. In addition, the possible PFC design should be considered and taken into account.
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I.E. Lyublinski, A.V. Vertkov / Fusion Engineering and Design 89 (2014) 2953–2955 Table 1 Main physical properties of Li, Ga, Sn. Property
Atomic number, Z Specific density, g/cm3 Melting point, K Boiling point, K Latent heat of vaporization, kJ/g Heat capacity, J/kg K (700 K) Heat conductivity, W/m K (700 K) Surface tension, N/m (700 K)
Liquid metal Li
Ga
Sn
3 0.53 453 1613 21.1 4420 47 0.400
31 5.91 302 2676 3.9 345 27 0.685
50 7.31 505 2543 2.5 255 32 0.554
Table 2 Temperature limit of structural materials compatibility with Li.
Fig. 1. Scheme of PFC basing element design.
The analysis of all these aspects permit to estimate the operation limits for PFC with liquid Li, Ga and Sn and draw a conclusion what liquid is the most suitable. 2. Background for choice 2.1. Capillary effect Capillary forces in CPS is the main reason for liquid metal stability under MHD effect and ability of liquid surface for self-renewal. Capillary effect (capillary pressure Pc ) strongly depends on wetting angle and surface tension of liquids as Pc = 2 cos /r, where is the surface tension coefficient; is wetting angle; r is radius of CPS pore. Assuming ideal wetting for all considered metals ( = 0) the estimated capillary pressure Pc for the liquid Ga and Sn is higher by factor 1.7 and 1.4 respectively in comparison with Li (Fig. 1). Proceeding from the MHD induced pressure in liquid metals estimated as ∼10 kPa for the tokamak with a magnetic field of about 6 T the appropriate radius of CPS pore providing stability of liquid should be less than the following values −0.8 × 10−4 m for Li; 1.1 × 10−4 m for Sn; 1.4 × 10−4 m for Ga. However, in reality only Li has the total wetting ( = 0) for majority of structural metals and tungsten as promising PFM. Low chemical reactivity of Ga and Sn, high wetting angle for clean surface ( ∼ /4 for Sn on W) [7] are the reason of problem in reliable wetting of CPS base material and lower Pc . in comparison with Li. It should be note that surface cleaning for decrease may results in catastrophic corrosion effect for majority of structural metals (excluding W) in case of Sn and Ga use. Furthermore, high specific density of Ga and Sn results in there low capillary lifting in CPS that is the limiting factor for liquid surface self-renewal of real design of tokamak PFC.
Material
Temperature (◦ C)
HT-9 type steels 316 type steels V alloys Mo alloys W alloys
800 700 900 1200 1500
these metals is high atomic number that results in strong limitation of possible atom flux to the plasma. 2.3. Corrosion compatibility Materials of CPS and PFC structure should be resistant to corrosion effect in considering liquid metals at the temperature of its operation and preparation technique. The compatibility of wide range of structural materials (stainless steels, refractory metals, etc.) is well studied in liquid Li [1,4] but there is lack of experimental data on corrosive activity of Ga and Sn. The temperature limits for appropriate compatibility of structural materials with liquid Li are presented in Table 2. Ga and Sn have the appropriate compatibility only with Be, W, Ta, Re and its alloys at the temperature up to 300–600 ◦ C as it follows from the reference data [8]. Stainless steels are not compatible at the temperature higher 400 ◦ C [9]. This sets a limit on operation window for PFC with Ga and Sn. As follows from our experimental results, only W alloys are compatible with Ga at the temperature higher 500 ◦ C. In addition should be noted that the corrosive damage occurred just after its wetting (wetting angle < /2) for the most of structural materials. In our opinion, gallium and tin have the approximately similar corrosion activity in relation to wide range of structural materials. 2.4. Influence on the mechanical properties of structural materials Ga, Li and (to a lesser degree) Sn might provoke the embrittlement of PFC structural materials. BCC metals and ferriticmartensitic stainless steels are potentially susceptible to liquid metal embrittlement in Li and Ga (adsorption effect). Besides, for Ga and Sn the liquid metal penetration into the structural materials might induce the mechanical properties degradation and fracture (corrosion effect). 3. Estimation of operation limits
2.2. Physical properties From comparison of physical properties for considered metals (Table 1) is clear that Ga and Sn have the advantage only in boiling point. Nevertheless, the thermal properties of these metals are significantly worse in comparison with Li that is the critical point in thermal properties of PFC. The most important disadvantage of
The possible PFC design should be considered and taken into account for correct selection of liquid metal and PFC operation limits. It has been supposed that PFC design for steady-state operation should contain the channel (molybdenum tube) for flowing coolant (∼200 ◦ C) covered with CPS of 1 mm thick (Fig. 1). Surface temperature analysis (Fig. 2) of such model for steady-state
I.E. Lyublinski, A.V. Vertkov / Fusion Engineering and Design 89 (2014) 2953–2955
1000
Surface temperature, oC
920
Sn
SS based CPS
840
Ga
Li
760 680
Ga
600
Sn
Li
520
W based CPS
440 360 280 200
0
3
6
9
12
15
18
21
24
27
30
Power flux, MW/m2 Fig. 2. Calculated surface temperature vs. power flux for CPS based PFCs.
operation has shown its strong dependence on CPS material, power flux and liquid metal properties. Effective heat removal by flowing coolant is supposed in this case. Taking into account of all the aspects mentioned above it become clear that the highest operation limits for all considered liquid metals are very close to 550 ◦ C. The temperature for Li is limited by the atom flux into the plasma column and for Ga, Sn by corrosion compatibility with W. In terms of power flux value the high operation limit for active cooled PFC from W based CPS is close to 20–22 MW/m2 . The operation limit is considerably lower for PFCs using other structural materials Shielding effect owing to re-radiation on Li vapor [3] decreases power flux reaching the PFC surface. Experimentally determined value of shielding effect is in the range of 50–70% of incoming flux. It means the possibility to increase the operation limit for CPS with Li. For Ga and Sn shielding effect is negligibly low due to low vapor pressure at the temperature limit of corrosion compatibility. ELM and disruption events will produce higher power fluxes in comparison with normal plasma discharge conditions. In these cases, CPS with Li has essential advantage in comparison with Ga and Sn when re-radiation effect and high latent evaporation heat of Li ensures the effective surface screening. 4. Conclusions Summarizing the discussion mentioned above, it is possible to conclude that lithium is the most preferable liquid metal for use in PFC. Despite of advantage in boiling temperature, Ga and Sn possess a number of disadvantages. Its high corrosion activity does not allow increasing the temperature limit of PFC operation in
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comparison with CPS with Li. In some cases, use of Ga and Sn can appear unacceptable. The critical aspect is the need of providing the good wetting of CPS material, without which the application of Ga and Sn with CPS loses any sense. Another important point is creation of technologies of liquid metal removal from the tokamak walls and other in-vessel elements. Successful development of such technology has been demonstrated in T-11M tokamak [10]. Besides, the good compatibility of Li with tokamak plasma which is demonstrated in experiments in numerous fusion devices [10–17] improves the attractiveness of Li as plasma facing material. The further investigation including plasma experiments in tokamak condition, design and technology development for in-vessel elements based on CPS with liquid metals are needed for correct choice of liquid metal. Now the CPS with liquid Li is the most attractive. In our opinion, Li now is the most preferable to use in CPS based PFC. References [1] V.N. Mikhailov, V.A. Evtikhin, I.E. Lyublinski, A.V. Vertkov, A.N. Chumanov, Lithium for fusion reactors and space nuclear power systems of XXI century, Energoatomizdat, Moscow, 1999 (In Russian). [2] I.E. Lyublinski, A.V. Verkov, V.A. Evtikhin, Plasma Dev. Oper. 17 (4) (2009) 265–285. [3] V.A. Evtikhin, I.E. Lyublinski, A.V. Verkov, S.V. Mirnov, V.B. Lazarev, N.P. Petrova, et al., Plasma Phys. Control Fusion 44 (2002) 955–977. [4] S.V. Mirnov, V.N. Dem’yanenko, E.V. Murav’ev, J. Nucl. Mater. 196–198 (1992) 45–49. [5] G. Mazzitelli, M.L. Apicella, M. Marinucci, A. Alekseyev, G. Apruzzese, P. Buratti, et al., Status and perspectives of the liquid material experiments in FTU and ISTTOK, fusion energy 2008, in: Proc. 22th Int. Conf. Geneva, IAEA, Vienna, 2008, CD-ROM file EX/P 4-6. [6] I.E. Lyublinski, A.V. Verkov, V.A. Evtikhin, Plasma Dev. Oper. 17 (4) (2009) 42–72. [7] Y.V. Najdich, Contact Phenomena in Metallic Melts, Naukova Dumka, Kiev, 1972, 196 pp. (in Russian). [8] S.P. Jatcenko, Gallium Interaction with Metals, Science, Moscow, 1974, pp. 220 (in Russian). [9] B. Cook, Hartman, Interaction of 304 SS with Lead-Tin and Lead-Free Solder, Met316 Report, May 11, 2001. [10] S.V. Mirnov, A.G. Alekseev, A.M. Belov, N.T. Djigailo, A.N. Kostina, V.B. Lazarev, et al., Fusion Eng. Des. 87 (2012) 1747–1754. [11] D. Mansfield, Nucl. Fusion 41 (2001) 1823. [12] S.V. Mirnov, A.M. Belov, N.T. Djigailo, A.N. Kostina, V.B. Lazarev, I.E. Lyublinski, et al., J. Nucl. Mater. 438 (2013) S224–S228. [13] V.A. Vershkov, S.V. Mirnov, V.A. Evtikhin, A.V. Vertkov, I.E. Lublinskii, S.A. Evstigneev, et al., Experiments with lithium gettering of the T-10 tokamak, Fusion Energy 2008, in: Proc. 22th Int. Conf. Geneva, 2008, IAEA, Vienna, 2008, CD-ROM file EX/P 4-14. [14] R. Majeski, Fusion Eng. Des. 72 (2004) 121–132. [15] M.L. Apicella, G. Mazzitelli, V. Pericoli Ridolfini, G. Apruzzese, R. De Angelis, D. Frigione, et al., Fusion Eng. Des. 85 (2010) 896–901. [16] R. Kaita, H. Kugel, M.G. Bell, R. Bell, J. Boedo, C. Bush, et al., Plasma performance improvement with lithium-coated plasma-facing components in NSTX, Fusion Energy 2008, in: Proc. 22th Int. Conf. Geneva, 2008, IAEA, Vienna, 2008, CD-ROM file EX/P 4-9. [17] F. Tabàres, Problems of atomic science and technology, Ser.: Plasma Phys. 6 (2008) 3–7.
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Fusion Engineering and Design journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fusengdes
Comparative assessment of application of low melting metals with capillary pore systems in a tokamak I.E. Lyublinski, A.V. Vertkov ∗ JSC “Red Star”, Moscow, Russia
h i g h l i g h t s • Capillary-pore systems (CPS) with liquid metals (Li, Ga, Sn) are considered as alternative to solid materials meeting the challenges under creation of plasma facing components (PFC) for DEMO-type fusion reactor.
• Resistance to high power flux, liquid surface stability and self-renewal are the main features of this advised material. • As it follows from analysis of experimental data, the CPS with Li is the most preferable for PFC application.
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 8 October 2013 Received in revised form 29 August 2014 Accepted 16 September 2014 Available online 23 October 2014 Keywords: Liquid metals Plasma facing material Plasma facing component
a b s t r a c t Capillary-pore systems (CPS) with liquid metals are considered as advanced plasma facing material for application in DEMO-type fusion reactor. The estimation of opportunity of liquid Li, Ga and Sn application is carried out on the basis of its physical, chemical and technological properties, and with respect to prospective design of the tokamak in-vessel elements and technology. It has been shown that Li now is the most attractive and most investigated liquid metal for fusion devices application with CPS. The temperature limit for normal operation is about 550 ◦ C and determined by appropriate Li flux to plasma due to evaporation. Wide range of structural materials is appropriate for Li based in-vessel elements. Ga and Sn are very corrosive and embrittlement inducing metals. As a result the temperature limit of these application is determined by compatibility with structural materials of CPS and in-vessel element. Only W can be used with Ga and Sn up to 500 ◦ C. Moreover these metals have lower thermal properties comparing to Li. Surface temperature analysis for possible in-vessel element design (1 mm thick of porous W based CPS) has shown the similar power flux limit ∼21 MW/m2 for Li, Ga and Sn application at normal operation. Taking into account the latent heat of vaporization and screening effect with re-radiation the CPS with Li has a priority at ELM and disruption conditions. © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Capillary-pore systems (CPS) with liquid metals are proposed as alternative providing the possibility to overcome the problems related to solid materials for plasma facing components (PFC) in DEMO-type fusion reactor [1–3]. The main feature of CPS is the ensuring on the base of capillary forces of PFC surface self-renewal and resistance to degradation under steady-state reactor conditions, restriction splashing of liquid under J × B forces at ELMs and disruptions. Lithium, gallium and tin are considered as perspective low melting metals for application with CPS in tokamak [4–6].
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +7 499 6138311; fax: +7 499 6138311. E-mail address: [email protected] (A.V. Vertkov). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fusengdes.2014.09.015 0920-3796/© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Well-grounded choice of liquids should be based on the analysis of the following aspects. Capillary effect meeting the requirement in self-renewal and liquid stability under magneto hydrodynamic (MHD) forces is determined by the reliable wetting of CPS material and the value of surface tension force. Lifetime of PFC strongly depends on corrosive compatibility of CPS and structural materials with liquid metals in the temperature intervals of its operation and preparation. The admissible level of impurity atom influx to plasma is determined by the liquid metal boiling point and ion sputtering coefficient, charging number and behavior in plasma. Liquid metal interaction with plasma and residual gases in the tokamak chamber, possible accumulation on the chamber wall and presence of the technology for its extraction are the important aspects for choice. In addition, the possible PFC design should be considered and taken into account.
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I.E. Lyublinski, A.V. Vertkov / Fusion Engineering and Design 89 (2014) 2953–2955 Table 1 Main physical properties of Li, Ga, Sn. Property
Atomic number, Z Specific density, g/cm3 Melting point, K Boiling point, K Latent heat of vaporization, kJ/g Heat capacity, J/kg K (700 K) Heat conductivity, W/m K (700 K) Surface tension, N/m (700 K)
Liquid metal Li
Ga
Sn
3 0.53 453 1613 21.1 4420 47 0.400
31 5.91 302 2676 3.9 345 27 0.685
50 7.31 505 2543 2.5 255 32 0.554
Table 2 Temperature limit of structural materials compatibility with Li.
Fig. 1. Scheme of PFC basing element design.
The analysis of all these aspects permit to estimate the operation limits for PFC with liquid Li, Ga and Sn and draw a conclusion what liquid is the most suitable. 2. Background for choice 2.1. Capillary effect Capillary forces in CPS is the main reason for liquid metal stability under MHD effect and ability of liquid surface for self-renewal. Capillary effect (capillary pressure Pc ) strongly depends on wetting angle and surface tension of liquids as Pc = 2 cos /r, where is the surface tension coefficient; is wetting angle; r is radius of CPS pore. Assuming ideal wetting for all considered metals ( = 0) the estimated capillary pressure Pc for the liquid Ga and Sn is higher by factor 1.7 and 1.4 respectively in comparison with Li (Fig. 1). Proceeding from the MHD induced pressure in liquid metals estimated as ∼10 kPa for the tokamak with a magnetic field of about 6 T the appropriate radius of CPS pore providing stability of liquid should be less than the following values −0.8 × 10−4 m for Li; 1.1 × 10−4 m for Sn; 1.4 × 10−4 m for Ga. However, in reality only Li has the total wetting ( = 0) for majority of structural metals and tungsten as promising PFM. Low chemical reactivity of Ga and Sn, high wetting angle for clean surface ( ∼ /4 for Sn on W) [7] are the reason of problem in reliable wetting of CPS base material and lower Pc . in comparison with Li. It should be note that surface cleaning for decrease may results in catastrophic corrosion effect for majority of structural metals (excluding W) in case of Sn and Ga use. Furthermore, high specific density of Ga and Sn results in there low capillary lifting in CPS that is the limiting factor for liquid surface self-renewal of real design of tokamak PFC.
Material
Temperature (◦ C)
HT-9 type steels 316 type steels V alloys Mo alloys W alloys
800 700 900 1200 1500
these metals is high atomic number that results in strong limitation of possible atom flux to the plasma. 2.3. Corrosion compatibility Materials of CPS and PFC structure should be resistant to corrosion effect in considering liquid metals at the temperature of its operation and preparation technique. The compatibility of wide range of structural materials (stainless steels, refractory metals, etc.) is well studied in liquid Li [1,4] but there is lack of experimental data on corrosive activity of Ga and Sn. The temperature limits for appropriate compatibility of structural materials with liquid Li are presented in Table 2. Ga and Sn have the appropriate compatibility only with Be, W, Ta, Re and its alloys at the temperature up to 300–600 ◦ C as it follows from the reference data [8]. Stainless steels are not compatible at the temperature higher 400 ◦ C [9]. This sets a limit on operation window for PFC with Ga and Sn. As follows from our experimental results, only W alloys are compatible with Ga at the temperature higher 500 ◦ C. In addition should be noted that the corrosive damage occurred just after its wetting (wetting angle < /2) for the most of structural materials. In our opinion, gallium and tin have the approximately similar corrosion activity in relation to wide range of structural materials. 2.4. Influence on the mechanical properties of structural materials Ga, Li and (to a lesser degree) Sn might provoke the embrittlement of PFC structural materials. BCC metals and ferriticmartensitic stainless steels are potentially susceptible to liquid metal embrittlement in Li and Ga (adsorption effect). Besides, for Ga and Sn the liquid metal penetration into the structural materials might induce the mechanical properties degradation and fracture (corrosion effect). 3. Estimation of operation limits
2.2. Physical properties From comparison of physical properties for considered metals (Table 1) is clear that Ga and Sn have the advantage only in boiling point. Nevertheless, the thermal properties of these metals are significantly worse in comparison with Li that is the critical point in thermal properties of PFC. The most important disadvantage of
The possible PFC design should be considered and taken into account for correct selection of liquid metal and PFC operation limits. It has been supposed that PFC design for steady-state operation should contain the channel (molybdenum tube) for flowing coolant (∼200 ◦ C) covered with CPS of 1 mm thick (Fig. 1). Surface temperature analysis (Fig. 2) of such model for steady-state
I.E. Lyublinski, A.V. Vertkov / Fusion Engineering and Design 89 (2014) 2953–2955
1000
Surface temperature, oC
920
Sn
SS based CPS
840
Ga
Li
760 680
Ga
600
Sn
Li
520
W based CPS
440 360 280 200
0
3
6
9
12
15
18
21
24
27
30
Power flux, MW/m2 Fig. 2. Calculated surface temperature vs. power flux for CPS based PFCs.
operation has shown its strong dependence on CPS material, power flux and liquid metal properties. Effective heat removal by flowing coolant is supposed in this case. Taking into account of all the aspects mentioned above it become clear that the highest operation limits for all considered liquid metals are very close to 550 ◦ C. The temperature for Li is limited by the atom flux into the plasma column and for Ga, Sn by corrosion compatibility with W. In terms of power flux value the high operation limit for active cooled PFC from W based CPS is close to 20–22 MW/m2 . The operation limit is considerably lower for PFCs using other structural materials Shielding effect owing to re-radiation on Li vapor [3] decreases power flux reaching the PFC surface. Experimentally determined value of shielding effect is in the range of 50–70% of incoming flux. It means the possibility to increase the operation limit for CPS with Li. For Ga and Sn shielding effect is negligibly low due to low vapor pressure at the temperature limit of corrosion compatibility. ELM and disruption events will produce higher power fluxes in comparison with normal plasma discharge conditions. In these cases, CPS with Li has essential advantage in comparison with Ga and Sn when re-radiation effect and high latent evaporation heat of Li ensures the effective surface screening. 4. Conclusions Summarizing the discussion mentioned above, it is possible to conclude that lithium is the most preferable liquid metal for use in PFC. Despite of advantage in boiling temperature, Ga and Sn possess a number of disadvantages. Its high corrosion activity does not allow increasing the temperature limit of PFC operation in
2955
comparison with CPS with Li. In some cases, use of Ga and Sn can appear unacceptable. The critical aspect is the need of providing the good wetting of CPS material, without which the application of Ga and Sn with CPS loses any sense. Another important point is creation of technologies of liquid metal removal from the tokamak walls and other in-vessel elements. Successful development of such technology has been demonstrated in T-11M tokamak [10]. Besides, the good compatibility of Li with tokamak plasma which is demonstrated in experiments in numerous fusion devices [10–17] improves the attractiveness of Li as plasma facing material. The further investigation including plasma experiments in tokamak condition, design and technology development for in-vessel elements based on CPS with liquid metals are needed for correct choice of liquid metal. Now the CPS with liquid Li is the most attractive. In our opinion, Li now is the most preferable to use in CPS based PFC. References [1] V.N. Mikhailov, V.A. Evtikhin, I.E. Lyublinski, A.V. Vertkov, A.N. Chumanov, Lithium for fusion reactors and space nuclear power systems of XXI century, Energoatomizdat, Moscow, 1999 (In Russian). [2] I.E. Lyublinski, A.V. Verkov, V.A. Evtikhin, Plasma Dev. Oper. 17 (4) (2009) 265–285. [3] V.A. Evtikhin, I.E. Lyublinski, A.V. Verkov, S.V. Mirnov, V.B. Lazarev, N.P. Petrova, et al., Plasma Phys. Control Fusion 44 (2002) 955–977. [4] S.V. Mirnov, V.N. Dem’yanenko, E.V. Murav’ev, J. Nucl. Mater. 196–198 (1992) 45–49. [5] G. Mazzitelli, M.L. Apicella, M. Marinucci, A. Alekseyev, G. Apruzzese, P. Buratti, et al., Status and perspectives of the liquid material experiments in FTU and ISTTOK, fusion energy 2008, in: Proc. 22th Int. Conf. Geneva, IAEA, Vienna, 2008, CD-ROM file EX/P 4-6. [6] I.E. Lyublinski, A.V. Verkov, V.A. Evtikhin, Plasma Dev. Oper. 17 (4) (2009) 42–72. [7] Y.V. Najdich, Contact Phenomena in Metallic Melts, Naukova Dumka, Kiev, 1972, 196 pp. (in Russian). [8] S.P. Jatcenko, Gallium Interaction with Metals, Science, Moscow, 1974, pp. 220 (in Russian). [9] B. Cook, Hartman, Interaction of 304 SS with Lead-Tin and Lead-Free Solder, Met316 Report, May 11, 2001. [10] S.V. Mirnov, A.G. Alekseev, A.M. Belov, N.T. Djigailo, A.N. Kostina, V.B. Lazarev, et al., Fusion Eng. Des. 87 (2012) 1747–1754. [11] D. Mansfield, Nucl. Fusion 41 (2001) 1823. [12] S.V. Mirnov, A.M. Belov, N.T. Djigailo, A.N. Kostina, V.B. Lazarev, I.E. Lyublinski, et al., J. Nucl. Mater. 438 (2013) S224–S228. [13] V.A. Vershkov, S.V. Mirnov, V.A. Evtikhin, A.V. Vertkov, I.E. Lublinskii, S.A. Evstigneev, et al., Experiments with lithium gettering of the T-10 tokamak, Fusion Energy 2008, in: Proc. 22th Int. Conf. Geneva, 2008, IAEA, Vienna, 2008, CD-ROM file EX/P 4-14. [14] R. Majeski, Fusion Eng. Des. 72 (2004) 121–132. [15] M.L. Apicella, G. Mazzitelli, V. Pericoli Ridolfini, G. Apruzzese, R. De Angelis, D. Frigione, et al., Fusion Eng. Des. 85 (2010) 896–901. [16] R. Kaita, H. Kugel, M.G. Bell, R. Bell, J. Boedo, C. Bush, et al., Plasma performance improvement with lithium-coated plasma-facing components in NSTX, Fusion Energy 2008, in: Proc. 22th Int. Conf. Geneva, 2008, IAEA, Vienna, 2008, CD-ROM file EX/P 4-9. [17] F. Tabàres, Problems of atomic science and technology, Ser.: Plasma Phys. 6 (2008) 3–7.