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Comparative Ventilation of the Normal Lung
Appendix 4
Comparative Ventilation of the Normal Lung TABLE 1 Lung Volumes of Various Mammalian Species
Species
Body Weight (kg)
Horses
Humans
Dogs
Monkeys
Rabbits
Guinea pigs
TLC
FRC
RV
Conditions
(ml)
(ml/kg)
(ml)
(ml/kg)
(ml)
(ml/kg)
References
485.00
Anesthetized, prone
44800
92.4
17600
36.3
9200
19.0
Sorenson and Robinson (1980)
485.00
Anesthetized, supine
34000
70.1
11700
24.1
5700
11.8
Sorenson and Robinson (1980)
78.40
Awake, supine
7210
92.0
3080
39.3
2230
28.4
Westbrook et al. (1973)
71.00
Awake, sitting
7260
102.3
3952
55.7
1460
20.6
Rehder et al. (1975)
18.60
Awake, prone
2090
112.4
997
53.6
310
16.7
Gillespie et al. (1973)
16.50
Anesthetized, prone
1684
102.1
665
40.3
253
15.3
Lai et al. (1977)
5.56
Anesthetized, upright
503
90.5
275
49.5
92
16.6
Pare´ et al. (1978)
7.77
Anesthetized, sitting
619
79.7
333
42.8
76
9.8
Kosch et al. (1979a)
3.55
Anesthetized, prone
123
34.7
37.7
10.6
5.2
1.5
Caldwell (1971)
3.14
Anesthetized, prone
111
35.4
36.4
11.6
20.2
6.4
Caldwell and Fry (1969)
0.27
Anesthetized, prone
8.4
31.0
4.5
16.6
2.5
9.2
Lamm et al. (1982)
0.52
Anesthetized, supine
20.8
40.9
8.6
17.0
4.8
9.5
Pare´ et al. (1979) Continued
769
TABLE 1 Lung Volumes of Various Mammalian Speciesdcont’d
Species
Body Weight (kg)
Rats
Hamsters
Mice
TLC
FRC
RV
Conditions
(ml)
(ml/kg)
(ml)
(ml/kg)
(ml)
(ml/kg)
References
0.23
Anesthetized, Lf. lat.
8.2
35.7
4.6
20.0
2.7
11.7
Diamond and O’Donnell (1977)
0.31
Anesthetized, prone
12.2
39.4
2.1
6.8
1.3
4.2
Lai and Hildebrandt (1978)
0.122
Anesthetized, supine
7.2
59.0
2.4
19.7
2.0
16.4
Koo et al. (1976)
0.118
Anesthetized, supine
5.6
47.5
1.1
9.3
0.5
4.2
Lai (1979)
0.020
Anesthetized
1.57
78.5
0.50
25.0
0.39
19.5
Hatch et al. (1984)
e
Anesthetized
1.84
e
0.55
e
0.31
e
Miller et al. (1987)
TABLE 2 Recoil Pressures at 80% TLC (P80) and at 30% TLC (P30) of the Saline-Filled Lungs in Mammals Species
P80 (cm H2O)
P30 (cm H2O)
References
Dogs
5.5
0.6
Faridy et al. (1966)
Cats
3.7
0.6
Bachofen et al. (1970)
Rabbits
4.5
1.3
Inoue et al. (1982)
Rats
5.0
1.4
Faridy (1981)
Hamsters
4.2
1.0
Snider et al. (1977)
Mice
4.0
2.0
Gross (1981)
(A)
(B)
2.3
9 8
2.0 Guinea pigs
6 ∙ V (VC/s)
∙ V (VC/s)
1.5
Hamsters
1.0
4
0.5
2 Humans
Humans 0 0
(–) 1
2
3
4
5
Transpulmonary pressure (cmH2O)
10 8
(+) 4
0
4
8
12
16
20
24
28
Pes – Pao (cmH2O)
FIGURE 1 Pressure-flow curves in mammals. Flow is expressed as vital capacity/second (VC/s). (A): During spontaneous breathing. Data of humans are from Mead and Whittenberger (1953) and guinea pigs from Lamm et al. (1984). (B): During more forceful expiratory effort at 49% (humans) or at 50% (hamsters) VC. Values of humans are from Hyatt and Wilcox (1963) and hamsters from Lucey et al. (1978).
Appendix 4
771
FIGURE 2 Pleural space thickness (t) versus body weight (W) measured using light microscopy in five mammalian species. The power curve fit to the data was t ¼ 13.1 W0.2. From Li-Fook, S.J., Kaplowitz, M.R., 1985. J. Appl. Physiol. 59, 603e610. Used by permission.
REFERENCES Bachofen, H., Hildebrandt, J., Bachofen, M., 1970. Pressure-volume curves of air- and liquid-filled excised lungs-surface tension in situ. J. Appl. Physiol. 29, 422e431. Caldwell, E.J., 1971. Physiologic and anatomic effects of papain on the rabbit lung. J. Appl. Physiol. 31, 458e465. Caldwell, E.J., Fry, D.L., 1969. Pulmonary mechanics in the rabbit. J. Appl. Physiol. 27, 280e285. Diamond, L., O’Donnell, M., 1977. Pulmonary mechanics in normal rats. J. Appl. Physiol. 43, 942e948. Faridy, E.E., 1981. Pressure-volume characteristics of lungs of rats during pregnancy and postpartum. Respir. Physiol. 43, 43e58. Faridy, E.E., Permutt, S., Riley, R.L., 1966. Effect of ventilation of surface forces in excised dogs’ lungs. J. Appl. Physiol. 21, 1453e1462. Gillespie, D.J., Lai, Y.-L., Hyatt, R.E., 1973. Comparison of esophageal and pleural pressures in the anesthetized dog. J. Appl. Physiol. 35, 709e713. Gross, N.J., 1981. Mechanical properties of mouse lungs: effects of degassing on normal, hyperoxic, and irradiated lungs. J. Appl. Physiol. 51, 391e398. Hatch, G.E., Raub, J.A., Graham, J.A., 1984. Functional and biochemical indicators of pneumoconiosis in mice: comparison with rats. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 13, 487e497. Hyatt, R.E., Wilcox, R.E., 1963. The pressure-flow relationships of the intrathoracic airway in man. J. Clin. Invest. 42, 29e39. Inoue, H., Inoue, C., Hildebrandt, J., 1982. Temperature effects on lung mechanics in air- and liquid-filled rabbit lungs. J. Appl. Physiol. 53, 567e575. Koo, K.W., Leith, D.E., Sherter, C.B., Snider, G.L., 1976. Respiratory mechanics in normal hamsters. J. Appl. Physiol. 40, 936e942.
Kosch, P.C., Gillespie, J.R., Berry, J.D., 1979a. Respiratory mechanics in normal bonnet and rhesus monkeys. J. Appl. Physiol. 4, 166e175. Lai, Y.-L., 1979. Lung volume and pleural pressure in the anesthetized hamster. J. Appl. Physiol. 46, 927e931. Lai, Y.-L., Hildebrandt, J., 1978. Respiratory mechanics in the anesthetized rat. J. Appl. Physiol. 45, 255e260. Lai, Y.-L., Rodarte, J.R., Hyatt, R.E., 1977. Effect of body position on lung emptying in recumbant anesthetized dogs. J. Appl. Physiol. 43, 983e987. Lam, H.F., Peisch, R., Amdur, M.O., 1982. Changes in lung volumes and diffusing capacity in guinea pigs exposed to a combination of sulfur dioxide and submicron zinc oxide mixed in a humidified furnace. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 66, 427e433. Lamm, W.J.E., Lai, Y.-L., Hildebrandt, J., 1984. Histamine and leukotrienes mediate pulmonary hypersensitivity to antigen in guinea pigs. J. Appl. Physiol. 56, 1032e1038. Lamm, W.J.E., Hildebrandt, J.R., Hildebrandt, J., Lai, Y.-L., 1982. Endexpiratory volume in the rat: effects of consciousness and body position. J. Appl. Physiol. 53, 1071e1079. Lucey, E.C., Celli, B.R., Snider, G.L., 1978. Maximum expiratory flow and transpulmonary pressure in the hamster. J. Appl. Physiol. 45, 840e845. Mead, J., Whittenberger, J.L., 1953. Physical properties of human lungs measured during spontaneous respiration. J. Appl. Physiol. 5, 779e796. Miller, F.J., Graham, J.A., Raub, J.A., Ming, J.W., Menache, M.G., House, D.E., Gardner, D.E., 1987. Evaluating the toxicity of urban patterns of oxidant gases. II. Effects in mice from chronic exposure to nitrogen dioxide. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 21, 99e112.
772 Appendix 4
Paré, P.D., Boucher, R., Michoud, M.-C., Hogg, J., 1978. Static lung mechanics of intact and excised rhesus monkey lungs and lobes. J. Appl. Physiol. 44, 547e552. Paré, P.D., Michoud, M.-C., Boucher, R.C., Hogg, J., 1979. Pulmonary effects of acute and chronic antigen exposure of immunized guinea pigs. J. Appl. Physiol. 46, 346e353. Rehder, K., Abboud, N., Rodarte, J.R., Hyatt, R.E., 1975. Positive airway pressure and vertical transpulmonary pressure gradient in man. J. Appl. Physiol. 38, 896e899.
Snider, G.L., Sherter, C.B., Koo, K.W., Karlinsky, J.B., Hayes, J.A., Franzblau, C., 1977. Respiratory mechanics in hamsters following treatment with endotracheal elastase or collagenase. J. Appl. Physiol. 42, 206e215. Sorenson, P.R., Robinson, N.E., 1980. Postural effects on lung volumes and asynchronous ventilation in anesthetized horses. J. Appl. Physiol. 48, 97e103. Westbrook, P.R., Stubbs, S.E., Sessler, A.D., Rehder, K., Hyatt, R.E., 1973. Effects of anesthesia and muscle paralysis on respiratory mechanics in normal man. J. Appl. Physiol. 34, 81e86.
Comparative Ventilation of the Normal Lung TABLE 1 Lung Volumes of Various Mammalian Species
Species
Body Weight (kg)
Horses
Humans
Dogs
Monkeys
Rabbits
Guinea pigs
TLC
FRC
RV
Conditions
(ml)
(ml/kg)
(ml)
(ml/kg)
(ml)
(ml/kg)
References
485.00
Anesthetized, prone
44800
92.4
17600
36.3
9200
19.0
Sorenson and Robinson (1980)
485.00
Anesthetized, supine
34000
70.1
11700
24.1
5700
11.8
Sorenson and Robinson (1980)
78.40
Awake, supine
7210
92.0
3080
39.3
2230
28.4
Westbrook et al. (1973)
71.00
Awake, sitting
7260
102.3
3952
55.7
1460
20.6
Rehder et al. (1975)
18.60
Awake, prone
2090
112.4
997
53.6
310
16.7
Gillespie et al. (1973)
16.50
Anesthetized, prone
1684
102.1
665
40.3
253
15.3
Lai et al. (1977)
5.56
Anesthetized, upright
503
90.5
275
49.5
92
16.6
Pare´ et al. (1978)
7.77
Anesthetized, sitting
619
79.7
333
42.8
76
9.8
Kosch et al. (1979a)
3.55
Anesthetized, prone
123
34.7
37.7
10.6
5.2
1.5
Caldwell (1971)
3.14
Anesthetized, prone
111
35.4
36.4
11.6
20.2
6.4
Caldwell and Fry (1969)
0.27
Anesthetized, prone
8.4
31.0
4.5
16.6
2.5
9.2
Lamm et al. (1982)
0.52
Anesthetized, supine
20.8
40.9
8.6
17.0
4.8
9.5
Pare´ et al. (1979) Continued
769
TABLE 1 Lung Volumes of Various Mammalian Speciesdcont’d
Species
Body Weight (kg)
Rats
Hamsters
Mice
TLC
FRC
RV
Conditions
(ml)
(ml/kg)
(ml)
(ml/kg)
(ml)
(ml/kg)
References
0.23
Anesthetized, Lf. lat.
8.2
35.7
4.6
20.0
2.7
11.7
Diamond and O’Donnell (1977)
0.31
Anesthetized, prone
12.2
39.4
2.1
6.8
1.3
4.2
Lai and Hildebrandt (1978)
0.122
Anesthetized, supine
7.2
59.0
2.4
19.7
2.0
16.4
Koo et al. (1976)
0.118
Anesthetized, supine
5.6
47.5
1.1
9.3
0.5
4.2
Lai (1979)
0.020
Anesthetized
1.57
78.5
0.50
25.0
0.39
19.5
Hatch et al. (1984)
e
Anesthetized
1.84
e
0.55
e
0.31
e
Miller et al. (1987)
TABLE 2 Recoil Pressures at 80% TLC (P80) and at 30% TLC (P30) of the Saline-Filled Lungs in Mammals Species
P80 (cm H2O)
P30 (cm H2O)
References
Dogs
5.5
0.6
Faridy et al. (1966)
Cats
3.7
0.6
Bachofen et al. (1970)
Rabbits
4.5
1.3
Inoue et al. (1982)
Rats
5.0
1.4
Faridy (1981)
Hamsters
4.2
1.0
Snider et al. (1977)
Mice
4.0
2.0
Gross (1981)
(A)
(B)
2.3
9 8
2.0 Guinea pigs
6 ∙ V (VC/s)
∙ V (VC/s)
1.5
Hamsters
1.0
4
0.5
2 Humans
Humans 0 0
(–) 1
2
3
4
5
Transpulmonary pressure (cmH2O)
10 8
(+) 4
0
4
8
12
16
20
24
28
Pes – Pao (cmH2O)
FIGURE 1 Pressure-flow curves in mammals. Flow is expressed as vital capacity/second (VC/s). (A): During spontaneous breathing. Data of humans are from Mead and Whittenberger (1953) and guinea pigs from Lamm et al. (1984). (B): During more forceful expiratory effort at 49% (humans) or at 50% (hamsters) VC. Values of humans are from Hyatt and Wilcox (1963) and hamsters from Lucey et al. (1978).
Appendix 4
771
FIGURE 2 Pleural space thickness (t) versus body weight (W) measured using light microscopy in five mammalian species. The power curve fit to the data was t ¼ 13.1 W0.2. From Li-Fook, S.J., Kaplowitz, M.R., 1985. J. Appl. Physiol. 59, 603e610. Used by permission.
REFERENCES Bachofen, H., Hildebrandt, J., Bachofen, M., 1970. Pressure-volume curves of air- and liquid-filled excised lungs-surface tension in situ. J. Appl. Physiol. 29, 422e431. Caldwell, E.J., 1971. Physiologic and anatomic effects of papain on the rabbit lung. J. Appl. Physiol. 31, 458e465. Caldwell, E.J., Fry, D.L., 1969. Pulmonary mechanics in the rabbit. J. Appl. Physiol. 27, 280e285. Diamond, L., O’Donnell, M., 1977. Pulmonary mechanics in normal rats. J. Appl. Physiol. 43, 942e948. Faridy, E.E., 1981. Pressure-volume characteristics of lungs of rats during pregnancy and postpartum. Respir. Physiol. 43, 43e58. Faridy, E.E., Permutt, S., Riley, R.L., 1966. Effect of ventilation of surface forces in excised dogs’ lungs. J. Appl. Physiol. 21, 1453e1462. Gillespie, D.J., Lai, Y.-L., Hyatt, R.E., 1973. Comparison of esophageal and pleural pressures in the anesthetized dog. J. Appl. Physiol. 35, 709e713. Gross, N.J., 1981. Mechanical properties of mouse lungs: effects of degassing on normal, hyperoxic, and irradiated lungs. J. Appl. Physiol. 51, 391e398. Hatch, G.E., Raub, J.A., Graham, J.A., 1984. Functional and biochemical indicators of pneumoconiosis in mice: comparison with rats. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 13, 487e497. Hyatt, R.E., Wilcox, R.E., 1963. The pressure-flow relationships of the intrathoracic airway in man. J. Clin. Invest. 42, 29e39. Inoue, H., Inoue, C., Hildebrandt, J., 1982. Temperature effects on lung mechanics in air- and liquid-filled rabbit lungs. J. Appl. Physiol. 53, 567e575. Koo, K.W., Leith, D.E., Sherter, C.B., Snider, G.L., 1976. Respiratory mechanics in normal hamsters. J. Appl. Physiol. 40, 936e942.
Kosch, P.C., Gillespie, J.R., Berry, J.D., 1979a. Respiratory mechanics in normal bonnet and rhesus monkeys. J. Appl. Physiol. 4, 166e175. Lai, Y.-L., 1979. Lung volume and pleural pressure in the anesthetized hamster. J. Appl. Physiol. 46, 927e931. Lai, Y.-L., Hildebrandt, J., 1978. Respiratory mechanics in the anesthetized rat. J. Appl. Physiol. 45, 255e260. Lai, Y.-L., Rodarte, J.R., Hyatt, R.E., 1977. Effect of body position on lung emptying in recumbant anesthetized dogs. J. Appl. Physiol. 43, 983e987. Lam, H.F., Peisch, R., Amdur, M.O., 1982. Changes in lung volumes and diffusing capacity in guinea pigs exposed to a combination of sulfur dioxide and submicron zinc oxide mixed in a humidified furnace. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 66, 427e433. Lamm, W.J.E., Lai, Y.-L., Hildebrandt, J., 1984. Histamine and leukotrienes mediate pulmonary hypersensitivity to antigen in guinea pigs. J. Appl. Physiol. 56, 1032e1038. Lamm, W.J.E., Hildebrandt, J.R., Hildebrandt, J., Lai, Y.-L., 1982. Endexpiratory volume in the rat: effects of consciousness and body position. J. Appl. Physiol. 53, 1071e1079. Lucey, E.C., Celli, B.R., Snider, G.L., 1978. Maximum expiratory flow and transpulmonary pressure in the hamster. J. Appl. Physiol. 45, 840e845. Mead, J., Whittenberger, J.L., 1953. Physical properties of human lungs measured during spontaneous respiration. J. Appl. Physiol. 5, 779e796. Miller, F.J., Graham, J.A., Raub, J.A., Ming, J.W., Menache, M.G., House, D.E., Gardner, D.E., 1987. Evaluating the toxicity of urban patterns of oxidant gases. II. Effects in mice from chronic exposure to nitrogen dioxide. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 21, 99e112.
772 Appendix 4
Paré, P.D., Boucher, R., Michoud, M.-C., Hogg, J., 1978. Static lung mechanics of intact and excised rhesus monkey lungs and lobes. J. Appl. Physiol. 44, 547e552. Paré, P.D., Michoud, M.-C., Boucher, R.C., Hogg, J., 1979. Pulmonary effects of acute and chronic antigen exposure of immunized guinea pigs. J. Appl. Physiol. 46, 346e353. Rehder, K., Abboud, N., Rodarte, J.R., Hyatt, R.E., 1975. Positive airway pressure and vertical transpulmonary pressure gradient in man. J. Appl. Physiol. 38, 896e899.
Snider, G.L., Sherter, C.B., Koo, K.W., Karlinsky, J.B., Hayes, J.A., Franzblau, C., 1977. Respiratory mechanics in hamsters following treatment with endotracheal elastase or collagenase. J. Appl. Physiol. 42, 206e215. Sorenson, P.R., Robinson, N.E., 1980. Postural effects on lung volumes and asynchronous ventilation in anesthetized horses. J. Appl. Physiol. 48, 97e103. Westbrook, P.R., Stubbs, S.E., Sessler, A.D., Rehder, K., Hyatt, R.E., 1973. Effects of anesthesia and muscle paralysis on respiratory mechanics in normal man. J. Appl. Physiol. 34, 81e86.