Comparison of the ecosystem services provided by China's Poyang Lake wetland and Bangladesh's Tanguar Haor wetland

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Comparison of the ecosystem services provided by China's Poyang Lake wetland and Bangladesh's Tanguar Haor wetland ⁎

Chuanzhun Suna, Lin Zhenb,c, , Md Giashuddin Miahd a

College of Public Management, South China Agricultural University, No. 483, Wushan Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510642, China Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 11A, Datun Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100101, China c School of Resource and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 19 A Yuquan Rd, Shijingshan District, Beijing, 100049, China d Department of Agroforestry and Environment, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University (BSMRAU), Gazipur 1706, Bangladesh b

A R T I C L E I N F O

A BS T RAC T

Keywords: China's Poyang Lake wetland Bangladesh's Tanguar Haor wetland Ecosystem services Food supply Biodiversity Driving forces

Wetlands are the most productive ecosystem on Earth. China's Poyang Lake wetland and Bangladesh's Tanguar Haor wetland are important natural Asian wetlands. In the past 10–15 years, the ecosystem services provided have been greatly affected by human activities and the resulting significant changes in the wetlands. In this paper, we chose food supply and biodiversity as typical ecosystem services provided by these wetlands, and combined field research with surveys to analyze the changes in the characteristics of these ecosystem services in the two wetlands and their driving forces. From 2000 to 2012, we found that: (1) per capita rice production has decreased greatly in both wetlands, while the rice consumption and the level of food security have decreased in the Poyang Lake wetland and increased in the Tanguar Haor wetland. (2) The fish supply has decreased in both wetlands, with a greater decrease in the Tanguar Haor wetland. (3) The biodiversity services have improved in the Poyang Lake wetland but decreased greatly in the Tanguar Haor wetland. These changes have been caused by differences in the combination of land use policies, land use planning, population growth patterns, and economic development.

1. Introduction Ecosystem services connect natural science with economics, conservation and development, and public and private policy (Braat and de Groot, 2012). Ecosystem provide a series of goods and services to human beings (MEA, 2005; Nelson et al., 2009). However, these services have changed significantly around the world in recent decades (e.g., Fang et al., 2006; Rasul, 2009). The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) found that about 60% of the world's ecosystem services have degraded, and human activity (e.g., land uses such as intensive agricultural inputs and land reclaimed from a lake) is one of the main causes of this adverse change (MEA, 2005; Li, 2013). However, there are complicated interactions among the different kinds of ecosystem services, and examination of ecosystem services may also fail to consider the wider economic and social environments within which decision makers work (Ghazoul, 2007). The theory and practice of ecosystem services are controversial and there may be superficial understanding of the role of culture, agency, social diversity and power (Van Hecken et al., 2015). To improve scientific understanding of the theory and practice of ecosys-

⁎

tem services, and reduce the controversy surrounding them, it is important to undertake comparative research to clarify the changing features and driving forces of ecosystem services in different political, economic, and social contexts. Among the natural ecosystem, wetlands has the richest biodiversity and are one of the most productive ecosystem (Pearee, 2002). Thus, there is a strong interest in understanding the ecosystem services they provide and finding ways to protect or enhance these services to promote sustainable natural resource use (Braat and de Groot, 2012; Potschin and Haines-Young, 2013; McKenzie et al., 2014; Adekola et al., 2015). Wetlands occupy only about 1% of the Earth's surface, but provide habitat for about 20% of the world's species (Dugan, 1993). With rapid population growth and unsustainable exploitation of these ecosystem, wetlands face a significant risk of degradation. This damage will increase the likelihood of nonlinear and potentially abrupt changes in ecosystem, with important consequences for human well-being (MEA, 2005). China and Bangladesh are developing countries with large populations. Thus, there is a large need to exploit their natural resources to satisfy the demands of these people. However, these countries have

Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (L. Zhen).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2017.02.010 Received 29 February 2016; Received in revised form 20 December 2016; Accepted 3 February 2017 2212-0416/ © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Sun, C., Ecosystem Services (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2017.02.010

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Fig. 1. Location of the study wetlands in China and Bangladesh.

the ecosystem services, change characters and their driving forces. Thus, it may be possible to detect principles that describe the changes in wetland ecosystem services, for providing a more scientific basis for natural resource management. The MEA (2005) defines four types of ecosystem services (supply, regulation, culture, and support). Both of these wetlands are major grain-producing areas with known biological diversity, and are protected. Grain production and biodiversity are the most important functions of wetlands. Therefore, in the present study, we chose these two features: biodiversity (to represent the natural components of the ecosystem) and food supply (to represent the human components of the ecosystem). Several studies have focused the biodiversity and food security issues in other regions (e.g., Chappell and Lavalle, 2011; Smith, 2013). However, few of these studies compared two or more wetlands to identify the driving forces responsible for changes in the wetland ecosystem and any underlying principle (Li et al., 2013). Some driving forces are summarized, such as human activities, climate, lake degradation, construction of large hydroelectric dams, establishment of nature reserves, and lake restoration practices (MEA, 2005; Fang et al., 2006; Li et al., 2009; Sun et al., 2015c). Driving forces under different political, economic, and social contexts have not yet been clearly identified. In the present study, we randomly chose three typical villages around water bodies in each wetland, and combined field studies with participatory rural appraisal and household questionnaires to identify changes in ecosystem services and the driving forces responsible for these changes.

different political systems, resource ownership and management systems, and patterns of natural resource consumption; they are also at different stages of economic development and are growing at different rates, and have different conservation strategies for management of their wetlands. China's Poyang Lake wetland and Bangladesh's Tanguar Haor wetland are two of the most important wetlands in Asia. These have been designated as important resources that require protection by the World Wide Fund for Nature (Olson and Dinerstein, 1998) and by the Ramsar Agreement (Miah et al., 2013), respectively. Both wetlands have a monsoon climate and undergo dramatic hydrological changes between the rainy and dry seasons. These changes lead to equally dramatic changes in the ecological processes and directly affect the characteristics of their wildlife habitats and their rich biological diversity (Harris and Zhuang, 2010; Sun et al., 2015b); aquatic vascular plants, migratory birds, and fish are particularly influenced by the changes of habitat area and structure caused by the variation of water level (Fang et al., 2006). Both regions provide important wetland habitats for waterfowl and have rich biodiversity (Fang et al., 2006; Alam Sarowar and Hasibur, 2011; Miah et al., 2013). Moreover, they are important food production areas for the local people, which directly support a population of 1.43 and 0.07 million, respectively, with rice and fish being the most important food products. Over the last 10 years, Poyang Lake wetland and Tanguar Haor wetland have experienced land reclamation, population growth, overdevelopment of natural resources, ecological restoration, and some other changes (Jiang, 2005; Li et al., 2009; Fang et al., 2006; Zhen et al., 2011; Enamul Haque and Mizanul Haque Kazal, 2008; Miah et al., 2013). A lack of scientific assessment means it is unclear how these wetlands have changed and whether their ecosystem services have recovered following ecological remediation. These two wetlands have both similarities and differences, therefore, we chose to compare them to provide insights into recent changes in their ecosystem services and the driving forces responsible for these changes. We used integrated methods from geography, ecology and sociology to provide a rigorous quantitative-qualitative way to identify

2. Material and methods 2.1. Study area The Poyang Lake wetland is located in northern Jiangxi Province, in central China, and is on the southern bank of the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River (Fig. 1). The region has a subtropical humid monsoon climate. The annual average temperature ranges from 16.5 to 17.8 °C, with monthly means ranging from 4.5 °C in January to 2

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Haor wetland are overexploitation of fisheries and population pressure on the ecosystem to provide other resources (Enamul Haque and Mizanul Haque, 2008), such as forest products and paddy cultivation. The ecology of Tanguar Haor degraded so badly in 1999, the government of Bangladesh declared the wetland to be an “Ecologically Critical Area” (Miah et al., 2013). Meanwhile, a “wise use” policy was introduced that allowed local people to harvest wetland resources for personal use but not for commercial purposes (Enamul Haque and Mizanul Haque, 2008). The three villages we surveyed are located on three sides of the central lake (Fig. 1), and have a population of 1120, comprising 185 households with an average family size of 6.1 and an average cultivated area of 0.33 ha per household. Rice is a staple food, but only single crop is cultivated annually because the land remains submerged during the monsoon (from June to October) and rice is generally grown from December to April (winter and early summer). The main occupations of the villagers are fishing, agriculture, day labor, and small businesses (Table 1).

29.1 °C in August. The annual precipitation averages 1636 mm. Poyang Lake is the largest freshwater lake in China, covering a total area of 20289.50 km2, and is one of the primary grain production regions in China (Li et al., 2009). The water depth fluctuates from 9.8 to 15.4 m during the year (Li et al., 2008). The wetland is home to 310 species of birds (most of which are migratory), of which 16 are listed as threatened by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (www.iucnredlist.org). There are 136 fish species in the Poyang Lake wetland. It is particularly important habitat for the endangered Baiji dolphin (Lipotes vexillifer). In Poyang Lake wetland, land reclamation (export-oriented agriculture) in and around the wetlands has had serious impacts for many years; the lake area has decreased significantly, and the wildlife habitats exhibited serious damage (Jiang, 2005). Therefore, some types of ecosystem services, such as biodiversity and flood regulation, have sustained serious adverse impacts (Li et al., 2009). Moreover, their natural resources are being consumed at an increasing rate because of the overuse of both biological (e.g., fish, forest) and physical resources (e.g., water, land, mineral) through problems such as overfishing and dredging to provide sand (Fang et al., 2006; Zhen et al., 2011). To prevent further degeneration of the wetlands, the government of China has introduced ecological restoration policies. China introduced a policy of returning farmland to wetland in the Poyang Lake wetland in 1999, which removed dykes and dams and restored the cultivated land to natural wetland conditions (Sun et al., 2015a). The three typical villages that we surveyed (Chenlang, Shuanglong, and Yuanlong) are located on the northern shore of the lake (Fig. 1). Their total population is 4909, comprising 1012 households, and the average family size is 4.9. The average cultivated area is 0.23 ha per household. Rice is a staple food, and double rice crops are typically produced each year. The main occupations of the villagers are migrant labor, farming, and aquaculture (Table 1). The Tanguar Haor wetland is located in the Sunamgonj district of Bangladesh, and covers an area of 100 km2. It is one of the largest wetlands in Bangladesh. This wetland has been recognized as a wetland of global importance under the Ramsar Agreement since 2000, and it has rich biodiversity. More than 140 species of freshwater fish have been recorded in the wetland. There are 167 waterfowl species, of which 50.3% are migratory birds (Alam Sarowar and Hasibur, 2011). The maximum water depth ranges from approximately 6 to 8 m during the rainy season and from 2 to 6 m during the dry season. The region has a subtropical monsoonal climate with an average annual rainfall of approximately 4000 mm. The mean annual temperature is 25.2 °C, and temperatures vary between a maximum of 29.5 °C in July and a minimum of 20.5 °C in January. Lake degradation also happened in Tanguar Haor wetland. The main reasons for the serious ecological degeneration in the Tanguar

2.2. Data collection methods Almost all of data were collected during the study period in 2000– 2012. We were unable to collect data from the two study regions in a completely synchronous way, so data were not wholly consistent in some years. The inconsistencies are: in Tanguar Haor wetland, the land use data is from 1989 to 2010, and the fish production data is from 2009 to 2014; in Poyang Lake wetland, fish data was not available in 2007 and 2008, and no bird species or population data are given for 2000 and 2001. The data do, however, present a fair reflection of the overall trend of ecosystem services change over the period. 2.2.1. Land use investigation For the Poyang Lake wetland, we created a land use map by ArcInfo, using SPOT 5 satellite remote-sensing images as reference, with a 2.5-m resolution, from 6 June 2010in Google Earth (https:// www.google.com/earth/). We used this map to support our field research in the three villages from 28 March to 15 April 2013. With guidance from three to five villagers per village, we revised the land use map to describe the conditions in 2012 based on a Chinese land use classification system (Liu, 1997), which included cultivated land, forest, grassland, bodies of water, construction land, and unused land. In the villages, the cultivated land consisted of paddy fields and dry cultivated land. During the field study, we also asked the villagers to recall and describe land use patterns in 2000 and shaped the land use map of that year. We then asked another three to five villagers per village to validate the land use maps in both the years. Where opinions differed, we invited the villagers to discuss the differences until they reached an agreement and then revised the maps. To increase the accuracy of the maps, all the villagers were between 50 and 60 years old, and had worked in their villages during at least the past 10 years and were, therefore, very familiar with local conditions. The results of this consultation process were land use maps of the studied villages in 2000 (year) and 2012. For the Tanguar Haor wetland, we obtained a 1:100 000 land use map that was created in 2013 by the Local Government Engineering Department of the Bangladesh Ministry of Local Government. We then obtained high-resolution (10 m) remote-sensing images from 1989 and 2010 from the Bangladesh Center for Environmental and Geographic Information Services (http://www.cegisbd.com/) as a reference. By overlaying the land use map and the remote-sensing images, we were able to create land use maps for 1989 and 2010 by means of visual interpretation, a method of gaining land information by direct observation. The land use classification included settlements, cropland, vegetation (swamp forest), mudflats (siltation areas), and two different bodies of water (areas without flowing water, rivers). After image interpretation to create the maps, we performed field

Table 1 Background information on the study villages in the two wetlands.

Villages Population No. of households Family size Cultivated area (ha) per household) Cultivation frequency Main economic activities Ecological projects that have been implemented

Poyang Lake wetland, China

Tanguar Haor wetland, Bangladesh

Chenlang, Shuanglong, and Yuanlong 4909 1012 4.9 0.23

Hkumpur, Silon Tahirpur, and Golabari 1120 185 6.1 0.33

Double rice cropping Migrant workers; agriculture; aquaculture

Single rice cropping Fishing, agriculture, day labor, and small businesses Planting swamp trees

Returning farmland to wetland; commercial forest plantation

3

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Ramsar Convention as important waterfowl habitats, birds were one of the most important biodiversity indicators in our study areas. Data on the dominant migratory bird species (species that accounted for more than 1% of total number in the study areas) in the Poyang Lake wetland were collected from the Poyang Lake Nature Reserve's office, and included population data from important observation points between 2002 and 2012. Data for the Tanguar Haor wetland were collected from the International Union for Conservation of Nature's Bangladesh office. The data were obtained in 2000 and 2012. Fish yield data in the Poyang Lake wetland from 2000 to 2012 were obtained from the research literature (Jiang et al., 2013). Fish yield in the Tanguar Haor wetland was collected from the local office of the Fishery Department. Tree species information of 2000 and 2012 in the Tanguar Haor wetland were collected from the local office of the Forest Department. Data on the food supply from 2000 to 2012, including the rice yield and the investment in agriculture (such as pesticides and inorganic fertilizer) were collected at a regional scale from statistical yearbooks for each region. Data on the food supply from 2000 to 2012, including per capita grain consumption, were collected at a national scale from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, http://www.fao.org/ statistics/en/).

validation on July 7, 2013, and modified the maps where necessary. Because we felt that the 1989 data were too long ago to permit reliable validation by the villagers, we did not interview them to confirm our interpretation of the images. 2.2.2. Participatory rural appraisal We used participatory rural appraisal (PRA, Cramb et al., 2004) to evaluate the ecosystem services changes and their driving forces in the wetlands from 2000 to 2012 in the Poyang Lake wetland and from 1989 to 2010 in the Tanguar Haor wetland. This approach has been increasingly applied in fields such as natural resource management, landscape management, and ecosystem assessment. It is an effective, participatory, bottom-up information collection method that takes advantage of the expertise of local residents (Weber and Tiwari, 1992; Cramb et al., 2004; Goma et al., 2001). The researcher then functions as a facilitator and coordinator. Participants usually come from a range of socioeconomic classes, and they learn from each other in an egalitarian way to identify answers to the research questions. We performed the appraisal in these two wetlands villages from 18 to 24 June 2013 in the Poyang Lake wetland villages, and from June to September 2012 in the Tanguar Haor wetland with 13 and 20 people chosen from each village, respectively, with different genders, ages, classes, occupations, and educational backgrounds. During the discussions, we used the ecosystem services framework of MEA (2005). We described the four types of ecosystem services (supply, regulation, culture, and support) in a manner that they were able to understand, using examples to deepen their understanding. The participants then discussed their village to determine the characteristics of the two ecosystem services (food production and biodiversity) that we had chosen for our analysis and then discussed changes in their characteristics and possible reasons for the changes. We asked them to support their views using data or examples. We then summarized and combined the results of the participatory rural appraisal from each village for the two most important ecosystem services (food production and biodiversity) and used the summary in our subsequent analyses.

2.3. Data analysis methods 2.3.1. Food supply Both wetlands are important grain production areas. Rice cultivation is the most important form of agriculture in both wetlands, and accounts for more than 95% of the total grain planting (Li et al., 2009; Enamul Haque and Mizanul Haque, 2008). The food supply of the study areas was represented by the rice supply and the fish supply, which were the two most important food sources for the local people. We calculated the rice supply by multiplying the cultivated area by the crop yield: n

R= ∑ Cultivated Area × Yieldi i

2.2.3. Household questionnaires Household questionnaires were used as a supplementary survey method for more comprehensive information, another effective way to collect information on resource conditions in rural areas. We used this approach to investigate into the ecosystem changes, factors influencing the changes, and villager perceptions of the changes from household point of view. Before gathering data using the questionnaires, we conducted some informal preliminary interviews with the village head and some key informants to test our questions and improve their wording to increase the validity of the results. We included both closed and open-ended questions. The questionnaires were completed in person, and this cost about 1 h. The interviews included questions about: (a) the socioeconomic characteristics of the households, involving family demographics and income structure; levels of education; and land owned; (b) land use changes for each family; changes in their food supply; the reasons for changes; and the villagers’ perception on environmental changes. We used simple random sampling technique (Weber and Tiwari, 1992) to select the households. In the Poyang Lake area, we obtained data from 130 households, with a validity rate of 96.2%. The questionnaires were completed from 28 March to 15 April 2013. In the Tanguar Haor area, we obtained data from 60 households from June to September 2012, with a validity rate of 95.3%.

(1)

where R represents the total rice production of the study area in the study year, Yield represents the annual rice yield per unit area, and i represents the cultivation frequency of the paddy field (2 in the Poyang Lake area and 1 in the Tanguar Haor area). We calculated the change in the fish supply based on official statistics. For fish supply comparisons between years, we used the ttest to identify statistically significant changes. 2.3.2. Food security We calculated an indicator of food security (FS) to reflect the ability of the food supply to meet the demand of local residents. This indicator was based on the per capita grain production (GP) and demand (GD):

FS = (GP –GD )/ GP

(2)

When FS > 0, this means that the rice supply can supply all residents, and the greater the value of FS, the greater the food security. When FS < 0, food security is low and rice must be imported from outside the study area. 2.3.3. Biodiversity We used the Shannon-Wiener diversity index (He) to evaluate the species richness and abundance of birds and trees in the study area (Margurran, 1988). For each species (i), we calculated its proportion of the total number of species (Pi=ni/N) and then multiplied this value by its natural logarithm:

2.2.4. Other data collection methods We also collected other data, such as bird and fish species, grain production, and agricultural investment to get a full reflection of the biodiversity and food supply change information and their driving forces. As the wetlands have been identified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) and the

S

He=− ∑ Pi×lnPi i =1

(3)

where S represents the total number of species; N represents the total 4

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Table 2 Change characteristics of land use/cover in typical villages (2000–2012; ha, %). Chenlang village

Shuanglong village

Yuanlong village

Land use/cover type

2000

2012

rate of change

2000

2012

rate of change

2000

2012

rate of change

Forest land Grass land Cultivated land Construction land Water bodies Unused land

54.8 10.1 166.9 12.4 11.5 53.0

70.6 32.9 108.8 14.9 11.5 50.3

28.8 227.7 −34.8 19.6 0.0 −5.1

36.3 14.6 91.0 20.9 3.7 0.9

41.9 32.1 63.5 25.2 3.7 0.9

15.5 119.5 −30.2 20.8 0.0 0.0

130.1 0.7 94.3 15.1 9.8 8.6

133.5 22.5 57.4 19.8 15.9 8.6

2.6 3231.9 −39.1 31.3 62.7 0.0

number of individuals in the whole community; and ni represents the number of individuals of species i.

Table 4 Rice supply in the study villages.

3. Results 3.1. Land use change As mentioned above, typical village land use data were collected in Poyang Lake wetland and the whole area land use data were collected in the Tanguar Haor wetland. There was significantly land use cover change in the 3 typical villages in Poyang Lake wetland during 2000– 2012. Caused by many factors (such as ecological restoration), the cultivated land significantly decreased by 122.5 ha (by 34.78%). Other land of ecological importance, such as grassland and forest, increased greatly, by 93 ha (34.24%). Most of the increase resulted from cultivated land decrease. There was also a huge growth in land for construction of 11.5 ha (23.76%) (Table 2). From 1989–2010 (Table 3), single cropland and mudflats in Tanguar Haor wetland increased by a total of 886 ha following lake reclamation, and by 44.23% and 38.89%, respectively. Land beneath water bodies has been transformed to single cropland as well as to mudflats. Water bodies experienced a dramatic decrease, by 1902 ha (36.15%). In addition, the settlement land increased significantly by 297 ha, indicating that the resident space had a tendency to expand.

3.2.1. Rice production Decrease in land use area and increase in land use intensity have negative and positive impacts, respectively, on rice production in Poyang Lake wetland. From 2000 to 2012, total rice production in the three villages in the Poyang Lake wetland decreased by 19.0%, from 2120.5 t to 1717.3 t (Table 4). This can be attributed to a 76.2-ha (34.9%) decrease in the total area of paddy fields; however, rice yield per unit area increased substantially during this period. This rise was mostly achieved by increased investment in agricultural chemicals. In our household surveys, residents of the Poyang Lake wetland increased pesticide and fertilizer use by 310.0% and 33.7%, respectively. The change of total rice production and rice yield per unit area comprehensively reduced the per capita rice output by 115.4 kg (24.8%) during the study period (Table 3). In 2000, per capita grain

Area in 2010

Change area

Rate of change

Settlement Double cropland Single cropland Vegetation (swamp forest) Mudflat Water bodies

1157 328 2003 1084

1454 314 2889 1209

297 −14 886 125

25.7 −4.3 44.2 11.5

1561 5261

2168 3359

606 −1902

38.9 −36.2

Average rice yield (t/ha)

Cultivated area (ha)

Total rice production (t)

Poyang Lake

2000 2012

4.85 6.03

218.6 142.4

2120.5 1717.3

Tanguar Haor

2000 2012

2.30 3.46

220.0 310.0

506.0 1074.0

3.2.2. Fish production From 2000 to 2012, the fish yield in natural water (not include aquaculture data) of the Poyang Lake wetland decreased greatly (Fig. 2), from 3.6×104 t in 2000 to 2.85×104 t in 2012 (Yang et al., 2011; Wu et al., 2014), and the difference was significant (t-test, p < 0.05). Moreover, the mean age of the harvested fish became younger over time, which strongly suggests overexploitation of the resource. From 2000 to 2006, 85.4–91.5% of the harvested fish were young or middle-aged, which was far higher than the proportion for the previous 20 years, which ranged from 62.1% to 74.3% (Zhang, 1989; Zhu and Zhang, 1997). The fish supply in the natural water of the Tanguar Haor wetland

Table 3 Land use change during 1989–2010 in Tanguar Haor wetland (ha, %). Area in 1989

Year

output was 65.2 kg above the FAO food security standard of 400 kg/ year (Deng et al., 2014), but in 2012, it was 50.2 kg less than this standard. However, compared to the actual per capita consumption, FS showed the opposite trend: it increased from 0.35 to 0.45, which indicated an improved standard of living despite greatly decreased rice consumption. The increase of land use area and its intensity had a great influence on rice production in Tanguar Haor wetland. In the three villages of the Tanguar Haor wetland, rice production increased from 506.0 to 1074.0 t between 2000 and 2012, an increase of 112.3%, which can be attributed to a simultaneous increase in rice yield per unit area and in the paddy field area (Table 4). No agriculture investment data were available for the Tanguar Haor wetland. However, 76% of participants in the participatory rural appraisal in the Tanguar Haor wetland responded that increased agricultural activities and overuse of agricultural chemicals were the driving forces for rice yield enhancement. Increases in the area of paddy fields further promoted rice production ability. However, this large increase in rice production did not increase per capita output of rice because of a large population increase during this period (which we will discuss in Section 4). The per capita rice production in the Tanguar Haor wetland was about twice that in the Poyang Lake wetland, probably due to the lower population density in the Tanguar Haor wetland (Table 5). From 2000 to 2012, per capita rice production in the Tanguar Haor wetland always exceeded the FAO standard of 400 kg/year, but experienced a decreasing trend (by 20.2%). Moreover, FS also decreased because per capita rice production decreased, while per capita grain consumption did not change significantly.

3.2. Change of food supply

Land use and land cover types (LULC)

Wetland

5

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Table 5 Food security characteristics in the study villages. FS (Eq. (2)) represents the ability of the local supply to meet demand. (kg/year). Region

Year

Population

Poyang

2000

4558

Per capita rice production (GP)

FAO per capita grain demand

465.2

Supply – demand

Per capita local grain demand (GD)

65.2

301.0

−50.2

190.8

400 Lake

2012

4909

0.35

349.8 400

Tanguar

2000

460

0.45

1100.0

700.0

245.8

558.9

258.6

400 Haor

2012

1120

FS:(GP–GD)/ GP

0.78

958.9 400

0.73

Note: Data on per capita grain consumption were obtained from FAO database (http://faostat3.fao.org/home/E).

showed that from 2000 to 2012, the average habitat quality for migratory birds near Chenlang village increased by 18.7%. Official statistics recorded 37 migratory and residential bird species in five water bodies in the Tanguar Haor wetland, of which we have presented data for the 11 species with the greatest number of individuals (Table 6) based on the number of birds. About half are residents and the rest are migratory. He was slightly greater than that in the Poyang Lake wetland, but decreased from 2.13 in 2000 to 1.98 in 2012, a 7.0% decrease (Table 6). The total number of the birds in the Tanguar Haor wetland decreased by 36.2% from 2000 to 2012. Among them, the Greyheaded Lapwing, Tufted Duck, and Eurasian Coot decreased by more than 50%. This decreasing trend was strongly supported by villagers during our household survey. Some researchers believe that in 2000 the Tanguar Haor wetland was a safe refuge for local and migratory birds but, by 2010, the safe area had decreased by 64.3% (Miah et al., 2013). Our research found that, owing to the increase in rice production, there was considerable land use enhancement during the study period. The increasingly large quantities of agricultural chemicals has a potentially significant negative influence on biodiversity because these chemicals can damage wildlife habitat quality when they leach into bodies of water. Sixty six percent of participants in the participatory rural appraisal in the Tanguar Haor wetland responded that water being polluted and it is a result from agrochemicals.

(Fig. 2) also decreased significantly (t-test, p < 0.05), declining from 2.02×104 t in 2009 to 1.39×104 t in 2014, a decrease of 31.2%. Moreover, our household survey revealed that from 2000 to 2012, the proportion of the fish harvest accounted for by very common, common, and fairly common fish species decreased by 9.8%, 5.7%, and 1.6%, respectively. The household survey also revealed that local residents obtained 80% of their fish from natural bodies of water 10–15 years ago, and that this proportion had decreased to 35% by 2012. Water body shrinkage was one of the reasons that made fish supply decrease obviously in Tanguar Haor wetland (Miah et al., 2013).

3.3. Change of biodiversity The village of Chenlang in the Poyang Lake wetland includes an important observation site for migratory birds, at Xinmiaohu, which is a sub-lake of the wetland where migratory birds concentrate. We used the records for 11 species of migratory birds that overwinter in this area (Table 6) to analyze the trends in their populations from 2000 to 2012. Because the data were not consistent in all years and data were not available in some years, we used the mean bird numbers from the period before 2006 and from the period after 2006 to describe the changes over time. He for migratory birds increased from 1.89 to 1.93 between these periods. Our household survey data strongly supported this result. In the village of Chenlang, 17 villagers (65.4% of the interview group) confirmed this increasing trend. The increase in quantity and improvement in quality of the habitat areas resulting from its ecological restoration was one of the most important reasons why the level of biodiversity level was enhanced (Sun et al., 2015c). The large-scale ecological restoration project increased the area of natural wetlands (by 24.4%), grassland (by 244.5%), and forest (by 11.2%), greatly increasing wildlife habitat, especially for migratory birds; it also had the effect of removing human activities farther from the wildlife. Sun et al. (2015c) used an ecosystem services assessment method to quantify “quality” of the habitat quality in Poyang Lake, the results

4. Discussion 4.1. Driving forces for changes in ecosystem services Many frameworks relevant to ecosystem services propose driving forces for changes in ecosystem services. The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) defines “direct driving forces (Natural and anthropogenic drivers)” and “indirect driving forces (Institutional and governance

Fig. 2. Changes in the fish supply in natural bodies of water in the two study areas.

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Table 6 Changes in bird populations and species diversity (the Shannon-Wiener He index) in the study area. Latin names of these species are provided in Appendix A. Data source: Data for the Poyang Lake wetland were obtained from the Xinmiaohu Nature Reserve administration. Data for the Tanguar Haor wetland were obtained from literature (Alam Sarowar and Hasibur, 2011). Poyang Lake wetland (near Chenlang village) Bird species

Tanguar Haor wetland (five bodies of water)

Number of birds

Eurasian Spoonbill Grey Heron Tundra Swan Greater White-fronted Goose Lesser White-fronted Goose Swan Goose Bean Goose Spot-billed Duck Northern Pintail Falcated Duck Pied Avocet Shannon-Wiener Index (SWI)

Change

Mean from 2002 to 2006

Mean from 2007 to 2012

(%)

36 80 117 391 102 587 284 660 10 12 870 1.89

53 79 178 638 46 481 429 30 16 64 327 1.93

45.8 −1.1 51.2 63.4 −55.4 −18.1 51 −95.5 69.3 431.3 −62.4 2.1

Direct DF

PY: State or collective owned , long-term used by villagers. TH: State and private -owned coexist, 3 year s use right for villagers.

Ecosystem Services

TH

Food

Land structure

Agriculture

Indirect DF

PY

Year

Per capita Possession (kg/year)

FS

2000

465.2

0.35

2012 2000

349.8 1100.00

0.45 0.78

2012

958.93

0.73

Region

PY TH

Change

2000

2012

(%)

1905 930 810 320 305 300 225 220 100 52 40 2.13

1500 411 530 111 210 140 120 125 53 34 10 1.98

−21.3 −55.8 −34.6 −65.3 −31.2 −53.3 −46.7 −43.2 −47 −34.6 −75 −7

Per capita income (2000-2012). PY: 6052 dollar in 2012, increased by 548.0%. TH: 779 dollar in 2012, increase by 15.0 %.

PY: Total demand and demand diversity increased. TH: Total demand increased but demand structure has no significant change.

Fish production

Biodiversity (eg. birds)

Rice production

Region

PY: Natural g rowth rate of 0.77% annually. TH: Growing by 2.4 times, by natural growth and immigration.

PY: Ecological land increased and cultivated land decreased. TH: Reclaim cultivated land from lake.

Number of birds

Economic developmen t

(2000-2012)

PY: 10 years land use planning, and execute land use control. TH: Have no special land use planning.

PY: More national and private input (infrastructure, capital). TH: Less government input and private input.

Gadwall Eurasian Coot Purple Swamphen Tufted Duck Eurasian Wigeon Pheasant-tailed Jacana Little Cormorant Garganey Common Moorhen Cotton Pygmy-goose Grey headed Lapwing Shannon-Wiener Index (SWI)

Population

Land use planning

Land use policy

Bird species

Year

Shannon Wiener index

2002-2006

1.89

2007-2012 2000

1.93 2.13

2012

1.98

PY: Down trends, a 0.05 level of significance in T-test. TH: Down trends, a 0.0 1 level of significance in T-test.

Fig. 3. Relationships among the ecosystem services and driving forces (DF) responsible for changes in the study areas (Poyang Lake wetland, PY; Tanguar Haor wetland, TH). Arrows express impact: black arrows show simultaneous impact in both wetlands; red arrows showed the impact mainly in PY; blue arrows showed the impact mainly in TH (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article).

Under the Chinese constitution, all land in China is publicly owned. Land in cities is owned by the state and land outside cities is owned by collectives such as villages and communities. In addition, Chinese citizens have land use rights for a period of 30–70 years, depending on the kinds of land use. In the Poyang Lake wetland, public ownership of the land means that governments can respond to degeneration of the ecological environment by vigorously promoting ecological restoration projects, such as restoring farmland to wetlands or forests (Fig. 3). Under this program, large amounts of cultivated land (76.2 ha) changed into wetland, grassland, or forest; our household survey revealed that 62.9% of this decrease in cultivation resulted from the ecological restoration project. However, this change greatly reduced the

and other indirect drivers)” for ecosystem services (Díaz et al., 2015). Previously, MEA (2005) proposed similar conceptual driving forces. Here, based on the IPBES frameworks, we proposed an empirical study of ecosystem services change and driving forces in our study area. Fig. 3 showed the relationships among the ecosystem services and the driving forces responsible for their changes. Specific explanation is showed in Sections 4.1.1–4.1.4.

4.1.1. Political context and land use policy The land ownership and legal regime directly determine the land use inputs, outputs, and allocation. These regimes include both land ownership and land use rights. 7

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ture, transform land cultivated on slopes into terraced fields, and combine small pieces of farmland into a larger area. Meanwhile, to protect local ecosystem and improve its ecosystem services, returning farmland to wetlands or forests is part of the local land use planning. For example, the ecological restoration projects “Returning farmland to lake (RFL)” and “Returning farmland into forest (RFF)” were brought into land use planning (Sun et al., 2015c). The RFL project was designed to abandon the farmlands which faced the serious threaten of flooding. RFF project also included planting trees to restore ecosystem functions in some areas where the steep topography was nevertheless used for cultivation. In Tanguar Haor wetland, food supply and biodiversity showed a decreased trend during the study period (Fig. 3). And there is no specific land use planning process in Bangladesh. Without control, new construction caused by urbanization and population growth occupied large amounts of cultivated land in the Tanguar Haor wetland, thereby decreasing the grain supply (Fig. 3). Our land use survey revealed that from 1989 to 2010, the settlement area increased by 297 ha (25.7%), of which 60% came from previously cultivated land. This decrease in the area of rice cultivation was compensated for by reclamation of 872 ha of wetland, resulting in little net change in food security. However, the habitats of local fish and water birds were also seriously impacted by wetland decrease.

wetland's capacity to supply grain, and is the main reason why per capita rice production decreased by 115.4 kg (24.8%), from above the FAO food security standard (400 kg/year) in 2000 to below this standard in 2012. Because of the public land ownership, the government has the freedom to promote public services such as agricultural infrastructure and improvement of cultivated land with a low yield including land remediation, establishment or the maintenance of the irrigation channels. In addition, the relatively long-term land use rights give farmers an incentive to invest in their land because they believe that there is a high probability of profiting from this investment. Bangladesh has implemented a land regime in which public and private ownership coexist. Farmers have the right to use land for about 3 years, then must change to another site (Lappe and Collins, 1982). Landowners usually occupy large areas of land, but the farmers rent this land and have little or no land of their own; 19% of the families owned 70% of the country's cultivated land, and 57% of the rural families own no land (See, 1989). Because the landowners own such a large amount of land, they have no incentive to invest in their land (Fig. 3). Similarly, because farmers have only temporary use of the land, and their usage period is so short, they lack confidence to invest in the land because there is little likelihood they will recover their investment. For these reasons, rice yield in the Tanguar Haor wetland is much lower than that in the Poyang Lake wetland. To meet the needs of the rapidly growing population, residents implemented large-scale reclamation of the wetlands. In the study villages in the Tanguar Haor wetland, cultivated land increased by 90 ha (by 40.9%) during the study period to maintain an adequate grain supply, allowing per capita rice production to remain near 1000 kg. However, this land reclamation greatly decreased the wetland area and damaged biodiversity; He for birds decreased from 2.13 to 1.98 (by 7.0%), and tree diversity (He) decreased from 2.60 to 1.96 (23.6%). Although the government of Bangladesh recognized the growing ecological degradation and carried out some ecological restoration projects, such as promoting the establishment of swamp forest on some state-owned land, these efforts did not reverse the degradation that had occurred.

4.1.3. Population growth Resource consumption increases with increasing population. The population of both the study areas increased during the study period, but at a rate of 0.8% in the Poyang Lake wetland, versus 240% in the Tanguar Haor wetland. The population growth comes from natural growth and both natural growth and large-scale immigration respectively. The slower population increase in the Poyang Lake wetland means that population was not the main factor that drove the observed changes in ecosystem services (Fig. 3). In contrast, the rapid population growth in the Tanguar Haor wetland was the main driving force for changes in ecosystem services. This rapid population growth offset the impact of increased rice yield (Table 4), thereby decreasing per capita rice production by 12.8% (Table 5) and decreasing the balance between rice supply and demand by 20.2% and food security (FS) by 6.4%. Moreover, population growth was the most important driving force responsible for reclamation of wetlands. This reclamation was an important factor that caused the biodiversity decline in the Tanguar Haor wetland. The reclamation also greatly reduced the area of water suitable for fish habitat, thereby decreasing the regional fish supply. Our land use survey revealed that from 1989 to 2010, the area of water in the Tanguar Haor wetland decreased by 1902 ha (16.7%), resulting in an even more dramatic decrease in fish production (by 31.2%). Moreover, population growth led to excessive resource consumption. In the participatory rural appraisal in the Tanguar Haor wetland, 90% of participants agreed that over-exploitation of resources (fishing; bird hunting; collection of reeds and aquatic weeds, etc.) is the major driving force for ecosystem services change in this wetland.

4.1.2. Land use planning There are different relationships among different kinds of ecosystem services, and these relationships can be trade-off or co-benefits (Mach et al., 2015). The trade-off between supply services and other services is very common (Swallow et al., 2009). During the study period, the supply services have experienced obvious decrease in Poyang Lake wetland. The total rice production decreased by 19.0% and the fish production decreased by 20.8% in the studied villages. Meanwhile, biodiversity have experienced obviously obvious increase. In the study area, the He index for migratory birds increased by 2.1% and its habitat quality increased by 18.7%. Therefore, there is a tradeoff relationship between supply services and support services in Poyang Lake wetland. To lessen this trade-off, land use planning was taken by the government. In China, land use planning is carried out every 10 years, with townships as the basic administrative unit for land use planning. During the 10-year-period, land use planning is readjusted if necessary. To ensure the food security, firstly, land use planning controls the scale and rate of conversion of cultivated land to other economic uses, such as urban development and settlement area expansion (Fig. 3). In our household survey in the Poyang Lake wetland, 89 families had built a new house during the study period, but only 3 of these families (3.4%) had built their house on cultivated land. The others used waste land or the site of an older house. Secondly, farmland reconstruction planning is also an important part of land use planning. The main target of farmland reconstruction is to improve the farmland's productive ability. PRA results show that in next 5 years, the study villages will use engineering and biological measures to recover degraded and contaminated farmland, repair and constructed farmland infrastruc-

4.1.4. Economic development The economic development level in the Poyang Lake wetland is higher than that in the Tanguar Haor wetland (Fig. 3). The per capita income in the Poyang Lake wetland in 2012 was US$ 6052, versus US $779 in the Tanguar Haor wetland (based on the mean 2012 exchange rates). In addition, the per capita income increased much faster in the Poyang Lake wetland during 2000–2012: by 548.0%, versus 15.0% in the Tanguar Haor wetland ( Fig. 4). The higher economic development rate gradually changed the food demand structure. The per capita annual grain demand decreased from 301.0 to 190.8 kg in the Poyang Lake wetland (Table 5). Therefore, even though the per capita rice production had decreased during the study period, the rice supply was still able to satisfy total local demand, which increased by 28.6%, 8

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Fig. 4. Changes in population and per capita income in the two wetlands from 2000 to 2012. PY, Poyang Lake wetland; TH, Tanguar Haor wetland.

land use trade-offs. (3) Trade-offs and co-benefit relationships of different kinds of ecosystem services are two of the most important issues that we need to consider in examining land use planning (Goldstein et al., 2012). Multiple ecosystem services should be factored into local and regional land use planning (Nelson et al., 2009; Tallis and Polasky, 2009). The best way to optimize ecosystem services is to reach a land use planning target that protects the ecosystem and builds a multi-function landscape (UK National Ecosystem Assessment, 2011). In this study, land restoration had a significantly positive influence on local biodiversity. To enhance the level of support, regulation, and culture and landscape services, it is necessary to introduce ecological restoration planning into land use planning. It can enlarge the ecological space, improve habitat quality and reduce human intervention into the ecosystem. In this study, we found that the main way to enhance rice supply was to increase the investment in chemical substance such as fertilizer and pesticides. However, it is likely to damage biodiversity to some degree. Therefore, to enhance the rice supply function, it is necessary to introduce eco-friendly farmland restoration planning into land use planning. Restoration measures can include repairing degraded and contaminated farmland, transforming land cultivated on slopes into terraced fields, joining small pieces of farmland into larger areas, and repairing or constructing new infrastructure. The farmland not only possesses a supply function, but also has carrying capacity for ecological functions such as carbon storage, biodiversity, climate regulation and soil retention. During the restoration process we can use integrated engineering, biological, and agricultural measures to gradually recover and improve ecological functions.

because the per capita grain demand decreased by a greater amount. By contrast, the economic development level was much lower in the Tanguar Haor wetland and the grain consumption was dominated by rice, with a per capita demand of around 250 kg in both the years (Table 5). Therefore, its food security (FS) decreased by 6.4% as per capita rice production decreased. Rapid economic development in and around the Poyang Lake wetland has increased the demand for building materials such as sand. Dredging and the construction of sandpits has increased rapidly, and this activity exposes sediment and adversely affects fish breeding and foraging habitat, breathing, rest, and migration (Zhong and Chen, 2005). Dredging areas are concentrated in areas with shallow water and in bottomlands, thereby reducing fish habitat through noise pollution and water contamination. Therefore, the number of species and fish was being seriously affected. 4.2. Application of ecosystem services assessment results for land use decision making This study intends to provide support to land use decision making by examining three aspects: providing methods of validating land use decisions, filling up the gap between ecosystem characteristics and ecosystem services, and applying ecosystem services trade-offs in land use planning. (1) It is necessary to verify the effect of ecosystem management (Zheng et al., 2013). There have been many macro-scale studies recently on land use impacts on ecosystem services (e.g., Nelson et al., 2009; Li et al., 2015). However, there are many integrated factors considered in macro-scale studies which may ignore some microfactor impacts on ecosystem services (MEA, 2005). In this study, we integrated data collection methods such as field studies, PRA, and household questionnaires to collect land use, population, rural income, and rice production data and some other data at the micro-scale. We were, therefore, able to obtain data quickly and in a highly efficient way that reflected the degree and the mechanism of land use impact on ecosystem services more accurately. (2) Decision-makers need credible and legitimate measurements of ecosystem services to evaluate decisions for trade-offs in making wise choices (Wong et al., 2015). However, there are data gaps between ecosystem characteristics and ecosystem services (Kremen, 2005; Fisher et al., 2008; Bennett et al., 2009). One efficient way to fill this gap is to find some indicators that quantify ecosystem services (Wong et al., 2015). In our study, we selected ecosystem services indicators such as per capita food possession, food security, the Shannon-Wiener index, and trends significance in T-tests to quantify changes in ecosystem services. Using these indicators we compared ecosystem services provided by two wetlands, which can be applied widely to help evaluate decisions for

4.3. Recommendations for managers of these two wetlands Based on these results, we have the following recommendations for managers of the wetlands. To protect biodiversity, restoration efforts such as building natural conservation areas and the policy of converting farmland to wetland should be maintained, and should be implemented rapidly and with vigor in Bangladesh. Effluent from aquaculture areas contains large quantities of valuable organic fertilizer that can replace some or all of the inorganic fertilizer that is currently being overused. It is necessary to guarantee food security by increasing government investment in agriculture infrastructure. Pressure on the fish resource should be decreased by limiting fish harvests from natural bodies of water to allow natural populations to recover, and by encouraging the development of an aquaculture industry. Dredging should be restricted to avoiding fish habitats being contaminated. Specific measures such as scheduling dredging in a scientific way, and controlling its scale, can be applied in the dredging area. Bangladesh should implement a formal planning process similar to that in China to 9

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a decrease in FS. However, per capita rice production remained well above the FAO level, so the decrease in FS may not be serious unless it continues in the long term. (2) Fish supply: The fish supply in natural water bodies decreased in both wetlands, though the decrease rate was faster in the Tanguar Haor wetland. With economic development, human activities (such as dredging) is increasing that resulting damage of fish habitat through habitat loss, and this is exacerbated by increasing pollution, leading to a decrease of the fish supply in both wetlands. However, the main reason for the decreasing fish supply in the Tanguar Haor wetland appears to be the large decrease in the area of water bodies, thereby decreasing fish habitat. The rapid population growth is placing further pressure on consumption of natural resources, including fish. (3) Biodiversity: Based on analysis of the diversity of water birds, the ecological restoration project in the Poyang Lake wetland greatly increased the area and quality of wildlife habitat and bird biodiversity. In contrast, land reclamation in the Tanguar Haor wetland and increasing use of agricultural chemicals decreased both the area and the quality of bird habitat, leading to decreased biodiversity.

reduce the reclamation of wetlands. Some indirect measures should also be implemented in our study areas. It is essential to promote economic development and improve the consumption structure in the study area. Developing ecological tourism can be one choice to promote the local economy. Population control including birth control and restricting immigration to the vulnerable ecological region should be emphasized in Bangladesh. Finally, we should push forward land reform such as increasing farmer rights to the land and extending duration of land use in this country to encourage investment in agriculture and soil conservation. Age, class, and gender are crucial in influencing ecosystem services change; however, this study conducted limited research into these factors. In further research, we will clarify and highlight this point. 5. Conclusion Substantial changes occurred from 2000 to 2012 in the food supply and biodiversity indicators that we assessed for the two wetlands of different geographic regions. These changes resulted from different driving forces, and can be summarized as follows: (1) Rice supply: The cultivated area in the Poyang Lake wetland decreased greatly, accompanied by decreases in the total rice supply and per capita rice production. However, even though per capita rice production decreased below the FAO grain safety standard, food security (FS) increased because of large increase in rice yield and a decrease in rice consumption (i.e., a change in the food consumption structure). In the Tanguar Haor wetland, a large increase in the cultivated area and in rice production per unit area greatly increased the rice supply. Unfortunately, rapid population growth resulted in decreased per capita rice production and

Acknowledgments We are grateful for the financial support of the Asia–Pacific Network for Global Change Research Project (No. ARCP201115NMY-Zhen), the Natural Sciences Foundation of China (No. 41601575), and the Technical Support Program of the Ministry of Science and Technology of China (No. 2013BAC03B04). We also thank Geoff Hart for his assistance to language editing.

Appendix A Latin binomials for the waterbirds listed in Table 6.

English name

Scientific name

English name

Scientific name

Eurasian spoonbill Grey heron Tundra swan Greater white-fronted goose Lesser white-fronted goose Swan goose Bean goose Spot-billed duck Northern pintail Falcated duck Pied avocet

Platalea leucorodia Ardea cinerea Cygnus columbianus Anser albifrons Anser erythropus Anser cygnoides Anser fabalis Anas zonorhyncha Anas acuta Anas falcata Recurvirostra avosetta

Gadwall Eurasian Coot Purple Swamphen Tufted Duck Eurasian Wigeon Pheasant-tailed Jacana Little Cormorant Gergeny Common Moorhen Cotton Pygmy-goose Grey headed Lapwing

Anas strepera Fulica atra Porphyrio porphyrio Aythya fuligula Anas penelope Hydrophasianus chirurgus Microcarbo niger Anas querquedula Gallinula chloropus Nettapus coromandelianus Vanellus cinereus

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